Hinduism (known as Hindū Dharma in modern Indian languages[a]) is a religious tradition[b] that originated in the Indian

subcontinent. In contemporary usage Hinduism is also sometimes referred to as Sanātana Dharma (सनातन धमम), a Sanskrit
phrase meaning "eternal law".[c]

With its origins in the Vedic civilization[1] it has no known founder,[2][3] being itself a conglomerate of diverse beliefs and traditions. It
is the world's oldest existent religion,[4][5] and has approximately a billion adherents, of whom about 905 million live in India and
Nepal.[6] This places it as the world's third largest religion after Christianity and Islam. Other countries with large Hindu populations
include Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mauritius, Fiji, Suriname, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago.

Hinduism contains a vast body of scriptures. Divided as revealed and remembered and developed over millennia, these scriptures
expound on theology, philosophy and mythology, providing spiritual insights and guidance on the practice of dharma (religious
living). Among such texts, the Vedas and the Upanishads are the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. Other major
scriptures include the Tantras, the sectarian Agamas, the Purāṇas and the epics Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa. The Bhagavad
Gītā, a treatise excerpted from the Mahābhārata, is sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the Vedas.[d]

Etymology

The Persian term Hindū comes from Sindhu, Sanskrit for the Indus River.[7] The Rig Veda mentions the land of the Indo-Aryans as
Sapta Sindhu (the land of the seven rivers in northwestern South Asia, one of them being the Indus). This corresponds to Hapta Həndu
in the Avesta (Vendidad or Videvdad: Fargard 1.18)—the sacred scripture of Zoroastrianism. The term was used for those who lived in
the Indian subcontinent on or beyond the "Sindhu".[8]

[edit] Beliefs

Hinduism is an extremely diverse religion. There are several schools of philosophies in the religion that overlap, although any
universal belief is impossible to identify.[9] Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include Dharma (ethics/duties), Samsāra (The
continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action and subsequent reaction), Moksha (liberation from samsara), and the
various yogas (paths or practices). Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism—which share traits with Hinduism—along with Hinduism are
collectively known as Dharmic religions.[10]

[edit] Concept of God

Hinduism has a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism,[11] pantheism, monism and even atheism. It
is sometimes considered as henotheistic (devotion to a single "God" while accepting the existence of other gods),[12] but such a view
may be considered an oversimplification of the complexities and variations of belief.

Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul, the true "self" of every person, called the ātman, is eternal.[13] According to the
monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), Brahman (the greater Self or God) is in the highest
sense One and fundamentally not distinct from Atman (hence nondualist).[14] The goal of the Advaita school is to realize that one's
atman (soul) is really identical to Brahman, the uber-soul.[15] The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as
the innermost core of one's own self, realises their identity with Brahman and thereby reaches Moksha.[13][16][17]

On the other hand, monotheistic (for example, Dvaita Vedanta) and other (bhakti) schools, understand Brahman as a Supreme Being
who possesses personality. In these conceptions, Brahman is associated with Vishnu, Brahma, and Shiva or Shakti depending on the
sect. The ātman is dependent on God. Moksha depends on love towards God and on God's grace.[18] When God is viewed as the
supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle) God is called Ishvara ("The Lord";[19]), Bhagavan ("The Auspicious
One";[19]), or Parameshwara ("The Supreme Lord"[19]).[14] However, interpretation of Ishvara varies—ranging from non-belief in
Ishvara to Brahman and Ishvara being the same thing.[14][20] There is also schools like the Samkhya which has atheistic leanings.[21]

[edit] Devas and Avatars

The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities, called Devas ("The heavenly or shining ones",[19] also called devatās). Devas may be
translated into English as gods,[19] demigods,[22] deities,[19] celestial spirits[23] or angels.[24] The feminine of deva is devī. The scriptures
depict the devas in their mythological stories. The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and
through icons. Hindus can primarily worship one of these deities, known as their iṣṭa devatā, or chosen ideal.[25][26] The particular form
of God worshiped as one's chosen ideal depends on individual preference and needs,[27] influenced by regional and family traditions.[27]

Many denominations teach that from time to time God descends to Earth in corporeal form to help humans along in their struggle
towards liberation from rebirth (known as moksha) in the form of bhakti and restore dharma in society. Such an incarnation is called
an avatar. The most famous avatars are of Vishnu, which include Rama (whose life is depicted in the epic Ramayana) and Krishna (a
central figure in the epic Mahabharata).
[edit] Karma, samsara and moksha

Main article: Karma in Hinduism

Karma translates literally as action, work or deed[28] and can be described as the "moral law of cause and effect".[29] According to the
Upanishads, an individual, known as the jiva-atma, develops sanskaras (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The
"linga sharira", a body more subtle than the physical one, but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the
next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual.[30] Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral and never-failing karma
intrinsically relates to reincarnation as well as one's personality, characteristics and family. Karma threads together the notions of free
will and destiny.

This cycle of action, reaction, birth, death, and rebirth is a continuum called samsara. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a
strong premise in Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Gita states that:

As a person puts on new clothes and discards old and torn clothes, similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the
old bodies.(B.G. 2:22)[31]

Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However,
escaping the world of samsara through moksha (liberation) is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.[32][33] It is thought that
after several reincarnations, an atman eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman).

The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha, nirvana or samadhi, is described as the realization of one's union with God;
realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the
Self; liberation from ignorance; attainment of perfect mental peace; or detachment from worldly desires. Such a realization liberates
one from samsara and ends the cycle of rebirth.[34][35] The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools
of thought. For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies itself with an individual but
as part of Brahman. The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven),[36] in the company of their
chosen form of Ishvara. Thus, it is said, the followers of dvaita wish to "taste sugar," while the followers of Advaita wish to "become
sugar."[37]

[edit] The goals of life

Main article: Purusharthas

Classical Hindu thought accepts two main life-long dharmas: Grihastha Dharma and Sannyasin Dharma.

The Grihastha Dharma recognize four goals known as the puruṣhārthas. They are:

1. kāma: Sensual pleasure and enjoyment

2. artha: Material prosperity and success
3. dharma: Following the laws and rules that an individual lives under
4. moksha: Liberation from the cycle of samsara[38][39]

Among these, dharma and moksha play a special role:[39] dharma must dominate an individual's pursuit of kama and artha while seeing
moksha, at the horizon.

The Sannyasin Dharma recognizes, but renounces Kama, Artha and Dharma, focusing entirely on Moksha. As described below, the
Grihasthi eventually enters this stage. However, some enter this stage immediately from whichever stage they may be in.

[edit] Yoga

In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. A
practitioner of yoga is called a yogi. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika
and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Paths one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (moksha,
samadhi, or nirvana) include:

• Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion),

• Karma Yoga (the path of right action),
 • Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation) and
• Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom).[40]

An individual may prefer one yoga over others according to his or her inclination and understanding. For instance some followers of
the Dvaita school hold that Bhakti ("devotion") is the only practical path to achieve spiritual perfection for most people, based on their
belief that the world is currently in the age of Kali yuga (one of four epochs part of the Yuga cycle).[41] Practice of one yoga does not
exclude others. Many schools believe that the different yogas naturally blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the practice of
jnana yoga, is thought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of bhakti yoga), and vice versa.[42] Someone practicing deep meditation
(such as in raja yoga) must embody the core principles of karma yoga, jnana yoga and bhakti yoga, whether directly or
indirectly.[40][43]

[edit] History

The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism date back to the late neolithic to the early Harappan period (5500–2600
BCE).[44][45][46][47] The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500 BCE) are called the "historical Vedic religion". Modern
Hinduism grew out of the Vedas, the oldest of which is is the Rigveda, dated to 1700–1100 BCE.[48] The Vedas center on worship of
deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. They performed fire-sacrifices, called yajña and chanted Vedic
mantras but did not build temples or icons. The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to Zoroastrianism and with other
Indo-European religions.[49] During the Epic and Puranic periods, the earliest versions of the epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharata
were written roughly from 500–100 BCE,[50] although these were orally transmitted for centuries prior to this period.[51] The epics
contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with philosophical treatises. The later
Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against demons.

Three key events underpinned the nascence of a new epoch in Hindu thought. These were the Upanishads, Mahavira (founder of
Jainism) and the Buddha (founder of Buddhism).[52] The Upanishads, Mahavira and Buddha taught that to achieve moksha or nirvana,
one did not have to accept the authority of the Vedas or the caste system;[citation needed] Buddha went a step further and claimed that the
existence of a Self/soul or God was unnecessary.[53] Buddhism and Jainism adapted elements of Hinduism into their beliefs. Buddhism
(or at least Buddhistic Hinduism) peaked during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who unified the Indian
subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. After 200 CE, several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including
Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.[54] Charvaka, the founder of an atheistic materialist school, came
to the fore in North India in the sixth century BCE.[55] Between 400 BCE and 1000 CE, Hinduism expanded at the expense of
Buddhism.[56]

Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders, it started to become a major religion during the
Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent.[55] During this period Buddhism declined rapidly and many Hindus converted to Islam.
Some Muslim rulers such as Aurangzeb destroyed Hindu temples and persecuted non-Muslims, while others, such as Akbar, were
more tolerant. Hinduism underwent profound changes in large part due to the influence of the prominent teachers Ramanuja, Madhva,
and Chaitanya.[55] Followers of the Bhakti movement moved away from the abstract concept of Brahman, which the philosopher Adi
Shankara consolidated a few centuries before, with emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible avatars, especially
Krishna and Rama.[55][57]

Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by
Max Müller and John Woodroffe. They brought Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States.
At the same time, societies such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society attempted to reconcile and fuse Abrahamic and
Dharmic philosophies, endeavouring to institute societal reform. This period saw the emergence of movements which, while highly
innovative, were rooted in indigenous tradition. They were based on the personalities and teachings of individuals, as with Shri
Ramakrishna and Ramana Maharshi. Prominent Hindu philosophers, including Sri Aurobindo and Swami Prabhupada (founder of
ISKCON) translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations,
attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. Others such as Swami Vivekananda, Paramahansa Yogananda, B.K.S. Iyengar
and Swami Rama have been instrumental in raising the profiles of traditional Yoga and Vedanta in the West.

[edit] Scriptures and theology

The Rig Veda is one of the oldest religious texts. This Rig Veda manuscript is in Devanagari

Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times."[58][59] The
scriptures were transmitted orally in verse form to aid memorization, for many centuries before they were written down.[60][44] Over
many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the canon. Most Hindu scriptures are not typically interpreted literally. More
importance is attached to the ethics and metaphorical meanings derived from them.[44] Most sacred texts are in Sanskrit. The texts are
classified into two classes: Shruti and Smriti.

Shruti (lit: that which is heard) refers to the Vedas which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures. While many Hindus revere
the Vedas as eternal truths revealed to ancient sages (Ṛṣis),[59][61] some devotees do not associate the creation of the Vedas with a God
or person. They are thought of as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the
sages.[62][58][63] Hindus believe that because the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they continue to be expressed in new ways.[64]

There are four Vedas (called Ṛg-, Sāma- Yajus- and Atharva-). The Rigveda is the first and most important Veda.[65] Each Veda is
divided into four parts: the primary one, the Veda proper, being the Saṃhitā, which contains sacred mantras. The other three parts
form a three-tier ensemble of commentaries, usually in prose and are believed to be slightly later in age than the Saṃhitā. These are:
the Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, and the Upanishads. The first two parts were subsequently called the Karmakāṇḍa (ritualistic portion),
while the last two form the Jñānakāṇḍa (knowledge portion).[66][67][68] While the Vedas focus on rituals, the Upanishads focus on
spiritual insight and philosophical teachings, and discuss Brahman and reincarnation.[44][69][70]

The Naradeya Purana describes the mechanics of the cosmos. Depicted here are Vishnu with his consort Lakshmi resting on Shesha
Nag. Narada and Brahma are also pictured.

Hindu texts other than the Shrutis are collectively called the Smritis (memory).[71] The most notable of the smritis are the Itihāsa
(epics), which consist of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. Bhagavad Gītā is an integral part of the Mahabharata and one
of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It contains philosophical teachings from Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, told to the
prince Arjuna on the eve of a great war. The Bhagavad Gītā is described as the essence of the Vedas.[72] The Smritis also include the
Purāṇas, which illustrate Hindu ideas through vivid mythological narratives. There are texts with a sectarian nature such as Devī
Mahātmya, the Tantras, the Yoga Sutras, Tirumantiram, Shiva Sutras and the Hindu Āgamas. A more controversial text, the
Manusmriti, is a prescriptive lawbook which epitomizes the societal codes of the caste system.

In contrast to the scriptural canons of some religions, the Hindu scriptural canon is not closed in the sense that there is little
theological quarrel between Hindu denominations[73] although these denominations may view God and their notions in a different form
or sense.[74] The six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, which accept the authority of the Vedas, are Nyāya, Vaisheshika,
Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedānta.[75]

[edit] Practices

Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God and sometimes also seeking blessings from Devas. Therefore, Hinduism
has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity in the midst of everyday life. According to Swami Vivekananda:

"The ideal of man is to see God in everything. But if you cannot see Him in everything, see Him in one thing, in that thing you like
best, and then see Him in another. So on you go . . . Take your time and you will achieve your end."[76]

Hindus can engage in pūjā (worship or veneration),[19]) either at home or at a temple. At home, Hindus often create a shrine with icons
dedicated to the individual's chosen form(s) of God. Temples are usually dedicated to a primary deity along with associated
subordinate deities though some commemorate multiple deities. Visiting temples is not obligatory,[77] In fact, many visit temples only
during religious festivals. Hindus perform their worship through icons (murti), such as statues or paintings symbolic of God's power
and glory. The icon serves as a tangible link between the worshipper and God.[78] Another view is that the image is a manifestation of
God, since God is immanent. The Padma Purana states that the mūrti is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as a manifest
form of the Divinity.[79] A few Hindu sects, such as the Ārya Samāj, do not believe in worshiping God through icons. Hinduism has
a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols
gain their meaning from the scriptures, mythology, or cultural traditions. The symbols Om (which represents the Parabrahman),
Swastika (which symbolizes auspiciousness) have grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as tilaka identify a
follower of the faith. Hinduism associates many symbols with particular deities, which include the lotus, chakra and veena.

Mantras are prayers that through their meaning, sound, and chanting style help a devotee focus their mind on holy thoughts or to
express devotion to God. Many devotees perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the Gayatri Mantra or
Mahamrityunjaya mantras. The epic Mahabharata extolls Japa (ritualistic chanting) as the greatest duty in the Kali Yuga (what Hindus
believe to be the current age). Many adopt Japa as their primary spiritual practice. The Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition chanting the Hare
Krishna mantra is one such example.

[edit] Rituals and ceremonies

Icons of devas and devis are an integral part of most Hindu temples. Shown here are Ganesha and Lakshmi, heavily laden with
garlands, taken during a Hindu prayer ceremony.

The vast majority of Hindus engage in religious rituals on a daily basis.[80] Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home.[81] However,
observation of rituals greatly vary among regions, villages, and individuals. Devout Hindus perform daily chores such as worshiping
at the dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images
of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing devotional hymns, meditation, chanting mantras, reciting scriptures etc.[81] A
notable feature in religious ritual is the division between purity and pollution. Religious acts presuppose some degree of impurity or
defilement for the practitioner, which must be overcome or neutralised before or during ritual procedures. Purification, usually with
water, is thus a typical feature of most religious action.[81] Other characteristics include a belief in the efficacy of sacrifice and concept
of merit, gained through the performance of charity or good works, that will accumulate over time and reduce sufferings in the next
world.[81] Vedic rites of fire-oblation (yajna) are now only occasional practices although they are highly revered in theory. In a Hindu
wedding ceremony however, the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras is still the norm.[82][83]

Occasions like birth, marriage, and death involve what are often elaborate sets of religious customs. In Hinduism, life-cycle rituals
include Annaprashan (a baby's first intake of solid food), Upanayanam ("sacred thread ceremony" undergone by upper-caste youths),
Shraadh (ritual of treating people to feasts in the name of the deceased).[84][85] For most people in India, the betrothal of the young
couple and the exact date and time of the wedding are matters decided by the parents in consultation with astrologers.[84] On death,
cremation is considered obligatory for all except sanyasis, hijra, and children under five. Cremation is typically performed by
wrapping the corpse in cloth and burning it on a pyre.

[edit] Pilgrimage and festivals

The largest religious gathering on Earth. Around 70 million Hindus participated in the Kumbh Mela at Prayag, India.

Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism though many adherents undertake them. Hindus recognise several Indian holy cities,
including Allahabad, Haridwar, Varanasi, and Vrindavan. Notable temple cities include Puri, which hosts a major Vaishnava Jagannath
temple and Rath Yatra celebration; Tirumala - Tirupati, home to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple; and Katra, home to the Vaishno
Devi temple. The Himalayan towns of Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri compose the Char Dham (four abodes)
pilgrimage circuit. The Kumbh Mela (the "pitcher festival") is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is held every four years; the
location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain. Another important set of pilgrimages are the Shakti Peethas, where
the Mother Goddess is worshipped, the two principal ones being Kalighat and Kamakhya.

Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year. The Hindu calendar usually prescribe their dates. The festivals typically celebrate
events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with seasonal changes. There are festivals which are primarily celebrated by specific
sects or in certain regions of the Indian subcontinent. Some widely observed Hindu festivals are Dussera or Durga Puja, Diwali (the
festival of lights), Ganesh Chaturthi, Maha Shivaratri, Ram Navami, Krishna Janmastami, Holi.

[edit] Society

[edit] Denominations

The Pashupatinath temple in Nepal, regarded as one of the most sacred places in Shaivism.

Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination.[86]
However, academics categorize contemporary Hinduism into four major denominations: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and
Smartism. The denominations differ primarily in the God worshipped as the Supreme One and in the traditions that accompany
worship of that God.

Vaishnavas worship Vishnu; Shaivites worship Shiva; Shaktas worship Shakti (power) personified through a female divinity or Mother
Goddess, Devi; while Smartists believe in the essential sameness of all deities.

There are movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati's Arya Samaj,
which rejects image worship and veneration of multiple deities. It focuses on the Vedas and the Vedic fire sacrifices (yajña). The
Tantric traditions have various sects, as Banerji observes:

Tantras are ... also divided as āstika or Vedic and nāstika or non-Vedic. In accordance with the predominance of the deity the āstika
works are again divided as Śākta, Śaiva, Saura, Gāṇapatya and Vaiṣṇava.[87]

As in every religion, some view their own denomination as superior to others. However, many Hindus consider other denominations
to be legitimate alternatives to their own. Heresy is therefore generally not an issue for Hindus.[88]

[edit] Ashramas

Main article: Vedic ashram system

Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āshramas (phases or stages; unrelated meanings include monastery).
The first part of one's life, Brahmacharya, the stage as a student, is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under
the guidance of a Guru, building up the mind for spiritual knowledge. Grihastha is the householder's stage, in which one marries and
satisfies kāma and artha in one's married and professional life respectively (see the goals of life). The moral obligations of a Hindu
householder include supporting one's parents, children, guests and holy figures. Vānaprastha, the retirement stage, is gradual
detachment from the material world. This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in religious practices
and embarking on holy pilgrimages. Finally, in Sannyāsa, the stage of asceticism, one renounces all worldly attachments to
secludedly find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for Moksha.[89]

[edit] Monasticism

Main article: Sannyasa

Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation or another form of spiritual perfection. Monastics
commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.[90] A Hindu
monk is called a sanyāsī, sādhu, or swāmi.[91] A female renunciate is called a sanyāsini. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu
society because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for
mental renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide
for their needs.[92] It is considered a highly meritorious act for a householder to provide sādhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus
strive to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked, and to be indifferent to praise,
blame, pleasure, and pain.[90]

[edit] Varnas and the caste system

Main article: Varnashrama dharma

Hindu society has traditionally been categorized into four classes, called Varnas (Sanskrit: "color, form, appearance");[19]

• the Brahmins: teachers and priests;

• the Kshatriyas: warriors, nobles, and kings;
• the Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, and businessmen; and
• the Shudras: servants and labourers.

Hindus and scholars debate whether the caste system is an integral part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or an outdated social
custom.[93][94] Although the scriptures contain passages that clearly sanction the Varna system, they contain indications that the caste
system is not an essential part of the religion. Both sides in the debate can find scriptural support for their views. The oldest scriptures,
the Vedas, strongly sustain the division of society into four classes (varna) but place little emphasis on the caste system, mentioning it
rarely and in a cursory manner. A verse from the Rig Veda indicates that a person's caste was not necessarily determined by that of his
family:

"I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn." (Rig Veda 9.112.3)[95]

In the Vedic Era, there was no prohibition against the Shudras listening to the Vedas or participating in any religious rite, as was the
case in the later times.[96] Mobility and flexibility within the varnas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system,
as has been pointed out by several sociologists.[97][98]

Many social reformers, including Mahatma Gandhi and B. R. Ambedkar, criticized caste discrimination.[99] The religious teacher Sri
Ramakrishna (1836-1886) taught that

"Lovers of God do not belong to any caste . . . . A brahmin without this love is no longer a brahmin. And a pariah with the love of God
is no longer a pariah. Through bhakti (devotion to God) an untouchable becomes pure and elevated."[100]

[edit] Ahimsa and vegetarianism

Main articles: Ahimsa, Sacred cow, and Vegetarianism and religion

Hindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings,
including plants and non-human animals.[101] The term ahiṃsā appears in the Upanishads,[102] the epic Mahabharata[103] and Ahiṃsā is
the first of the five Yamas (eternal vows/restraints) in Raja Yoga.
In accordance with ahiṃsā, many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a
requirement, it is recommended for a satvic (purifying) lifestyle. Estimates of the number of lacto vegetarians in India (includes
inhabitants of all religions) vary between 20% and 42%.[104] The food habits vary with the community and region, for example some
castes having fewer vegetarians and coastal populations relying on seafood.[105][106] Some Hindus avoid even onion and garlic, which
are regarded as rajasic foods. Some avoid meat on specific holy days.

Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. The largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations
relied heavily on the cow for protein-rich milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and as a provider of fuel and fertilizer. Thus, it was
identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure. Hindu society honors the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving. Cow-slaughter is legally
banned in almost all states of India.[107]

[edit] Conversion

Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of religious conversion, the question of whether Hindus should evangelize
is open to interpretation.[108] Those who see Hinduism mainly as a philosophy or a way of life generally believe that one can convert to
Hinduism by incorporating Hindu beliefs into one's life and considering oneself a Hindu.[108] Some view Hinduism as more of an
ethnicity than a religion and believe being born a Hindu makes one a Hindu for life. These people tend to assume that one is Hindu
when they come from India.[109] The Supreme Court of India has taken the former view, holding that the question of whether a person
is a Hindu should be determined by the person's belief system, not by their ethnic or racial heritage.[110]

There is no formal process for converting to Hinduism, although in many traditions a ritual called dīkshā ("initiation") marks
the beginning of spiritual life. Most Hindu sects do not actively recruit converts because they believe that the goals of spiritual
life can be attained through any religion, as long as it is practiced sincerely.[111] Nevertheless, Hindu "missionary" groups
operate in various countries to provide spiritual guidance to persons of any religion. Examples include the Vedanta Society,
Parisada Hindu Dharma, International Society for Krishna Consciousness, Arya Samaj and the Self-Realization Fellowship.

Buddhism is a dharmic religion and a philosophy.[1] It is also known as Buddha Dharma or Dhamma, which means roughly the
"teachings of the Awakened One" in Sanskrit and Pali, languages of ancient Buddhist texts. Buddhism was founded around the fifth
century BCE by Siddhartha Gautama, hereafter referred to as "the Buddha".

Origin

Prince Siddhartha Gautama is believed by Buddhists to have been born in Lumbini[2] and raised in Kapilavastu near the present-day
Indian-Nepalese border.[3] After his attainment of "Awakening" (bodhi - popularly called "Enlightenment" in the West) at the age of 35,
he was known as Buddha or Gautama Buddha. He spent some 45 years teaching his insights (Dharma). According to scholars, he lived
around the fifth century BCE, but his more exact birthdate is open to debate.[4] He died around the age of 80 in Kushinagara (India).

Buddhism spread throughout the Indian subcontinent and into neighboring countries (such as Sri Lanka) in the five centuries
following the Buddha's passing. It spread further into Asia and elsewhere over the next two millennia.

Divisions

The original teachings and monastic organization established by Buddha can be referred to as pre-sectarian Buddhism, but all the
current divisions within Buddhism are too much influenced by later history to warrant inclusion under this name[5] The most
frequently used classification of present-day Buddhism among scholars[6] divides present-day adherents into the following three
traditions or geographical or cultural areas: Theravada, East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism.

An alternative scheme used by some scholars[7] has two divisions, Theravada and Mahayana. In this classification, Mahayana includes
both East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. This scheme is that of ordinary usage in the English language.[8] Some scholars[9]use other
schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes.

Terminology

The terminology for the major divisions of Buddhism can be confusing, as Buddhism is variously divided by scholars and
practitioners according to geographic, historical, and philosophical criteria, with different terms often being used in different contexts.
The following terms may be encountered in descriptions of the major Buddhist divisions:

Early Buddhist Schools

The schools into which Buddhism became divided in its first few centuries; only one of these survives as an independent
school, Theravada
East Asian Buddhism
A term used by scholars[10] to cover the Buddhist traditions of Japan, Korea, Singapore and most of China and Vietnam
Eastern Buddhism
 An alternative name used by some scholars[11] for East Asian Buddhism; also sometimes used to refer to all traditional
forms of Buddhism, as distinct from Western(ized) forms.
Esoteric Buddhism
Usually considered synonymous with Vajrayana.[12] Some scholars have applied the term to certain practices found within
the Theravada, particularly in Cambodia.[13]
Hinayana
A pejorative term used in Mahayana doctrine to denigrate its opponents.[14] It is sometimes used to refer to the early
Buddhist schools, including the contemporary Theravada, although the legitimacy of this is disputed.[15] Its use in scholarly
publications is controversial.[16] By the Mahayana schools and groups in China, Korea, Tibet, and Japan the term is felt to
be only slightly pejorative, or not pejorative at all.[17] By some it is used with respect proper to teachings coming direct
from the Buddha. The main use of the term in East Asian and Tibetan traditions is in reference to spiritual levels[18]
regardless of school.
Lamaism
An old term, still sometimes used, synonymous with Tibetan Buddhism; widely considered derogatory.
Mahayana
A movement that emerged out of the early Buddhist schools, together with its later descendants, East Asian and Tibetan
Buddhism. Vajrayana traditions are sometimes listed separately. The main use of the term in East Asian and Tibetan
traditions is in reference to spiritual levels[19] regardless of school.
Mantrayana
Usually considered synonymous with Vajrayana.[20] The Tendai school in Japan has been described as influenced by
Mantrayana.[21]
Northern Buddhism
An alternative term used by some scholars[22] for Tibetan Buddhism. Also, an older term still sometimes used to encompass
both East Asian and Tibetan traditions.
Southeast Asian Buddhism
An alternative name used by some scholars[23] for Theravada.
Southern Buddhism
An alternative name used by some scholars[24] for Theravada.
Sravakayana
An alternative term sometimes used for the early Buddhist schools.
Tantrayana or Tantric Buddhism
Usually considered synonymous with Vajrayana.[25] However, one scholar describes the tantra divisions of some editions of
the Tibetan scriptures as including Sravakayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana texts[26] (see Buddhist texts). Some scholars[27]
have used the term tantric Theravada to refer to certain practices found particularly in Cambodia.
Theravada
The traditional Buddhism of Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and parts of Vietnam, China, India, Bangladesh
and Malaysia. It is the only surviving representative of the historical early Buddhist schools. The term 'Theravada' is also
sometimes used to refer to all the early Buddhist schools.[28]
Tibetan Buddhism
Usually understood as including the Buddhism of Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan and parts of China, India and Russia, which
follow the Tibetan tradition.
Vajrayana
A movement that developed out of Indian Mahayana, together with its later descendants. There is some disagreement on
exactly which traditions fall into this category. Tibetan Buddhism is universally recognized as falling under this heading;
many also include also the Japanese Shingon school. Some scholars[29]also apply the term to the Korean milgyo tradition,
which is not a separate school. One scholar says, "Despite the efforts of generations of Buddhist thinkers, it remains
exceedingly difficult to identify precisely what it is that sets the Vajrayana apart."[30]

Buddhism Today

Indian Buddhism had become virtually extinct, but is now again gaining strength. Buddhism continues to attract followers around the
world and is considered a major world religion. While estimates of the number of Buddhist followers range from 230 to 500 million
worldwide, most estimates are around 350 million,[31] or 310 million.[32] However, estimates are uncertain for several countries.
According to one analysis,[33] Buddhism is the fifth-largest religion in the world behind Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and traditional
Chinese religion. The monks' order (Sangha), which began during the lifetime of the Buddha in India, is amongst the oldest
organizations on earth.

Doctrine

In Buddhism, any person who has awakened from the "sleep of ignorance" (by directly realizing the true nature of reality), without
instruction, and teaches it to others is called a buddha. All traditional Buddhists agree that Shakyamuni or Gotama Buddha was not the
only Buddha: it is generally taught that there have been many past Buddhas and that there will be future Buddhas too. If a person
achieves this awakening, he or she is called an arahant. Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, is thus only one among other buddhas
before or after him. His teachings are oriented toward the attainment of this kind of awakening, also called liberation, or Nirvana.

Part of the Buddha’s teachings regarding the holy life and the goal of liberation is constituted by the "The Four Noble Truths", which
focus on dukkha, a term that refers to suffering or the unhappiness ultimately characteristic of unawakened, worldly life. The Four
Noble Truths regarding suffering state what is its nature, its cause, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation. This way to the
cessation of suffering is called "The Noble Eightfold Path", which is one of the fundamentals of Buddhist virtuous or moral life.

Numerous distinct groups have developed since the passing of the Buddha, with diverse teachings that vary widely in practice,
philosophical emphasis, and culture. However, there are certain doctrines that are common to the majority of schools and traditions in
Buddhism, though only Theravada regards all of them as central. About all Buddhists few valid generalizations are possible.[34]

The Four Noble Truths

Main article: The Four Noble Truths

According to the scriptures, the Buddha taught that in life there exists Dukkha, which is in essence sorrow/suffering, that is caused by
desire and it can be brought to cessation by following the Noble Eightfold Path (Sanskrit: Āryāṣṭāṅgamārgaḥ , Pāli: Ariyo
Aṭṭhaṅgiko Maggo). This teaching is called the Catvāry Āryasatyāni (Pali: Cattāri Ariyasaccāni), or the "Four Noble
Truths".

1. Suffering: Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with what is displeasing is
suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates
subject to clinging are suffering.
2. The cause of suffering: The craving which leads to renewed existence (rebirth) (the cycle of samsara)
3. The cessation of suffering: The cessation of craving.
4. The way leading to the cessation of suffering: The Noble Eightfold Path;

According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were among the topics of the first sermon given by the Buddha after his
enlightenment,[35] which was given to the five ascetics with whom he had practised austerities. The Four Noble Truths were originally
spoken by the Buddha not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial
prescription in a style that was common at that time. The early teaching[36] and the traditional understanding in the Theravada[37] is that
these are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them.

The Noble Eightfold Path

According to a saying attributed in some traditions to the Buddha, if a person does not follow the Eightfold Path, one lives one's life
like a preoccupied child playing with toys in a house that is burning to the ground.[38]

The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. This is divided into three
sections: Sila (which concerns wholesome physical actions), Samadhi (which concerns the meditative concentration of the mind) and
Prajñā (which concerns spiritual insight into the true nature of all things).

Sila is morality — abstaining from unwholesome deeds of body and speech. Within the division of sila are three parts of the Noble
Eightfold Path:

1. Right Speech — One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way (samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)
2. Right Actions — Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm (samyak-karmānta, sammā-
kammanta)
3. Right Livelihood — One's way of livelihood does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly
(samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva)

Samadhi is developing mastery over one’s own mind. Within this division are another three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:

1. Right Effort/Exercise — One makes an effort to improve (samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma)

2. Right Mindfulness/Awareness — Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness (samyak-
smṛti, sammā-sati)
3. Right Concentration/Meditation — Being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion.
(samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)

Prajñā is the wisdom which purifies the mind. Within this division fall two more parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:
 1. Right Understanding — Understanding reality as it is, not just as it appears to be. (samyag-dṛṣṭi, sammā-diṭṭhi)
2. Right Thoughts — Change in the pattern of thinking. (samyak-saṃkalpa, sammā-saṅkappa)

The word samyak means "perfect". There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is
spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the
beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to
categorize the Eightfold Path into prajñā (Pāli paññā, wisdom), śīla (Pāli sīla, virtuous behavior) and samādhi (concentration).

Bodhi (Pāli and Sanskrit बॊिध, lit. awakening) is a term applied in Buddhism to the specific awakening experience attained by the
Buddha. When used in a generic sense, a buddha is generally considered to be a person who discovers the true nature of reality
through lifetimes of spiritual cultivation, investigation of the various religious practices of his time, and meditation. This
transformational discovery is called Bodhi (literally, "awakening" — more commonly called "enlightenment"). After attainment of
Bodhi, it is believed one is freed from the compulsive cycle of saṃsāra: birth, suffering, death and rebirth, and attains the "highest
happiness" (Nirvana, as described in the Dhammapada). Bodhi is attained only by the accomplishment of the pāramitās (perfections),
when the Four Noble Truths are fully grasped, and when all karma has reached cessation. At this moment, all greed (lobha), hatred
(Pali dosa), delusion (moha), ignorance (Sanskrit avidyā, Pāli avijjā), craving (Sanskrit tṛṣṇā, Pāli taṇhā) and belief in
self(ātmān, Pāli attā) have been extinguished. Bodhi thus implies understanding of anātman (Pāli anatta). All schools of Buddhism
recognize Pratyekabodhi (Pāli: Paccekabodhi) and Samyaksambodhi (Pāli: Sammāsambodhi), the perfect enlightenment by which a
bodhisattva becomes a fully enlightened buddha. In addition, Theravada recognizes Savakabodhi. According to a saying attributed in
some traditions to the Buddha, if a person does not follow the goal of Total Realization, one lives one's life like a preoccupied child
playing with toys in a house that is burning to the ground.[39] The aspiration to attain the state of samyaksambodhi, known as the
Bodhisattva ideal, is considered as the highest ideal of Buddhism.

Middle Way

The primary guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way which was discovered by the Buddha prior to his enlightenment
(bodhi). The Middle Way or Middle Path has several definitions:

1. It is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and
opposing self-mortification.
2. It also refers to taking a middle ground between certain metaphysical views, e.g. that things ultimately either exist or do not
exist.[40]
3. An explanation of the state of nirvana and perfect enlightenment where all dualities fuse and cease to exist as separate
entities (see Seongcheol).

Refuge in the Three Jewels

Acknowledging the Four Noble Truths and making the first step in the Noble Eightfold Path requires taking refuge, as the foundation
of one's religious practice, in Buddhism's Three Jewels (Sanskrit: ििरत Triratna or रतिय Ratna-traya, Pali: ितरतन Tiratana).[41]
Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the lama. The person who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow/pledge.
This is considered the ultimate expression of compassion.

The Three Jewels are:

• The Buddha (i.e., Awakened One). This is a title for those who attained Awakening similar to the Buddha and helped
others to attain it. See also the Tathāgata and Śākyamuni Buddha. The Buddha could also be represented as the wisdom that
understands Dharma, and in this regard the Buddha represents the perfect wisdom that sees reality in its true form.
• The Dharma: The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature based on behavior
of a person and its consequences to be experienced (action and reaction). It can also (especially in Mahayana Buddhism)
connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality which is inseverable from the Buddha.
• The Sangha: This term literally means "group" or "congregation," but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers
to one of two very specific kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis), or the
community of people who have attained at least the first stage of Awakening (Sotapanna (pali) — one who has entered the
stream to enlightenment). According to some modern Buddhists, it also consists of laymen and laywomen, the caretakers of
the monks, those who have accepted parts of the monastic code but who have not been ordained as monks or nuns.

According to the scriptures, The Buddha presented himself as a model and besought his followers to have faith (Sanskrit शदा
śraddhā, Pāli saddhā) in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. The Dharma, i.e. the teaching of the
Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The Saṅgha
(Buddhist Order of monks) provides a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that
the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.

In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a being beyond the range and
reach of thought. Moreover. in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are
seen as the eternal Buddha himself.

Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's karma. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of
previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the Noble Eightfold Path, although the Buddha of some Mahayana
sutras, such as the Lotus Sutra, the Angulimaliya Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra, also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-
named can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wholly expunge great swathes of negative karma.

Śīla: virtuous behavior and the precepts

Main article: Sila

Śīla (Sanskrit) or sīla (Pāli) is usually rendered into English as "behavioral discipline", "morality", or ethics. It is often translated as
"precept". It is an action that is an intentional effort. It is one of the three practices (sila, samadhi, and panya) and the second pāramitā.
It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of śīla are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment, i.e.
no longer being susceptible to perturbation by the passions.[citation needed]

Sīla refers to overall (principles of) ethical behavior. There are several levels of sila, which correspond to 'basic morality' (five
precepts), 'basic morality with asceticism' (eight precepts), 'novice monkhood' (ten precepts) and 'monkhood' (Vinaya or Patimokkha).
Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose
to undertake the eight precepts, which have some additional precepts of basic asceticism.

The five precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life
in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well.

1. To refrain from taking life. (i.e. non-violence towards sentient life forms)
2. To refrain from taking that which is not given (i.e. not committing theft)
3. To refrain from sensual misconduct (abstinence from immoral sexual behavior)
4. To refrain from lying. (i.e. speaking truth always)
5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness (refrain from using drugs or alcohol)

In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of celibacy.

The three additional rules of the eight precepts are:

6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (only eat from sunrise to noon)
7. To refrain from dancing, using jewelery, going to shows, etc.
8. To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed.

Vinaya is the specific moral code for monks. It includes the Patimokkha, a set of 227 rules in the Theravadin recension. The precise
content of the vinayapitaka (scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set
different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. Novice-monks use the ten precepts, which are the basic precepts for
monastics.

In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra (not to be
confused with the Pali text of that name) for Bodhisattvas, where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism
is actively encouraged (see vegetarianism in Buddhism).

Samadhi/Bhāvana (Meditative cultivation)

Main articles: Samadhi, Vipassana, and Buddhist meditation

In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path, samyaksamādhi is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating samādhi is
meditation. Almost all Buddhist schools agree that the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz. samatha meditation (Sanskrit:
śamatha) and vipassanā meditation (Sanskrit: vipaśyanā). Upon development of samādhi, one's mind becomes purified of
defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.
Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (jhāna, Sanskrit धयानम ् dhyāna), his mind is ready to penetrate and
gain insight (vipassanā) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of
mindfulness is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.

Samatha Meditation starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings,
leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-
legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath, because this
practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana.

In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind
was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to jñāna (Pāli ñāṇa knowledge), prajñā (Pāli paññā pure understanding) and
thus can lead to nirvāṇa (Pāli nibbāna).

Prajñā (Wisdom)

Main article: Prajñā

Prajñā (Sanskrit) or paññā (Pāli) means wisdom that is based on a realization of dependent origination, The Four Noble Truths and
Noble Eightfold Path. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about bodhi. It is spoken of as the principal
means, by its enlightenment, of attaining nirvāṇa, through its revelation of the true nature of all things. Prajñā is also listed as the
sixth of the six pāramitās of the Mahayana.

Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading, studying and sometimes
reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. The Buddha taught dharma to his disciples mainly through the mean of discourse or
sermon,[citation needed] many attaining nirvana upon hearing the Buddha's discourse.

Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's
teaching at a practical level. Lastly, one engages in insight (vipassanā, Sanskrit vipaśyanā) meditation[citation needed] to attain such
wisdom at intuitive level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain nirvana at any point of practice, while listening to a
sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation.

Indian Buddhism

Early Buddhism

Main articles: History of Buddhism and Buddhist councils

Main articles: The Second Buddhist Council and Early Buddhist schools

According to the scriptures, soon after the parinirvāṇa (Pāli: parinibbāna, "complete extinguishment") of the Buddha, the first
Buddhist council was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the
assembly was to collectively recite the teaching to ensure that no errors occur in oral transmission. In the first council, Ānanda, a
cousin of the Buddha and his personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses (sūtras, Pāli suttas) of the Buddha, and,
according to some sources, the abhidhamma. Upāli, another disciple, recited the monastic rules (Vinaya).

As the Saṅgha gradually grew over the next century a dispute arose regarding ten points of discipline. A Second
Buddhist Council (said in the scriptures to have taken place 100 years after the Buddha's death) was held
to resolve the points at dispute. The result was that all the monks agreed that those 10 practices were
unallowed according to Vinaya.

At some period after the Second Council however, the Sangha began to break into separate factions. The
various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms occurred: according to the Dipavamsa of the Pali
tradition, they started immediately after the Second Council; the Puggalavada tradition places it in 137 AN;
the Sarvastivada tradition of Vasumitra says it was in the time of Asoka; and the Mahasanghika tradition
places it much later, nearly 100 BCE.

The Asokan edicts, our only contemporary sources, state that 'the Sangha has been made unified'. This
apparently refers to a dispute such as that described in the account of the Third Buddhist Council at
Pataliputta. This concerns the expulsion of non-Buddhist heretics from the Sangha, and does not speak of a
schism.
These schisms occurred within the traditions of Early Buddhism, at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or
only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school.

The root schism was between the Sthaviras and the Mahāsāṅghikas. The fortunate survival of accounts from
both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions. The Sthavira group offers two quite distinct reasons
for the schism. The Dipavamsa of the Theravāda says that the losing party in the Second Council dispute
broke away in protest and formed the Mahasanghika. This contradicts the Mahasanghikas' own vinaya,
which shows them as on the same, winning side. On the other hand, the northern lineages, including the
Sarvastivada and Puggalavada (both branches of the ancient Sthaviras) attribute the Mahāsāṅghika schism to
the '5 points' that erode the status of the arahant. For their part, the Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras
were trying to expand the Vinaya; they may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims
or inhumanly high criteria for Arhatship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.[42] The Sthaviras
gave rise to several schools, one of which was the Theravāda school.

Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an Abhidharma, a collection of
philosophical texts. Early sources for these probably existed in the time of the Buddha as simple lists.
However, as time went on and Buddhism spread further, the (perceived) teachings of the Buddha were
formalized in a more systematic manner in a new Pitaka: the Abhidhamma Pitaka. Some modern
academics refer to it as Abhidhamma Buddhism. Interestingly, in the opinion of some scholars, the
Mahasanghika school did not have an Abhidhamma Pitaka, which agrees with their statement that they did
not want to add to the Buddha's teachings. But according to Chinese pilgrims Fa Xian (5th century CE) and
Yuan Chwang (7th century CE), they had procured a copy of Abhidhamma which belonged to the
Mahasanghika School.

Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the time of the Mauryan emperor Aśoka the Great, who was a public supporter
of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more Buddhist religious memorials (stūpas) and to
efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-
speaking regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the islands of Sri Lanka and the
Maldives south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism
into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of
Southeast Asia.

This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the edicts of Aśoka, emissaries were sent to various
countries west of India in order to spread "Dhamma", particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring Seleucid Empire, and even
farther to Hellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, a century later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist
monarchs in the Indo-Greek Kingdom, and to the development of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra. During this period Buddhism
was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian
religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism.

Rise of Mahayana Buddhism

The precise geographical origins of Mahayana are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahayana developed independently
from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within the Kushan
Empire (within present-day northern Pakistan), and in areas within the Shatavahana Empire, including Amaravati to the south-east (in
present-day Andhra Pradesh), to the west around the port of Bharukaccha (present-day Bharuch, a town near Bombay), and around the
various cave complexes, such as Ajanta and Karli (in present-day Gujarat and Maharashtra). The late Professor Hirakawa argued that
Mahayana was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around stupa devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stupa representing the story
of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a bodisattva were used to preach Buddhism to the masses. This theory is still widely
held among Japanese scholars, but most western scholars now reject it.[43] The Sangha, at the same time, became increasingly
fragmented both in terms of Abhidharma and Vinaya practice. This led to a widening distance between the laity and Sangha. The
Mahayana movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of influence from various sects. Monks representing
different philosophical orientations could live in the same Sangha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of
Abhidharma, the Sarvastivada school and the Dharmaguptaka school, both of which were widespread in the Kushan Empire, seem to
have had major influence. Moreover, those who believe that Mahayana sutras were composed during this period speculate that the
process of reshuffling of sutras according to various Abhidharma eventually led to editing which made the composition of new
Mahayana sutras possible

Around 100 CE, the Kushan emperor Kanishka is said to have convened what many western scholars call the fourth Buddhist council.
This council is not recognised by the Theravada line of Buddhism. According to Mahayana sources, this council did not simply rely on
the original Tripitaka in the third council. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the Lotus Sutra, an early version of the
Heart Sutra and the Amitabha Sutra were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of
salvation for all beings (hence Mahāyāna "great vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattvas who embody the indwelling
yet transcendent Buddha-nature who strive to achieve such a goal. However, most western scholars believe this council was purely
Sarvastivada, while the late Monseigneur Professor Lamotte considered it entirely fictitious.[44] The new scriptures were first written in
Sanskrit or one of the Prakrits. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana would flourish and spread from
India to Southeast Asia, and towards the north to Central Asia and then east to China where Mahayana was Sinicized and this
Sinicized Mahayana would be passed on to Korea, Vietnam and finally to Japan in 538 CE. The East Asians would go on to write
more indigenous sutras and commentaries to the Mahayana Canon. The most complete Mahayana Canon today is in the Chinese
language.

Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from Nāgārjuna (perhaps c.150–250 CE), arguably the most
influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. Writings attributed to him made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his
philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the Tripiṭaka sūtras. Completely repudiating the then-and-there-dominant
Sarvāstivāda school, which argued for the existence of dharmas (factors of existence) in past, present, and future, Nāgārjuna asserted
that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be śūnya (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines,
particularly anātman (no-self) and pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the Madhyamaka.

After the end of the Kuṣāṇas, Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the Guptas (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres
of learning were established, the most important one being the Nālandā University in north-eastern India. Sarvāstivāda teaching,
which was criticized by Nāgārjuna, was reformulated by scholars such as Vasubandhu and Asaṅga and were incorporated into the
Yogācāra (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra
school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of
subsequent Mahāyāna theology in the Indo-Tibetan tradition.

Emergence of the Vajrayāna

Main article: Vajrayana

There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its tantric practice started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the
historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other
teachings. The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. Nālandā University became a center for the development of
Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices,
scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, Tibet, Maldives, Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian
transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be Tibetan Buddhism
(Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nālandā tradition.

In one of the first major contemporary academic treatises on the subject, Fairfield University Professor Ronald M. Davidson argues
that the rise of Vajrayana was in part a reaction to the changing political climate in India at the time. With the fall of the Gupta
dynasty, in an increasingly fractious political environment, institutional Buddhism had difficulty attracting patronage, and the folk
movement led by siddhas became more prominent. After perhaps two hundred years, it had begun to get integrated into the monastic
establishment.[45]

Decline of Buddhism in India and Central Asia

See also: Decline of Buddhism in India

Buddhism was established in the northern regions of India and Central Asia, and kingdoms with Buddhist rulers such as Menander I
and Kaniska. Under the rule of tolerant or even sympathetic Greco-Bactrian and Iranian Achaemenid kings, Buddhism flourished. The
rulers of the Kushāna Empire adopted Buddhism, and it continued to thrive in the region under the rule of the Turk-Shāhīs.

Buddhists were briefly persecuted under the Zoroastrian priest-king Kirder. Syncretism between Zoroastrianism and Buddhism had
resulted in the rise of a 'Buddha-Mazda' divinity, which Kirder treated as heresy.[46]

The Hinayana traditions first spread among the Turkic tribes before combining with the Mahayana forms during the 2nd and 3rd
centuries BCE to cover modern-day Pakistan, Kashmir, Afghanistan, eastern and coastal Iran, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and
Tajikistan. These were the ancient states of Gandhara, Bactria, Parthia and Sogdia from where it spread to China. Among the first of
these Turkic tribes to adopt Buddhism was the Turki-Shahi who adopted Buddhism as early as the 3rd century BCE. It was not,
however, the exclusive faith of this region. There were also Zoroastrians, Hindus, Nestorian Christians, Jews, Manichaeans, and
followers of shamanism, Tengrism, and other indigenous, nonorganized systems of belief.

From the 4th Century CE on, Hindu dynasties had achieved preeminence elsewhere in India. Even in regions of Buddhist
predominance, such as the northwest (Pañjāb) and the lower Gangetic plain (Uttar Pradesh and Bengal), the Indian caste system was
found. In political contests between Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms, Buddhist rulers were gradually replaced by Hindu ones. By the
4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in northern India, even though it was achieving multiple successes in Central Asia
and along the Silk Road as far as China.

The Buddhist states of Central Asia were weakened in the 6th century following the invasion of the White Huns and Buddhism
suffered as recorded by Xuanzang. Later Buddhist regions in Central Asia came either under the sway of the Persian Sāsānids or Tibet.
When the Muslim Arabs overthrew the Sāssānids they encountered Buddhists in the eastern provinces of the Persian Empire. They
called them by the Persian name of butparast, literally meaning "buddha-worshipper", although the term has come to be used
generally for any religion in which cult images play a role. Several high officials of the Abbāsid Caliphate, notably the Barmakids,
were descended from these East Iranian Buddhists.

When Muhammad bin Qāsim led the invasion of Sindh at the mouth of the Indus river, he was aided by some Buddhists in his
campaign against their Hindu overlord, Rājā Dahir. Relations with later Iranian rulers such as the Saffarids and Samanids were more
difficult; Buddhist monasteries and stūpas were not exempt from looting under Arab rule.[47]

After the disintegration of the Abbāsid Caliphate, the Muslim Turks rose to prominence among the Persian emirates that emerged in
Central Asia and Afghanistan. In the 10th century CE, one of them, Mahmūd of Ghaznī, defeated the Hindō-Shāhīs and finally
brought the region firmly under Muslim rule through Afghanistan and the Pañjāb. He demolished monasteries alongside temples
during his raid across north-western India but left those within his domains and Afghanistan alone and al-Biruni recorded the Buddha
as a prophet "burxan", the Mongolian word for a Buddha.

The originally pagan Turkic tribes who lived in western Central Asia converted to Islām as they came to be increasingly influenced by
Persian culture. As the Turkic tribes of Central Asia battled for control of land, similarly an ideological battle waged within them as
Sufis, faced with an increasing hostile environment in Arabia, moved to Transoxania and found fertile ground here for converts among
the Buddhist and non-Buddhist Turkic tribes alike. Buddhism persisted, together with Christianity, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, and
shamanism in areas to the east (modern Xinjiang) for several centuries, which did not become overwhelmingly Muslim until the 15th
century CE; however, under the two-pronged onslaught Buddhism waned and over time Central Asia gradually became predominantly
Muslim.

In 1215 Genghis Khan conquered Afghanistan and his horde devastated the local population indiscriminately; in 1227 after his death
his conquest was divided and Chagatai established the Chagatai Khanate while Hulegu established the Il Khanate where Buddhism
was the state religion across Muslim lands. In the Chagatai Khanate the Buddhist Turkic tribes slowly converted to Islam, including
the occasional Khan [2]. When Tarmashirin came to power he made Islam the official religion of the region in 1326. In the Il Khanate,
Hulegu and his successors Abaqa and Arghun also established Buddhism as the state religion but were hostile to the Muslims. Many
mosques were destroyed and numerous stupas built; however, when Ghazan came to power in 1295 and converted he reverted the
state religion to Islam and the climate became hostile towards Buddhism. Today no stupas built by the earlier Mongol Khans survive,
and after Ghazan's reign little mention of Buddhism can be found in Afghanistan and Central Asia.[48]

Buddhists retained power in parts of northern India, in Kaśmīr and especially in Bengal, where the Buddhist Pāla kings ruled from the
8th–12th centuries CE. These last Buddhist strongholds played an important role in the evolution of the Vajrayāna and the
transmission of that form of Buddhism to Tibet before they collapsed under assault from the Hindu Sena dynasty.

Elsewhere in India, Buddhism suffered from pressure by Hindu dynasties, such as the increasingly powerful Rajputs, as well as
competition from a Hinduism that had gained ideological coherence and emotional vigor from such movements as Vedānta philosophy
and Bhakti devotionalism. One symptom of increased Hindu confidence with regard to Buddhism was the identification of the Buddha
as an avatāra of the Hindu god Vishnu – an identification which contradicted basic Buddhist understandings and the Buddha's own
unequivocal words about the nature of a Buddha and of nirvāna.

In 1193, only a few decades after the fall of the Pāla kingdom, Muhammad Khiljī destroyed Nālandā, the great Buddhist university.
Khiljī was one of the generals of Qutbuddīn Aybak, a subject of the Afghan Ghurids but soon to become the monarch of a Muslim
sultanate at Delhi. Khiljī's march across northern India caused a precipitous decline in the fortunes of Indian Buddhism, as he
destroyed Buddhist walled monasteries fortified by the Sena kings (which he thought were cities), killed the monks and burned their
libraries. At about the same time, the Buddhist king of Maldives, a country that had been trading with Bengal, converted to Islam and
ordered all his subjects to do likewise.

After the Mongol invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many Sufis also found themselves fleeing towards the newly
established Islamic lands in India around the environs of Bengal. Here their influence, caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous
familiarity with Buddhism, lack of Buddhist political power or social structure along with Hinduism's revival movements such as
Advaita and the rise of the syncretic bhakti movement, all contributed to a significant realignment of beliefs relegating Buddhism in
India to the peripheries.

By the 13th century CE, Buddhism had become a marginal religion in central India; without a monastic infrastructure, Buddhism
could not easily maintain its identity, and many Buddhists, especially in Bengal, were converted to Islām, Hinduism or left for the
Himalayan foothills. In Kaśmīr Buddhism remained a significant religion down to the early 15th century, when it was displaced by
Islām and Hinduism, except among the Tibetan peoples of Ladakh.

Elements of Buddhism have remained within India to the current day: the Bauls of Bengal have a syncretic set of practices with strong
emphasis on many Buddhist concepts. Other areas of India have never parted from Buddhism, including Ladakh and other Himalayan
regions with a primarily Tibetan population. Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim are the other Indian states where Buddhism is practiced in
great numbers. The Newars of Nepal also retain a form of Buddhism that differs from the Buddhism of Tibet. Furthermore, much of
Buddhist philosophy was eventually absorbed into Hinduism.
Main traditions

The most common way scholars categorize Buddhist schools follows the major languages of the extant Buddhist canons, which exist
in Pāli, Tibetan (also found in Mongolian translation) and Chinese collections, along with some texts that still exist in Sanskrit and
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. This is a useful division for practical purposes, but does not necessarily correspond to philosophical or
doctrinal divisions since, despite the differences, there are common threads to almost all Buddhist branches:

• All accept the Buddha as their teacher.

• All accept the Middle Way, Dependent origination, the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path.
• All accept that both the members of the laity and of the Sangha can pursue the path toward enlightenment (bodhi).
• All consider Buddhahood to be the highest attainment.

Southern (Theravāda) Buddhism

Main article: Theravada

In addition to the Edicts of Aśoka, Buddhist annals compiled at a later date offer a history of the Aśokan
and post-Aśokan period. Among these annals are the Dīpavaṃsa, the Mahāvaṃsa, and the
Samantapāsādika of the south Indian Vibhajjavāda (Sanskrit: Vibhajyavāda) saṅgha. According to the
accounts of the Vibhajjavāda, Aśoka convened a third Buddhist council (c. 250 BCE), whose purpose was to
produce a definitive text of the Buddha's words.[citation needed] According to the Theravada account, given in the Dipavamsa
and elsewhere, Asoka called this council to sort out doctrinal disputes within the sangha, which these sources say were caused by the
infiltration of the sangha by non-buddhists, apparently not actually ordained. The account goes on to say that the council approved the
Kathavatthu, compiled by its president Moggaliputta Tissa, as part of the scriptures. As this text consists of doctrinal debates,
apparently with other schools, the account seems to imply the other schools were not proper Buddhists or proper monks.
Vibhajjavādins claim that the first step to insight has to be achieved by the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning
instead of by blind faith. This school gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent, but its branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia
continues to survive; this branch of the school is now known as Theravada. The Theravāda school claims that the Sarvāstivada and the
Dharmaguptaka schools were rejected by the council, although according to other sources the Dharmaguptaka school is classified as
one of the Vibhajyavādin schools. However, these schools became influential in northwestern India and Central Asia and, since their
teaching is found among the scriptures preserved by the Mahāyāna schools, they may have had some formative influence on the
Mahāyāna. The Sarvāstivadins have not preserved an independent tradition about the Third Council. it has been argued by some
scholars that the council was part of a series of debates and/or disputes resulting in the formation of three main doctrinal schools,
Vibhajjavada, Sarvastivada, and Puggalavada, which later were subject to further subdivisions. One such subdivision of the
Vibhajjavada was established in Ceylon, and in course of time came to adopt the name Theravada (given above in its Sanskrit form
Sthaviravada). Its scriptures, the Pali Canon, were written down there in the last century BCE, at what the Theravada usually reckons
as the fourth council.

It was long believed in Theravāda tradition that the Pāli language is equivalent to Māgadhī, the eastern dialect of the kingdom of
Magadha spoken by the Buddha. However, linguistic comparisons of the Edicts of Aśoka and the language of the Pāli canon show
strong differences between the Māgadhī of the Edicts (characterized by such changes as r → l, masculine nominative singular of a-
stems in -e, etc.) and Pāli. The greatest similarity to Pāli is found in a dialectal variant of the Edicts written on a rock near Girnar in
Gujarat.

Theravāda is Pāli for "the Doctrine of the Elders" or "the Ancient Doctrine". Theravāda teaches one to encourage wholesome states
of mind, avoid unwholesome states of mind, and to train the mind in meditation. The aim of practice, according to Theravāda
Buddhism, is the attainment of freedom from suffering, which is linked with Nirvana, the highest spiritual goal. Theravāda teaches
that the experience of suffering is caused by mental defilements like greed, aversion and delusion, while freedom can be attained
though putting into practice teachings like the Four Noble Truths and especially the fourth one, the Noble Eightfold Path.

The Theravāda school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the Pāli Canon and its commentaries. The Sutta collections and
Vinaya texts of the Pāli Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the Tripitaka), are generally considered by modern
scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism.

Theravāda is the only surviving representative of the historical early Buddhist schools. Theravāda is primarily practiced today in Sri
Lanka, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as small portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Bangladesh. It has a growing
presence in Europe and America.

Eastern (East Asian) Buddhism

Mahayana ("Great Vehicle") is an inclusive, cosmically-dimensioned faith characterized by the adoption of additional texts, seen as
ultimately transcending the Pali suttas, and a shift in the understanding of Buddhism. It goes beyond the traditional Theravada ideal of
the release from suffering (dukkha) and personal enlightenment of the arhats, to elevate the Buddha to the God-like status of an
eternal, omnipresent, all-knowing being, and to create a pantheon of quasi-divine Bodhisattvas devoting themselves to personal
excellence, ultimate knowledge and the salvation of humanity (and indeed of all living beings, including animals, ghosts and gods). In
Mahayana, the Buddha became an idealized man-god and the Bodhisattva was the universal ideal of excellence.

The Mahayana branch emphasizes infinite, universal compassion (maha-karuna) or the selfless, ultra-altruistic quest of the
Bodhisattva to attain the "Awakened Mind" (bodhicitta) of Buddhahood so as to have the fullest possible knowledge of how most
effectively to lead all sentient beings into Nirvana. Emphasis is also often placed on the notions of Emptiness (shunyata), perfected
spiritual insight (prajnaparamita) and Buddha-nature (the deathless tathagatagarbha, or Buddhic Essence, inherent in all beings and
creatures). The teaching of the tathagatagarbha is said by the Buddha in the tathagatagarbha sutras to constitute the "absolutely final
culmination" of his Dharma — the highest presentation of Truth. The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the
Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and gives expression to a form of mentalist panentheism (God in Buddhism).

In addition to the Tripitaka scriptures, which (within Mahayana) are viewed as valid but only provisional or basic, Mahayana schools
recognize all or part of a genre of Mahayana scriptures. Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha
himself. Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms
of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative.

Native Eastern Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, parts of Russia and most of Vietnam. The Buddhism
practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of
Northern Buddhism. There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism, which in most of this area are fused into a single unified form
of Buddhism. However, in Japan they form separate denominations. The five major ones are the following.

• Chan/Zen
• Pure Land
• Nichiren, peculiar to Japan
• Shingon, a form of Vajrayana
• Tendai

Northern (Tibetan) Buddhism

Though thoroughly based upon Mahāyāna, Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism is sometimes characterized as Vajrayāna or "Diamond
Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Tantric Buddhism, or esoteric Buddhism). It therefore accepts all the basic
concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. One component of
the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and
awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a
practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In addition to the Theravāda and Mahāyāna
scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of Buddhist Tantras, some of which are also included in Chinese and Japanese
collections of Buddhist literature.

Intellectualism and Buddhist worldview

Main article: History of Buddhist schools

According to the scriptures, in his lifetime, the Buddha had not answered several philosophical questions. On issues like whether the
world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the self, complete inexistence of a person after
nirvana and then death etc, the Buddha had remained silent. The scriptures explain that such questions distract from practical activity
for realizing enlightenment.

In numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that Dharma (Truth) and the Buddha himself in their ultimate modus
cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: both Buddha and Reality (ultimately One) transcend all worldly
concepts. The "prajna-paramita" sutras have this as one of their major themes. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-
cultivation, and veneration of the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but then to let go of ratiocination and to
experience direct entry into Liberation itself. The Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, insists that,
while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from
Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" (Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra) also emphasises how Buddhic Truth
lies beyond the range of thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there:

"The mind of perfect purity [i.e. the Awakened Mind of Buddha] ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ... It dwells in the self-
perfected bliss which is deedless and self-perfected ... I am the best path of liberation. It is a path, subtle and difficult to understand,
which is non-speculative and beyond thinking ... It cannot be captured in words ... It is firm, difficult to comprehend, and totally
inexplicable." (The Sovereign All-Creating Mind tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111–112).
Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist yogi and teacher mahasiddha Tilopa discouraged any intellectual activity in his 6 words of
advice.

Buddhist missionaries, however, often faced philosophical questions from other religions whose answers they themselves did not
know. For those, who have attachment to intellectualism, Buddhist scholars produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories,
philosophies and worldview concepts. See e.g. Abhidharma, Buddhist philosophy and Reality in Buddhism.

Buddhist texts

Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some
schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon of
scripture is known in Sanskrit as the Tripitaka and in Pāli as the Tipitaka. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the
three main divisions of the canon, which are:

• The Vinaya Pitaka, containing disciplinary rules for the Sanghas of Buddhist monks and nuns, as well as a range of other
texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
• The Sūtra Pitaka (Pāli: Sutta Pitaka), contains the actual discourses of the Buddha.
• The Abhidharma Pitaka (Pāli: Abhidhamma Pitaka) contains commentaries or systematic expositions of the Buddha's
teachings.

According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named Mahākāśyapa
(Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings – sūtras (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli) – and
codify monastic rules (Vinaya), and according to some sources the abhidhamma. Ānanda, the Buddha's personal attendant, was called
upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and according to some sources the abhidhamma, and Upāli, another disciple, recited the
rules of the Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting,
and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the Vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of
elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the
Buddha's previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects.

The Theravāda and other Early Buddhist Schools traditionally believe that the texts of their canon contain the actual words of the
Buddha. The Theravāda canon, also known as the Pāli Canon after the language it was written in, contains some four million words.
Other texts, such as the Mahāyāna sūtras, are also considered by some to be the word of the Buddha, but supposedly either were
transmitted in secret, via lineages of mythical beings (such as the nāgas), or came directly from other Buddhas or bodhisattvas. Some
six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in Chinese or Tibetan translations.

The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers
of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The
Pāli sutras, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the āgamas.

Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the Pali canon and its commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and
the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of
spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha
himself. The Theravadins are confident that the Pali canon represents the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma —
and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the
Canon or its commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada.

For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements
of the Buddha, but in their view, the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for
those who follow the exalted bodhisattva path. That path is built upon the motivation to achieve not only personal liberation, but
Buddhahood itself in order to know how best to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name Mahāyāna (lit., the Great
Vehicle), which has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The "Great" of "Maha-
yana" is indeed typical of much of this version of Buddhism — from the physical bigness (lengthiness) of some of the Mahayana
sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow (to strive for all future time to help free other persons and creatures from pain), to the
numbers of beings who are sought to be saved (infinitudes), to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha's
"Great Self" (mahatman) in the sphere of "Great Nirvana" (mahanirvana). For the Theravadins, however, this alleged "greatness"
proclaimed by some Mahayana sutras does not necessarily equate to "true".

Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. The size and complexity of
the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer Babasaheb Ambedkar) as presenting barriers to the
wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy.
Over the years, various attempts have been made at synthesizing a single Buddhist text that will encompass all of the major principles
of Buddhism. In the Theravada tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into
single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the Dhammapada was championed as a unifying scripture.

Dwight Goddard collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures, with the emphasis on Zen — along with other classics of Eastern
philosophy, such as the Tao Te Ching — into his Buddhist Bible in the 1920s. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to
create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles with his “The Buddha and His Dhamma”. Other such efforts have persisted
to the present day, but currently there is no single text widely accepted as being central to all Buddhist traditions.

Buddhist symbols

The eight auspicious symbols of Buddhism are:

• the Parasol (Umbrella)

• the Golden Fish
• the Treasure Vase
• the Lotus
• the Conch Shell
• the Endless Knot
• the Victory Banner
• the Dharma wheel

Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism notable for its emphasis on practice and experiential wisdom—particularly as realized in the
form of meditation known as zazen—in the attainment of awakening. As such, it de-emphasizes both theoretical knowledge and the
study of religious texts in favor of direct individual experience of one's own true nature.

The emergence of Zen as a distinct school of Buddhism was first documented in China in the 7th century CE. It is thought to have
developed as an amalgam of various currents in Mahāyāna Buddhist thought—among them the Yogācāra and Madhyamaka
philosophies and the Prajñāpāramitā literature—and of local traditions in China, particularly Daoism and Huáyán Buddhism. From
China, Zen subsequently spread southwards to Vietnam and eastwards to Korea and Japan. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
Zen also began to establish a notable presence in North America and Europe.

[edit] Etymology

"Zen", pronounced [zeɴ] in Japanese, is the Sino-Japanese reading of the Chinese character 禅, which is pronounced [tʂʰán] (Pinyin:
chán) in modern Standard Mandarin Chinese, but was likely pronounced [dz͡ ʲen] in Middle Chinese.[1] The term "zen" is in fact a
contraction of the seldom-used long form zenna (禅那; Mandarin: chánnà), a derivation from the Sanskrit term dhyāna (Pāli: jhāna),
which refers to a specific type or aspect of meditation. While "Zen" is the name most commonly known worldwide, it is also known as
Chán in China, Seon in Korea, and Thiền in Vietnam.

[edit] Zen teachings and practices

[edit] Basis

In Zen, philosophical teachings and textual study are given less emphasis than in other forms of Buddhism. Nonetheless, Zen is deeply
rooted in both the teachings of the Buddha Siddhārtha Gautama and Mahāyāna Buddhist thought.

The fundamental Zen practice of zazen, or seated meditation, recalls both the posture in which the Buddha is said to have achieved
enlightenment under the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya, and the elements of mindfulness and concentration which are part of the Eightfold
Path as taught by the Buddha. All of the Buddha's fundamental teachings—among them the Eightfold Path, the Four Noble Truths, the
idea of dependent origination, the five precepts, the five aggregates, and the three marks of existence—also make up important
elements of Zen. Certain other elements emerging from Theravāda Buddhist thought, such as the perfections, also have a place in Zen.

Additionally, as a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, Zen draws many of its basic driving concepts, particularly the bodhisattva ideal,
from that branch. Uniquely Mahāyāna figures such as Guānyīn, Mañjuśrī, Samantabhadra, and Amitābha are venerated alongside the
historical Buddha. Despite Zen's lack of emphasis on textual study, it has drawn heavily on the Mahāyāna sūtras, particularly the
Heart of Perfect Wisdom Sūtra, the Sūtra of the Perfection of Wisdom of the Diamond that Cuts through Illusion, the Lankavatara
Sūtra, and the "Samantamukha Parivarta" section of the Lotus Sūtra.

Zen has also itself produced a rich corpus of written literature which has become a part of its practice and teaching. Among the earliest
and most widely studied of the specifically Zen texts, dating back to at least the 9th century CE, is the Platform Sutra of the Sixth
Patriarch, sometimes attributed to Huìnéng. Others include the various collections of kōans and the Shōbōgenzō of Dōgen Zenji.

Zen training emphasizes daily life practice, along with intensive periods of meditation. Practicing with others is an integral part of Zen
practice. In explaining Zen Buddhism, Japanese Zen teachers have made the point that Zen is a "way of life"[citation needed]. D.T. Suzuki
wrote that aspects of this life are: a life of humility; a life of labor; a life of service; a life of prayer and gratitude; and a life of
meditation[citation needed]. The Chinese Chan master Baizhang (720–814 CE) left behind a famous saying which had been the guiding
principle of his life, "A day without work is a day without food."[2]

D.T. Suzuki asserted that satori (awakening) has always been the goal of every school of Buddhism, but that which distinguished the
Zen tradition as it developed in China, Korea, and Japan was a way of life radically different from that of Indian Buddhists. In India,
the tradition of the mendicant (bhikkhu) prevailed, but in China social circumstances led to the development of a temple and training-
center system in which the abbot and the monks all performed mundane tasks. These included food gardening or farming, carpentry,
architecture, housekeeping, administration, and the practice of folk medicine. Consequently, the enlightenment sought in Zen had to
stand up well to the demands and potential frustrations of everyday life.[citation needed]

[edit] Zazen

Main article: Zazen

Zen sitting meditation, the core of zen practice, is called zazen in Japanese (坐禅; Chinese tso-chan [Wade-Giles] or zuochan
[Pinyin]). During zazen, practitioners usually assume a sitting position such as the lotus, half-lotus, Burmese, or seiza postures.
Awareness is directed towards one's posture and breathing. Often, a square or round cushion (zafu, 座蒲) placed on a padded mat
(zabuton, 座布団) is used to sit on; in some cases, a chair may be used. In Rinzai Zen practitioners typically sit facing the center of the
room; while Soto practitioners traditionally sit facing a wall.

In Soto Zen, shikantaza meditation ("just-sitting", 只管打坐) that is, a meditation with no objects, anchors, or content, is the primary
form of practice. The meditator strives to be aware of the stream of thoughts, allowing them to arise and pass away without
interference. Considerable textual, philosophical, and phenomenological justification of this practice can be found throughout Dōgen's
Shōbōgenzō, as for example in the "Principles of Zazen"[3] and the "Universally Recommended Instructions for Zazen"[4]. Rinzai Zen,
instead, emphasizes attention to the breath and koan practice (q.v.).

The amount of time spent daily in zazen by practitioners varies. Dogen recommends that five minutes or more daily is beneficial for
householders. The key is daily regularity, as Zen teaches that the ego will naturally resist, and the discipline of regularity is essential.
Practicing Zen monks may perform four to six periods of zazen during a normal day, with each period lasting 30 to 40 minutes.
Normally, a monastery will hold a monthly retreat period (sesshin), lasting between one and seven days. During this time, zazen is
practiced more intensively: monks may spend four to eight hours in meditation each day, sometimes supplemented by further rounds
of zazen late at night.

Meditation as a practice can be applied to any posture. Walking meditation is called kinhin. Successive periods of zazen are usually
interwoven with brief periods of walking meditation to relieve the legs.

[edit] The teacher

Because the Zen tradition emphasizes direct communication over scriptural study, the Zen teacher has traditionally played a central
role. Generally speaking, a Zen teacher is a person ordained in any tradition of Zen to teach the dharma, guide students of meditation,
and perform rituals. An important concept for all Zen sects is the notion of Dharma transmission the claim of a line of authority that
goes back to Śākyamuni Buddha via the teachings of each successive master to each successive student. This concept relates to the
ideas expressed in a description of Zen attributed to Bodhidharma:

A special transmission outside the scriptures; (教外別傳)

No dependence upon words and letters; (不立文字)
Direct pointing to the human mind; (直指人心)
Seeing into one's own nature and attaining Buddhahood. (見性成佛)[5]

The idea of a line of descent from Śākyamuni Buddha is a distinctive institution of Zen which Suzuki (1949:168) contends was
invented by hagiographers to grant Zen legitimacy and prestige.
John McRae’s study “Seeing Through Zen” explores this assertion of lineage as a distinctive and central aspect of Zen Buddhism. He
writes of this “genealogical” approach so central to Zen’s self-understanding, that while not without precedent, has unique features. It
is “relational (involving interaction between individuals rather than being based solely on individual effort), generational (in that it is
organized according to parent-child, or rather teacher-student, generations) and reiterative (i.e., intended for emulation and repetition
in the lives of present and future teachers and students.”

McRae offers a detailed criticism of lineage, but he also notes it is central to Zen. So much so that it is hard to envision any claim to
Zen that discards claims of lineage. Therefore, for example, in Japanese Soto, lineage charts become a central part of the Sanmatsu,
the documents of Dharma transmission. And it is common for daily chanting in Zen temples and monasteries to include the lineage of
the school.

In Japan during the Tokugawa period (1600–1868), some came to question the lineage system and its legitimacy. The Zen master
Dokuan Genko (1630–1698), for example, openly questioned the necessity of written acknowledgment from a teacher, which he
dismissed as "paper Zen." An occasional teacher in Japan during the Tokugawa period did not adhere to the lineage system; these were
termed mushi dokugo (無師獨悟, "independently enlightened without a teacher") or jigo jisho (自悟自証, "self-enlightened and self-
certified"). They were generally dismissed and perhaps of necessity leave no independent transmission. Nevertheless, modern Zen
Buddhists also consider questions about the dynamics of the lineage system, inspired in part by academic research into the history of
Zen.

Honorific titles associated with teachers typically include, in Chinese, Fashi (法師) or Chanshi (禪師); in Korean, Sunim (an
honorofic for a monk or nun) and Seon Sa (선사); in Japanese, Osho (和尚), Roshi (老師), or Sensei (先生); and in Vietnamese, Thầy.
Note that many of these titles are not specific to Zen but are used generally for Buddhist priests; some, such as sensei are not even
specific to Buddhism.

The English term Zen master is often used to refer to important teachers, especially ancient and medieval ones. However, there is no
specific criterion by which one may be called a Zen master. The term is less common in reference to modern teachers.

[edit] Koan practice

Zen Buddhists of the Rinzai school practice meditation on koans during zazen. A koan (literally "public case") is a story or dialogue,
generally related to Zen or other Buddhist history; the most typical form is an anecdote involving early Chinese Zen masters. Koan
practice is particularly emphasized by the Japanese Rinzai school, but it also occurs in other forms of Zen.

These anecdotes involving famous Zen teachers are a practical demonstration of their wisdom, and can be used to test a student's
progress in Zen practice. Koans often appear paradoxical or linguistically meaningless dialogues or questions. Answering a koan
requires a student to let go of conceptual thinking and of the logical way we order the world.

The Zen student's mastery of a given koan is presented to the teacher in a private interview, referred to as dokusan (独参), daisan (代
参), or sanzen (参禅). Zen teachers advise that the problem posed by a koan is to be taken quite seriously, and to be approached as
literally a matter of life and death. While there is no unique answer to a koan, practitioners are expected to demonstrate their
understanding of the koan and of Zen through their responses. The teacher may approve or disapprove of the answer and guide the
student in the right direction. There are also various commentaries on koans, written by experienced teachers, that can serve as a
guide. These commentaries are also of great value to modern scholarship on the subject.

[edit] Chanting and Liturgy

A practice in many Zen monasteries and centers is a daily liturgy service. Practitioners chant major sutras such as the Heart Sutra, the
Avalokiteshvara Sutra, the Song of the Jewel Mirror Awareness, the Great Compassionate Heart Dharani (Daihishin Dharani)[6], and
other minor mantras.

The Butsudan is the altar in a monastery where offerings are made to the images of the Buddha or Bodhisattvas. The same term is also
used in Japanese homes for the altar where one prays to and communicates with deceased family members. As such, reciting liturgy in
Zen can be seen as a means to connect with the Bodhisattvas of the past. Liturgy is often used during funerals, memorials, and other
special events as means to invoke the aid of supernatural powers.

Chanting usually centers on major Bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara and Manjusri (Japanese: Monju). These celestial beings have
taken extraordinary vows to liberate all beings from Samsara (the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth), while remaining in Samsara
themselves. Since the Zen practitioner’s aim is to walk the Bodhisattva path, chanting can be used as a means to connect with these
beings and realize this ideal within oneself. By repeatedly chanting the Avalokiteshvara sutra, for example, one instills the
Bodhisattva's ideals into ones mind. The ultimate goal is given in the end of the sutra, which states, "In the morning, be one with
Avalokiteshvara, In the evening, be one with Avalokiteshvara,"[7], Through the realization of the Emptiness of oneself, and the
Mahayanist ideal of Buddha-nature in all things, one understands that there is no difference between the cosmic bodhisattva and
oneself. The wisdom and compassion of the Boddhisattva one is chanting to is seen to equal the inner wisdom and compassion of the
practitioner. Thus, the duality between subject and object, practitioner and Bodhisattva, chanter and sutra is ended.
One modern day Roshi justifies the use of chanting sutras by referring to zen master Dogen.[8], Dogen is known to have refuted the
statement "Painted rice cakes will not satisfy hunger". This means that sutras, which are just symbols like painted rice cakes, cannot
truly satisfy one's spiritual hunger. Dogen, however, saw that there is no separation between metaphor and reality. "There is no
difference between paintings, rice cakes, or any thing at all" [9]. The symbol and the symbolized were inherently the same, and thus
only the sutras could truly satisfy one's spiritual needs.

To understand this non-dual relationship experientially, one is told to practice liturgy Intimately [10]. In distinguishing between
ceremony and liturgy, Dogen states, "In ceremony there are forms and there are sounds, there is understanding and there is believing.
In liturgy there is only intimacy." The practitioner is instructed to listen to and speak liturgy not just with one sense, but with one's
"whole body-and-mind". By listening with one's entire being, one eliminates the space between the self and the liturgy. Thus, Dogen's
instructions are to "listen with the eye and see with the ear". By focusing all of one's being on one specific practice, duality is
transcended. Dogen says, "Let go of the eye, and the whole body-and-mind are nothing but the eye; let go of the ear, and the whole
universe is nothing but the ear." Chanting intimately thus allows one to experience a non-dual reality. The liturgy used is a tool to
allow the practitioner to transcend the old conceptions of self and other. In this way, intimate liturgy practice allows one to realize
Sunyata, or emptiness, which is at the heart of Buddhist teachings.

[edit] Other techniques

There are other techniques common in the Zen tradition which seem unconventional and whose purpose is said to be to shock a
student in order to help him or her let go of habitual activities of the mind. Some of these are common today, while others are found
mostly in anecdotes. These include the loud belly shout known as katsu. It is common in many Zen traditions today for Zen teachers to
have a stick with them during formal ceremonies which is a symbol of authority and which can be also used to strike on the table
during a talk.

[edit] Mythology

Within Zen, and thus from an emic perspective, the origins of Zen Buddhism are ascribed to what is called the Flower Sermon, in
which Śākyamuni Buddha is supposed to have passed on special insight to the disciple Mahākāśyapa. The sermon itself was a
wordless one in which Śākyamuni merely held up a flower before the assembled disciples, among whom there was no reaction apart
from Mahākāśyapa, who smiled. The smile is said to have signified Mahākāśyapa's understanding, and Śākyamuni acknowledged this
by saying:

I possess the true Dharma eye, the marvelous mind of Nirvana, the true form of the formless, the subtle dharma gate that does not rest
on words or letters but is a special transmission outside of the scriptures. This I entrust to Mahākāśyapa.[11]

Thus, a way within Buddhism developed which concentrated on direct experience rather than on rational creeds or revealed scriptures.
Zen is a method of meditative religion which seeks to enlighten people in the manner that the Mahākāśyapa experienced.[12]

In the Song of Enlightenment (證道歌 Zhèngdào gē) of Yǒngjiā Xuánjué (665-713)[13]—one of the chief disciples of Huìnéng, the 6th
patriarch of Chan Buddhism—it is written that Bodhidharma was the 28th patriarch in a line of descent from Mahākāśyapa, a disciple
of Śākyamuni Buddha, and the first patriarch of Chan Buddhism:

Mahākāśyapa was the first, leading the line of transmission;

Twenty-eight Fathers followed him in the West;
The Lamp was then brought over the sea to this country;
And Bodhidharma became the First Father here:
His mantle, as we all know, passed over six Fathers,
And by them many minds came to see the Light.[14]

The idea of a line of descent from Śākyamuni Buddha is a distinctive institution of Zen which Suzuki (1949:168) contends was
invented by hagiographers to grant Zen legitimacy and prestige. The earliest source for the legend of the "Flower sermon" is from 11th
century China.[15].

[edit] Early history

Zen developed as an amalgam of Mahāyāna Buddhism and Taoism.[16] Dumoulin (2005) argues that Zen also has roots in yogic
practices, specifically kammaṭṭhāna, the consideration of objects, and kasiṇa, total fixation of the mind.

The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by interaction and syncretism with Taoic faiths, Taoism in particular.[17] Buddhism's
scriptures were translated into Chinese with Taoist vocabulary, because it was originally seen as a kind of foreign Taoism.[18] In the
Tang period Taoism incorporated such Buddhist elements as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of
emptiness, and collecting scripture into tripartite organisation. During the same time, Chan Buddhism grew to become the largest sect
in Chinese Buddhism.[19]

The establishment of Zen is traditionally credited to the monk Bodhidharma (ca 500 CE), who is recorded as having come to China to
teach a "special transmission outside scriptures" which "did not rely upon words". Bodhidharma settled in the kingdom of Wei where
he took as disciples Daoyu and Huike. Shortly before his death, Bodhidharma appointed Huike to succeed him, making Huike the first
Chinese patriarch and the second patriarch of Zen in China. The transmission then passed to the second patriarch (Huike), the third
(Sengcan), the fourth patriarch (Dao Xin) and the fifth patriarch (Hongren). The sixth and last patriarch, Huineng (638–713), was one
of the giants of Zen history, and all surviving schools regard him as their ancestor. However, the dramatic story of Huineng's life tells
that there was a controversy over his claim to the title of patriarch: after being chosen by Hongren, the fifth patriarch, he had to flee by
night to Nanhua Temple in the south to avoid the wrath of Hongren's jealous senior disciples. In the middle of the 8th century, monks
claiming to be the successors to Huineng, calling themselves the Southern school, cast themselves in opposition to those claiming to
succeed Hongren's student Shenxiu (神秀). It is commonly held that at this point—the debates between these rival factions—that Zen
enters the realm of fully documented history. The Southern school eventually became predominant and their rivals died out. Modern
scholarship, however, has questioned this narrative.

The following are the six Patriarchs of Zen (Chan) in China as listed in traditional sources:

1. Bodhidharma (達摩, Chinese: Damo, Japanese: Daruma) about 440 - about 528
2. Huike (慧可, Japanese: Eka) 487 - 593
3. Sengcan (僧燦, Japanese: Sōsan) ? - 606
4. Daoxin (道信, Japanese: Dōshin) 580 - 651
5. Hongren (弘忍, Japanese: Kōnin) 601 - 674
6. Huineng (慧能, Japanese: Enō) 638 - 713

[edit] Zen (Chan) in China

See also: Buddhism in China

In the following centuries, Chan grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism and, despite its "transmission beyond the
scriptures", produced the largest body of literature in Chinese history of any sect or tradition. The teachers claiming Huineng's
posterity began to branch off into numerous different schools, each with their own special emphasis, but all of which kept the same
basic focus on meditational practice, personal instruction and personal experience.

During the late Tang and the Song periods, the tradition continued, as a wide number of eminent teachers, such as Mazu (Wade-Giles:
Ma-tsu; Japanese: Baso), Shitou (Shih-t'ou; Japanese: Sekito), Baizhang (Pai-chang; Japanese: Hyakujo), Huangbo (Huang-po; Jap.:
Obaku), Linji (Lin-chi; Jap.: Rinzai), and Yunmen (Jap.: Ummon) developed specialized teaching methods, which would variously
become characteristic of the five houses (五家) of Chan. The traditional five houses were Caodong (曹洞宗), Linji (臨濟宗), Guiyang
(潙仰宗), Fayan (法眼宗), and Yunmen (雲門宗). This list does not include earlier schools such as the Hongzhou (洪州宗) of Mazu.

Over the course of Song Dynasty (960–1279), the Guiyang, Fayan, and Yunmen schools were gradually absorbed into the Linji.
During the same period, the various developments of Chan teaching methods crystallized into the gong-an (koan) practice which is
unique to this school of Buddhism. According to Miura and Sasaki, "it was during the lifetime of Yüan-wu's successor, Ta-hui Tsung-
kao 大慧宗杲 (Daie Sōkō, 1089-1163) that Koan Zen entered its determinative stage."[20] Gong-an practice was prevalent in the Linji
school, to which Yuanwu and Ta-hui (pinyin: Dahui) belonged, but it was also employed on a more limited basis by the Caodong
school. The teaching styles and words of the classical masters were collected in such important texts as the Blue Cliff Record (1125) of
Yuanwu, The Gateless Gate (1228) of Wumen, both of the Linji lineage, and the Book of Equanimity (1223) of Wansong, of the
Caodong lineage. These texts record classic gong-an cases, together with verse and prose commentaries, which would be studied by
later generations of students down to the present.

Chan continued to be influential as a religious force in China, and thrived in the post-Song period; with a vast body of texts being
produced up and through the modern period. While traditionally distinct, Chan was taught alongside Pure Land Buddhism in many
Chinese Buddhist monasteries. In time much of the distinction between them was lost, and many masters taught both Chan and Pure
Land. Chan Buddhism enjoyed something of a revival in the Ming Dynasty with teachers such as Hanshan Deqing (憨山德清), who
wrote and taught extensively on both Chan and Pure Land Buddhism; Miyun Yuanwu (密雲圓悟), who came to be seen posthumously
as the first patriarch of the Obaku Zen school; as well as Yunqi Zhuhong (雲棲株宏) and Ouyi Zhixu (藕溢智旭).

After further centuries of decline, Chan was revived again in the early 20th century by Hsu Yun, a well-known figure of 20th century
Chinese Buddhism. Many Chan teachers today trace their lineage back to Hsu Yun, including Sheng-yen and Hsuan Hua, who have
propagated Chan in the west where it has grown steadily through the 20th and 21st century.
It was severely repressed in China during the recent modern era with the appearance of the People's Republic, but has more recently
been re-asserting itself on the mainland, and has a significant following in Taiwan and Hong Kong as well as among Overseas
Chinese.

[edit] Zen in Japan

The schools of Zen that currently exist in Japan are the Soto (曹洞), Rinzai (臨済), and Obaku (黃檗). Of these, Soto is the largest and
Obaku the smallest. Rinzai is itself divided into several subschools based on temple affiliation, including Myoshin-ji, Nanzen-ji,
Tenryū-ji, Daitoku-ji, and Tofuku-ji.

Although the Japanese had known Zen-like practices for centuries (Daoism and Shintoism), it was not introduced as a separate school
until the 12th century, when Myōan Eisai traveled to China and returned to establish a Linji lineage, which is known in Japan as
Rinzai. Decades later, Nanpo Jomyo (南浦紹明) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese Otokan lineage,
the most influential branch of Rinzai. In 1215, Dogen, a younger contemporary of Eisai's, journeyed to China himself, where he
became a disciple of the Caodong master Tiantong Rujing. After his return, Dogen established the Soto school, the Japanese branch of
Caodong. The Obaku lineage was introduced in the 17th century by Ingen, a Chinese monk. Ingen had been a member of the Linji
school, the Chinese equivalent of Rinzai, which had developed separately from the Japanese branch for hundreds of years. Thus, when
Ingen journeyed to Japan following the fall of the Ming Dynasty to the Manchus, his teachings were seen as a separate school. The
Obaku school was named for Mount Obaku (Chinese: Huangboshan), which had been Ingen's home in China.

Some contemporary Japanese Zen teachers, such as Daiun Harada and Shunryu Suzuki, have criticized Japanese Zen as being a
formalized system of empty rituals in which very few Zen practitioners ever actually attain realization. They assert that almost all
Japanese temples have become family businesses handed down from father to son, and the Zen priest's function has largely been
reduced to officiating at funerals[citation needed].

The Japanese Zen establishment—including the Soto sect, the major branches of Rinzai, and several renowned teachers— has been
criticized for its involvement in Japanese militarism and nationalism during World War II and the preceding period. A notable work on
this subject was Zen at War (1998) by Brian Victoria, an American-born Soto priest. At the same time, however, one must be aware
that this involvement was by no means limited to the Zen school: all orthodox Japanese schools of Buddhism supported the militarist
state. What may be most striking, though, as Victoria has argued, is that many Zen masters known for their post-war internationalism
and promotion of "world peace" were open nationalists in the inter-war years.

This openness has allowed non-Buddhists to practice Zen, especially outside of Asia, and even for the curious phenomenon of an
emerging Christian Zen lineage, as well as one or two lines that call themselves "nonsectarian." With no official governing body, it's
perhaps impossible to declare any authentic lineage "heretical." Some schools emphasize lineage and trace their line of teachers back
to Japan, Korea, Vietnam or China; other schools do not[citation needed].

[edit] Zen in Vietnam (Thien Buddhism)

See also: Buddhism in Vietnam

Thiền Buddhism (禪宗 Thiền Tông) is the Vietnamese name for the school of Zen Buddhism. Thien is ultimately derived from Chan
Zong 禪宗 (simplified, 禅宗), itself a derivative of the Sanskrit "Dhyāna".

According to traditional accounts of Vietnam, in 580, an Indian monk named Vinitaruci (Vietnamese: Tì-ni-đa-lưu-chi) travelled to
Vietnam after completing his studies with Sengcan, the third patriarch of Chinese Zen. This, then, would be the first appearance of
Vietnamese Zen, or Thien (thiền) Buddhism. The sect that Vinitaruci and his lone Vietnamese disciple founded would become known
as the oldest branch of Thien. After a period of obscurity, the Vinitaruci School became one of the most influential Buddhist groups in
Vietnam by the 10th century, particularly so under the patriarch Vạn-Hạnh (died 1018). Other early Vietnamese Zen schools included
the Vo Ngon Thong (Vô Ngôn Thông), which was associated with the teaching of Mazu, and the Thao Duong (Thảo Đường), which
incorporated nianfo chanting techniques; both were founded by Chinese monks. A new school was founded by one of Vietnam's
religious kings; this was the Truc Lam (Trúc Lâm) school, which evinced a deep influence from Confucian and Taoist philosophy.
Nevertheless, Truc Lam's prestige waned over the following centuries as Confucianism became dominant in the royal court. In the
17th century, a group of Chinese monks led by Nguyen Thieu (Nguyên Thiều) established a vigorous new school, the Lam Te (Lâm
Tế), which is the Vietnamese pronunciation of Linji. A more domesticated offshoot of Lam Te, the Lieu Quan (Liễu Quán) school, was
founded in the 18th century and has since been the predominant branch of Vietnamese Zen.

The most famous practitioner of synchronized Thiền Buddhism in the West is Thích Nhất Hạnh who has authored dozens of books.

[edit] Zen in Korea (Seon)

 See also: Korean Buddhism

Chan was gradually transmitted into Korea during the late Silla period (8th and 9th centuries) as Korean monks of predominantly
Hwaeom 華嚴 and Consciousness-only 唯識 background began to travel to China to learn the newly developing tradition. During his
lifetime, Mazu had begun to attract students from Korea; by tradition, the first Korean to study Zen was named Peomnang 法朗.
Mazu's successors had numerous Korean students, some of whom returned to Korea and established the nine mountain 九山 schools.
This was the beginning of Korean Zen, which is called Seon.

Seon received its most significant impetus and consolidation from the Goryeo monk Jinul 知訥 (1158–1210), who established a
reform movement and introduced koan practice to Korea. Jinul established the Songgwangsa 松廣寺 as a new center of pure practice.
It was during the time of Jinul the Jogye Order, a primarily Seon sect, became the predominant form of Korean Buddhism, a status it
still holds. which survives down to the present in basically the same status. Toward the end of the Goryeo and during the Joseon period
the Jogye Order would first be combined with the scholarly 教 schools, and then be relegated to lesser influence in ruling clas circles
by Confucian influenced polity, even as it retained strength outside the cities, among the rural populations and ascetic monks in
mountain refuges.

Nevertheless, there would be a series of important Seon teachers during the next several centuries, such as Hyegeun 慧勤, Taego 太
古, Gihwa 己和 and Hyujeong 休靜, who continued to develop the basic mold of Korean meditational Buddhism established by Jinul.
Seon continues to be practiced in Korea today at a number of major monastic centers, as well as being taught at Dongguk University,
which has a major of studies in this religion. Taego Bou (1301–1382) studied in China with Linji teacher and returned to unite the
Nine Mountain Schools. In modern Korea, by far the largest Buddhist denomination is the Jogye Order, which is essentially a Zen
sect; the name Jogye is the Korean equivalent of Caoxi (曹溪), another name for Huineng.

Korean Zen is known for its stress on meditation, monasticism, and asceticism. Korean monks are strictly required to have no personal
possessions and to cut off all relations with the outside world. They are near mendicants traveling from temple to temple practicing
meditation. The hermit-recluse life is prevalent among monks and meditation practice is considered of paramount importance.[21][citation
needed]

Currently, Korean Buddhism is in a state of slow transition. While the reigning theory behind Korean Buddhism was based on Jinul's
"sudden enlightenment, gradual cultivation," the modern Korean Seon master, Seongcheol's revival of Hui Neng's "sudden
enlightenment, sudden cultivation" has had a strong impact on Korean Buddhism. Although there is resistance to change within the
ranks of the Jogye order, with the last three Supreme Patriarchs' stance that is in accordance with Seongcheol, there has been a gradual
change in the atmosphere of Korean Buddhism.

Also, the Kwan Um School of Zen, one of the largest Zen schools in the West, teaches a form of Seon Buddhism.

[edit] The tradition of Jisei or the Death Poem

See also: Death poem

Writing death poems is done by both Chinese and Japanese Zen monks (writing either Chinese style poetry kanshi, waka or Haiku),
and by many haiku poets, as well as those who wish to write one. It was also an ancient custom in Japan for literate persons to
compose a jisei on their death-bed. One of earliest records of jisei was recited by Prince Ōtsu executed in 686. For examples of death
poems, see the articles on the famous haiku poet Bashō, the Japanese Buddhist monk Ryōkan, Ōta Dōkan (builder of Edo Castle), and
the Japanese woodblock master Tsukioka Yoshitoshi.

[edit] Zen in the Western world

See also: Buddhism in the West

Although it is difficult to trace when the West first became aware of Zen as a distinct form of Buddhism, the visit of Soyen Shaku, a
Japanese Zen monk, to Chicago during the World Parliament of Religions in 1893 is often pointed to as an event that enhanced its
profile in the Western world. It was during the late 1950s and the early 1960s that the number of Westerners, other than the
descendants of Asian immigrants, pursuing a serious interest in Zen reached a significant level.

[edit] Zen and Western culture

In Europe, the Expressionist and Dada movements in art tend to have much in common thematically with the study of koans and
actual Zen. The early French surrealist René Daumal translated D.T. Suzuki as well as Sanskrit Buddhist texts.

Eugen Herrigel's book Zen in the Art of Archery (1953),[22] describing his training in the Zen-influenced martial art of Kyudo, inspired
many of the Western world's early Zen practitioners. However, many scholars are quick to criticize this book. (eg see Yamada Shoji)[23]
The British-American philosopher Alan Watts took a close interest in Zen Buddhism and wrote and lectured extensively on it during
the 1950s. He understood it as a vehicle for a mystical transformation of consciousness, and also as a historical example of a non-
Western, non-Christian way of life that had fostered both the practical and fine arts.

The Dharma Bums, a novel written by Jack Kerouac and published in 1959, gave its readers a look at how a fascination with
Buddhism and Zen was being absorbed into the bohemian lifestyles of a small group of American youths, primarily on the West Coast.
Beside the narrator, the main character in this novel was "Japhy Ryder", a thinly-veiled depiction of Gary Snyder. The story was based
on actual events taking place while Snyder prepared, in California, for the formal Zen studies that he would pursue in Japanese
monasteries between 1956 and 1968.[24]

Thomas Merton (1915–1968) the Trappist monk and priest [6] was internationally recognized as having one of those rare Western
minds which was entirely at home in Asian experience. Like his friend, the late D.T. Suzuki, Merton believed that there must be a little
of Zen in all authentic creative and spiritual experience. The dialogue between Merton and Suzuki ("Wisdom in Emptiness" in: Zen
and the Birds of Appetite, 1968) explores the many congruencies of Christian mysticism and Zen. (Main publications: The Way of
Chuang Tzu, 1965; Mystics and Zen Masters, 1967; Zen and the Birds of Appetite, 1968).

Reginald Horace Blyth (1898-1964) was an Englishman that went to Japan in 1940 to further his study of Zen. He was interned during
the II World War and started writing in prison. He was tutor to the Crown Prince after the war. His greatest work is the 5-volume "Zen
and Zen Classics", published in the 1960s. In it, he discusses Zen themes from a philosophical standpoint, often in conjunction with
Christian elements in a comparative spirit. His essays include titles such as "God, Buddha, and Buddhahood" or "Zen Sin, and Death".
He is an enthusiast of Zen, but not altogether uncritical of it. His writings can be characterized as unorthodox and quirky.

While Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, by Robert M. Pirsig, was a 1974 bestseller, it in fact has little to do with Zen per
se. Rather it deals with the notion of the metaphysics of "quality" from the point of view of the main character. Pirsig was attending
the Minnesota Zen Center at the time of writing the book[7]. He has stated that, despite its title, the book "should in no way be
associated with that great body of factual information relating to orthodox Zen Buddhist practice".

[edit] Western Zen lineages

Over the last fifty years mainstream forms of Zen, led by teachers who trained in East Asia and their successors, have begun to take
root in the West.

In North America, the Zen lineages derived from the Japanese Soto school are the most numerous. Among these are the lineages of the
San Francisco Zen Center, established by Shunryu Suzuki and the White Plum Asanga, founded by Hakuyu Taizan Maezumi. Suzuki's
San Francisco Zen Center established the first Zen Monastery in America in 1967, called Tassajara in the mountains near Big Sur.
Maezumi's successors have created schools including Great Plains Zen Center, founded by Susan Myoyu Andersen, Roshi, Big Mind,
founded by Dennis Genpo Merzel, the Mountains and Rivers Order, founded by John Daido Loori, the Zen Peacemaker Order,
founded by Bernard Tetsugen Glassman and the Ordinary Mind school, founded by Charlotte Joko Beck. The Katagiri lineage,
founded by Dainin Katagiri, has a significant presence in the Midwest. Note that both Taizan Maezumi and Dainin Katagiri served as
priests at Zenshuji Soto Mission in the 1960s.

Taisen Deshimaru, a student of Kodo Sawaki, was a Soto Zen priest from Japan who taught in France. The International Zen
Association, which he founded, remains influential. The American Zen Association, headquartered at the New Orleans Zen Temple, is
one of the North American organizations practicing in the Deshimaru tradition.

Soyu Matsuoka, served as superintendent and abbot of the Long Beach Zen Buddhist Temple and Zen Center. The Temple was
headquarters to Zen Centers in Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, Seattle, and Everett, Washington. He established the Temple at Long
Beach in 1971 where he resided until his passing in 1998.

The Sanbo Kyodan is a Japan-based reformist Zen group, founded in 1954 by Yasutani Hakuun, which has had a significant influence
on Zen in the West. Sanbo Kyodan Zen is based primarily on the Soto tradition, but also incorporates Rinzai-style koan practice.
Yasutani's approach to Zen first became prominent in the English-speaking world through Philip Kapleau's book The Three Pillars of
Zen (1965), which was one of the first books to introduce Western audiences to Zen as a practice rather than simply a philosophy.
Among the Zen groups in North America, Hawaii, Europe, and New Zealand which derive from Sanbo Kyodan are those associated
with Kapleau, Robert Aitken, and John Tarrant.

In the UK, Throssel Hole Abbey was founded as a sister monastery to Shasta Abbey in California by Master Reverend Jiyu Kennett
Roshi and has a number of dispersed Priories and centres. Jiyu Kennett, an English woman, was ordained as a priest and Zen master in
Shoji-ji, one of the two main Soto Zen temples in Japan (her book The Wild White Goose describes her experiences in Japan). The
Order is called the Order of Buddhist Contemplatives. The lineage of Hakuyu Taizan Maezumi Roshi is represented by the White
Plum Sangha UK, while Taisen Deshimaru Roshi's lineage is known in the UK as IZAUK (Intl Zen Assoc. UK).
There are also a number of Rinzai Zen centers in the West. In North America, some of the more prominent include Rinzai-ji founded
by Kyozan Joshu Sasaki, Dai Bosatsu Kongo-ji established by Eido Shimano and Kyudo Nakagawi Roshi, and Chozen-ji founded by
Omori Sogen Roshi.

Not all the successful Zen teachers in the West have been from Japanese traditions. There have also been teachers of Chan, Seon, and
Thien Buddhism.

Taoism (Daoism) is the English name referring to a variety of related Chinese philosophical and religious traditions and concepts.
These traditions influenced East Asia for over two thousand years and some have spread internationally. [1] Taoist propriety and ethics
emphasize the Three Jewels of the Tao; namely, compassion, moderation, and humility. Taoist thought focuses on wu wei ("non-
action"), spontaneity, humanism, and emptiness.

The character Tao 道 (or Dao, depending on the romanisation scheme) means "path" or "way", but in Chinese religion and philosophy
it has taken on more abstract meanings. Tao is rarely an object of worship, being treated more like the Central Asian concepts of atman
and dharma.[2] The word "Taoism" is used to translate different Chinese terms. Daojiao/Taochiao (道教 "teachings/religion of the
Dao") refers to Daoism as a religion. Daojia/Taochia (道家 "school of the Dao") refers to the studies of scholars, or "philosophical"
Daoism. However, most scholars have abandoned the dichotomy of "religious" and "philosophical" Daoism.[3]

Most traditional Chinese Taoists are polytheistic. Nature and ancestor spirits are also common in popular Taoism. Organized Taoism
distinguishes its ritual activity from that of the folk religion, which some professional Taoists (Daoshi) view as debased. This sort of
shamanism is eschewed for an emphasis on internal alchemy among the "elite" Taoists.

Chinese alchemy, astrology, cuisine, several Chinese martial arts, Chinese traditional medicine, fengshui, and many styles of qigong
breath training disciplines are intertwined with Taoism throughout history.

The first Chinese Buddhist priest to teach Westerners in North America was Hsuan Hua, who taught Zen, Chinese Pure Land, Tiantai,
Vinaya, and Vajrayana Buddhism in San Francisco during the early 1960s. He went on to found the City Of Ten Thousand Buddhas, a
monastery and retreat center located on a 237 acre (959,000 m²) property near Ukiah, California. Another Chinese Zen teacher with a
Western following is Sheng-yen, a master trained in both the Caodong and Linji schools (equivalent to the Japanese Soto and Rinzai,
respectively). He first visited the United States in 1978 under the sponsorship of the Buddhist Association of the United States, and, in
1980, founded the Chan Meditation Center in Queens, New York.[8].

The most prominent Korean Zen teacher in the West was Seung Sahn. Seung Sahn founded the Providence Zen Center in Providence,
Rhode Island; this was to become the headquarters of the Kwan Um School of Zen, a large international network of affiliated Zen
centers.

Two notable Vietnamese Zen teachers have been influential in Western countries: Thich Thien-An and Thich Nhat Hanh. Thich Thien-
An came to America in 1966 as a visiting professor at UCLA and taught traditional Thien meditation. Thich Nhat Hanh was a monk in
Vietnam during the Vietnam War, during which he was a peace activist. In response to these activities, he was nominated for the Nobel
Peace Prize in 1967 by Martin Luther King, Jr. In 1966, he left Vietnam in exile and now resides at Plum Village, a monastery in
France. He has written more than one hundred books about Buddhism, which have made him one of the very few most prominent
Buddhist authors among the general readership in the West. In his books and talks, Thich Nhat Hanh emphasizes mindfulness (sati) as
the most important practice in daily life.

Categorization

There is a great deal of debate over how, and whether, Taoism should be subdivided. Some scholars have divided it into the following
three categories.:[4]

1. "Philosophical Taoism". (Daojia). A philosophical school based on the texts Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi;
2. "Religious Taoism". (Daojiao). A family of organized Chinese religious movements originating from the Celestial Masters
movement during the late Han Dynasty and later including the "Orthodox" (Zhengyi) or "Complete Reality" (Quanzhen)
sects, which collectively trace back to Zhang Daoling in the late Han Dynasty;
3. "Folk Taoism". The Chinese folk religion.[5]

It must be noted that this distinction is complicated by hermeneutic difficulty. The categorization of Taoist sects and movements is
very controversial.[6] Many scholars believe that there is no distinction between Daojia and Daojiao, and that the distinction is
propagated by people who are not familiar with Taoism.[7]

Much uncertainty exists over the meaning of Taoism. In some countries and contexts, such as the Taoism organizations of China and
Taiwan, the label is applied to Chinese folk religion, which would otherwise not have a readily recognizable English name. However,
many of its practitioners would not recognize Taoism (in any language) as the name of their religion.
[edit] Beliefs

Taoism has never been a unified religion and has always consisted of different teachings based on many different original revelations.
Therefore different branches of Taoism often have very different beliefs. Nevertheless, there are certain core beliefs that all the schools
share.[8]

[edit] Principles

Taoist theology focuses on doctrines of wu wei ("non-action"), spontaneity, humanism, relativism and emptiness. This philosophical
aspect of Taoism emphasizes various themes found in the Tao Te Ching (道德經) such as naturalness, vitality, peace, "non-action" (wu
wei), emptiness (refinement), detachment, the strength of softness (or flexibility), and in the Zhuangzi such as receptiveness,
spontaneity, the relativism of human ways of life, ways of speaking and guiding behavior.[9][10]

[edit] Tao

Main article: Tao

Tao can be roughly stated to be the flow of the universe, or the force behind the natural order.[11] Tao is believed to be the influence that
keeps the universe balanced and ordered. Tao is associated with nature, due to a belief that nature demonstrates the Tao.[12] The flow of
qi, as the essential energy of action and existence, is compared to the universal order of Tao. Tao is compared to what it is not, like the
negative theology of Western scholars.[13] It is often considered to be the source of both existence and non-existence

For more details on this topic, see De (Chinese).

Tao is also associated with a "proper" attitude, morality and lifestyle. This is intimately tied to the complex concept of Te (德), or
literally "virtue". Te is the active expression of Tao.[14] Taoism generally expresses this as "integrity" or "wholeness". Tao is considered
a "way", while Te is the active living, or cultivation, of that "way".[15]

[edit] Wu wei

Main article: Wu wei

Wu wei (Traditional Chinese characters: 無為 Simplified Chinese characters: 无为) is a central concept in Taoism. The literal meaning
of wu wei is "without action". It is often expressed by the paradox wei wu wei, meaning "action without action" or "effortless
doing".[16] The practice and efficacy of wu wei are fundamental in Chinese thought, most prominently emphasized in Taoism. The goal
of wu wei is alignment with Tao, revealing the soft and invisible power within all things. It is believed by Taoists that masters of wu
wei can control this invisible potential, the inate yin-action of the Way.[17]

In ancient Taoist texts, wu wei is associated with water through its yielding nature.[18] Water is soft and weak, it is noted, but it can
move earth and carve stone. Taoist philosophy proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When
someone exerts his will against the world, he disrupts that harmony. Taoism does not identify man's will as the root problem. Rather, it
asserts that man must place his will in harmony with the natural universe.[19]

[edit] Pu

Pu (樸) is translated as "uncarved block" or "simplicity". It is a metaphor for the state of wu wei (無為) and the principle of jian (儉).
[20]
It represents a passive state of receptiveness. Pu is a symbol for a state of pure potential and perception without prejudice. In this
state, Taoists believe everything is seen as it is, without preconceptions or illusion.[21]

Pu is seen as keeping oneself in the primordial state of tao.[22] It is believed to be the true nature of the mind, unburdened by
knowledge or experiences.[23] In the state of pu, there is no right or wrong, beautiful or ugly. There is only pure experience, or
awareness, free from learned labels and definitions. It is this state of being that is the goal of following wu wei.

[edit] Spirituality

Taoists believe that man is a microcosm for the universe.[24] The body ties directly into the Chinese five elements. The five organs
correlate with the five elements, the five directions and the seasons.[25] Akin to the "neoplatonic maxim" of "as above, so below",
Taoism posits that by understanding himself, man may gain knowledge of the universe.

In Taoism, even beyond Chinese folk religion, various rituals, exercises, and substances are said to positively affect one's physical
health. They are also intended to align oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, or enable ecstatic spiritual journeys.[26][27] These concepts
seem basic to Taoism in its elite forms. Internal alchemy and various rituals are intended to extend life, even to the point of
immortality.[28] Immortals, their actions and their relationships with the gods and natural forces form a significant portion of Taoist
mythology.

[edit] Ethics

For more details on this topic, see Three Jewels of the Tao.

The Three Jewels, or Three Treasures (Chinese: 三寶; pinyin: sānbǎo; Wade-Giles: san-pao), are basic virtues in Taoism. The Three
Jewels are compassion, moderation and humility. They are also translated as kindness, simplicity and modesty. Arthur Waley describes
them as "[t]he three rules that formed the practical, political side of the author's teaching". He correlated the Three Treasures with
"abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active authority".[29]

The first of the Three Treasures is ci (Chinese: 慈; pinyin: cí; Wade-Giles: tz'u; literally "compassion, love, kindness"), which the Tao
Te Ching parallels with familial and brotherly love. It is compared to loving others and the world as a person loves their own
existence. The second is jian (Chinese: 儉; pinyin: jiǎn; Wade-Giles: chien; literally "moderation, economy, restraint"), which the Tao
Te Ching praises. Jian is connected with the Taoist metaphor pu. (樸 "uncarved wood; simplicity"). It represents perfect efficiency and
simplicity of desire. The third treasure is the phrase bugan wei tianxia xian (不敢為天下先), meaning "not dare to be first in the
world". It is connected to a fear of death, out of a love for life. Taoism posits that to be first is to expose oneself to the world's
destructive forces. Remaining behind and embracing humility allows time for one to bear fruit.

[edit] Pantheon

The traditional Chinese religion is polytheistic. Its many deities are part of a heavenly hierarchy that mirrors the bureaucracy of
Imperial China. According to their beliefs, Chinese deities may be promoted or demoted for their actions. Some deities are also simply
exalted humans, such as Guan Yu, the God of War. The particular deities worshipped vary according to geographical regions and
historical periods in China, though the general pattern of worship is more constant.[30]

There are disagreements regarding the proper composition of this pantheon.[31] Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as
the official head deity. Intellectual ("elite") Taoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi (Laojun, "Lord Lao") and
the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities. [32][33] In particular Taoist systems, Hong-jun lao-zu (鸿钧老祖 or 鸿元老祖,
the great primal originator) is the common ancestor/teacher of all the deities.

While a number of immortals or other mysterious figures appear in the Zhuangzi, and to a lesser extent in the Tao Te Ching, these have
generally not become the objects of worship. Traditional conceptions of Tao are not to be confused with the Western concepts of
theism and monotheism. Being one with the Tao does not indicate a union with an eternal spirit in the Hindu sense, but rather living in
accordance with nature.[34][35]

[edit] Scripture

The Daozang (道藏, Treasury of Tao) is sometimes referred to as the Taoist canon. It was originally compiled during the Jin, Tang,
and Song dynasties. The version surviving today was published during the Ming dynasty.[36][37]The Ming Daozang includes almost
1500 texts.[38] Following the example of the Buddhist Tripitaka, it is divided into three dong (洞, "caves", "grottoes"). They are
arranged from "highest" to "lowest":

1. The Zhen ("real" or "truth") grotto. Includes the Shangqing texts.

2. The Xuan ("mystery") grotto. Includes the Lingbao scriptures.
3. The Shen ("divine") grotto. Includes texts predating the Maoshan revelations.[39][40]

Daoshi generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang, but individually choose, or inherit, texts included in the Daozang.
These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student.[41]

The Shangqing school has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is believed that reciting certain texts often
enough will be rewarded with immortality.[42] In Taiwan, one often finds Buddhist texts being chanted in Taoist temples. Some Chinese
movements and Western schools of Taoism emphasise newly-revealed scriptures.

While the Tao Te Ching is most famous, there are other important texts in traditional Taoism. Taishang Ganying Pian ("Treatise of the
Exalted One on Response and Retribution") discusses sin and ethics, and has become a popular morality tract in the last few
centuries.[43] It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives. The wicked, and their descendents, will suffer
and have shortened lives.[44] Both the Taipingjing ("Scripture on Great Peace") and the Baopuzi ("Book of the Master Who Keeps to
simplicity") contain early alchemical formulas that early Taoists believed could lead to immortality.[45][46]
[edit] Tao Te Ching

See also: Tao Te Ching

The Tao Te Ching, or Daodejing, is widely considered to be the most influential Taoist text.[47] It is a foundational scripture of central
importance in Taoism. It has been used as a ritual text throughout the history of religious Taoism.[48] However, the precise date that it
was written is the subject of debate, there are those who put it anywhere from the 6th century BCE to the 3rd century BCE.[49]

Taoist commentators have deeply considered the opening lines of the Tao Te Ching. They are widely discussed in both academic and
mainstream literature. A common interpretation is similar to Korzybski's observation that "the map is not the territory".[50] The opening
lines, with literal and common translation, are:

道可道，非常道。 (dao (way or path) can be way-ed, not usual ways)

"The Way(or Path) that can be followed is not the constant Way(or Path)."
名可名，非常名。 (names can be named, not usual names)
"The Name that can be named is not the constant Name."

Tao literally means "path" or "way", and can figuratively mean "essential nature", "destiny" "principle" or "true path". The
philosophical and religious "Tao" is infinite, without limitation. One view states that the paradoxical opening is intended to prepare the
reader for teachings about the unteachable Tao.[51] Tao is believed to be transcendent, indistinct and without form. Hence, it cannot be
named or categorized. Even the word "Tao" can be considered a dangerous temptation to make Tao a limiting "name".[52]

The Tao Te Ching is not thematically ordered. However, the main themes of the text are repeatedly expressed using variant
formulations, often with only a slight difference.[53] The leading themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. Tao is
said to be unnameable and accomplishing great things through small means.[54] There is significant debate regarding which English
translation of the Tao Te Ching is preferred, and which particular translation methodology is best. Discussions and disputes about
various translations of the Tao Tao Ching can become acrimonious, involving deeply entrenched views.[55]

Ancient commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are important texts in their own right. The Heshang Gong commentary was most likely
written in the second century CE, and as perhaps the oldest commentary, contains the edition of the Tao Te Ching that was transmitted
to the present day.[56] Other important commentaries include the Xiang'er, one of the most important texts from the Celestial Master
movement, and Wang Bi's commentary.[57]

[edit] History

Main article: History of Taoism

Taoism's origins may be traced to prehistoric Chinese religions in China. They are found in the composition of the Tao Te Ching (3rd
or 4th century BCE), or amidst the activity of Zhang Daoling (2nd century AD). Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in
the mid second century CE.[58] Taoism gained official status in China during the Tang Dynasty, whose emperors claimed Laozi as their
relative.[59] Several Song emperors, most notably Huizong, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing
editions of the Daozang.[60] Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesised in the Neo-Confucian
school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes.[61] The Qing Dynasty, however, much favored
Confucian classics and rejected Taoist works. During the eighteenth century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded
virutally all Taoist books.[62] By the beginning of the twentieth century, Taoism had fallen so much from favor, that only one complete
copy of the Daozang still remained, at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing.[63] Taoism is one of five religions recognised by the
PRC, which insists on controlling its activities through a state bureaucracy (the China Taoist Association).[64]

[edit] Adherents

The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, partly for definitional reasons (who counts as a Taoist?), and partly for practical ones (it
is illegal for private parties to conduct surveys in China). The number of people practicing some aspect of the Chinese folk religion
might number in the hundreds of millions. (Adherents.com estimates "Traditional Chinese religion" at nearly four hundred million).
The number of people patronising Daoshi (Taoist priests or masters) would be smaller by several orders of magnitude, while the
number of literary Daojia would be smaller yet. At the same time, most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in
some way by Taoist tradition.

Geographically, Taoism flourishes best in regions populated by Chinese people: mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, and
various Chinese diaspora communities. Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan and Vietnam, and these
countries' folk religions have many common elements. Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a non-Chinese following until
modern times.

[edit] Practices
Detail of circa 1700 painting of a Taoist ritual for the dead, illustrating a scene from The Plum in the Golden Vase. Note the plaques at
the back of the altar of the Three Purities, and the various ritual implements including incense burner and ritual sword on the right.
(According to the novel the sword is engraved with the seven stars of the big dipper.) Bowls hold food offerings for the deceased
woman, Li Ping'er.

Nearly all forms of Chinese traditional religion involve baibai (拜拜)--bowing towards an altar, with a stick of incense in one's
hand.[65] (Some schools prescribe the use of three sticks of incense in the hand at one time.[66] ) This may be done at home, or in a
temple, or outdoors; by an ordinary person, or a professional (such as a Daoshi 道士); and the altar may feature any number of deities
or ancestral tablets. Baibai is usually done in accordance with certain dates of the lunar/solar calendar (see Chinese calendar).

At certain dates, food may be set out as a sacrifice to the gods and/or spirits of the departed. (See, for example, Qingming Festival.)
This may include slaughtered pigs and ducks, or fruit. Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of Hell Bank Notes, on the
assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear--not as a mere image, but as the actual item--in the spirit world, and
be available for the departed spirit to use.

Also at certain dates, street parades take place. These are lively affairs which invariably involve firecrackers and flower-covered floats
broadcasting traditional music. Street parades may also include lion dances and dragon dances; human-occupied puppets (often of the
"Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"); jitong (乩童 male "Mediums") who mutilate their skin with knives; Bajiajiang, which are gongfu-
practicing honor guards in demonic makeup; and palanquins carrying god-images. The various participants are not considered
performers, but rather possessed by the god in question.[67]

Fortune-telling--including astrology, I Ching, and other forms of divination--has long been considered a traditional Taoist pursuit.[68]
Mediumship is also widely encountered. We may distinguish between martial forms of mediumship (like the aforementioned jitong)
and more literary forms in which the possessed medium communicates messages from the spirit world by writing them with a special
utensil (such as use of the "planchette").[69]

Isabelle Robinet's book Taoist Meditation describes various practices given in the Maoshan texts. These include controlling bodily
fluids such as urine, saliva, and the breath; visualisation practices in which various internal organs are imaginarily linked with
corresponding gods and/or celestial bodies (e.g. the stars of the bei tou, the "Big Dipper"); and heavenly journeys via the Great Pole,
which is reached by a limping shamanic dance called the "Step of Wu".

Many Taoists also participated in the reading and writing of books. Taoists of this type tend to be civil servants, elderly retirees, or in
modern times, university faculty. While there is considerable overlap with religious Taoism, there are often important divergences in
interpretation. Wang Bi, one of the most influential philosophical commentators on the Laozi (and Yijing) was in fact a Confucian.[70]

For many educated Chinese people (the Literati), life was divided into a social aspect, where Confucian doctrine prevailed, and a
private aspect, with Taoist aspirations. Night-time, exile, or retirement provided the opportunity to cultivate Taoism and reread Laozi
and Zhuangzi. The Literati often dedicated this period of life to arts such as calligraphy, painting, and poetry, or personal researches
into antiquities, medicine, folklore, and so on.

A number of martial arts traditions, particularly T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Bagua Zhang, and Xing Yi Quan, embody Taoist principles to a
greater or lesser extent, and some practitioners consider their art to be a means of practicing Taoism.[71] The accuracy of these claims
varies greatly depending on the particular art and/or practitioner.

It should be noted that while many Japanese martial and cultural traditions (i.e. judo, kendo, cha-do, kyu-do) have developed a
distinctly zen character over the years, the "do" is in fact one of the Japanese pronunciations of the Chinese "tao" (alternatedly
rendered as "dao" by some translators), and it is written with the same character. Again, the extent to which these practices reflect
taoist principles varies depending on the specific school and practitioner.

Confucianism (Traditional Chinese: 儒學; Simplified Chinese: 儒学; Pinyin: Rúxué [ Listen (help·info) ], literally "The School of
the Scholars"; or 孔教 Kŏngjiào, "") is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the early
Chinese sage Confucius. Confucius was the founder of the teachings of Confucianism. Confucianism is a complex system of moral,
social, political, philosophical, and religious thought which has had tremendous influence on the culture and history of East Asia up to
the 21st century. Some people in Europe have considered it to have been the "state religion" in East Asian countries because of
governmental promotion of Confucianist values and needs.

[edit] History

Debated during the Warring States Period and forbidden during the short-lived Qin Dynasty, Confucianism was chosen by Emperor
Wu of Han for use as a political system to govern the Chinese state. Despite its loss of influence during the Tang Dynasty,
Confucianist doctrine remained a mainstream Chinese orthodoxy for two millennia until the 20th century, when it was attacked by
radical Chinese thinkers as a vanguard of a pre-modern system and an obstacle to China's modernization, eventually culminating in its
repression during the Cultural Revolution in the People's Republic of China. After the end of the Cultural Revolution, Confucianism
has been revived in mainland China, and both interest in and debate about Confucianism have surged.
The cultures most strongly influenced by Confucianism include those of China (including Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Macau), Japan,
Korea, and Vietnam as well as various territories (including Singapore) settled predominantly by Chinese people.

Confucianism as passed down to the 19th and 20th centuries derives primarily from the school of the Neo-Confucians, led by Zhu Xi,
who gave Confucianism renewed vigor in the Song and later dynasties. Neo-Confucianism combined Taoist and Buddhist ideas with
existing Confucian ideas to create a more complete metaphysics than had ever existed before. At the same time, many forms of
Confucianism have historically declared themselves opposed to the Buddhist and Taoist belief systems.

Kong Fuzi (Confucius) (551–479 BCE) was a famous sage and social philosopher of China whose teachings have deeply influenced
East Asia for twenty centuries. The relationship between Confucianism and Confucius himself, however, is tenuous. Confucius' ideas
were not accepted during his lifetime and he frequently bemoaned the fact that he remained unemployed by any of the feudal lords.

As with many other prominent figures such as Jesus, Socrates, and Buddha, humanity does not have direct access to Confucius' ideas.
Instead, humans have recollections by his disciples and their students. This factor is further complicated by the "Burning of the Books
and Burying of the Scholars", a massive suppression of dissenting thought during the Qin Dynasty, more than two centuries after
Confucius' death.

However, we can sketch out Confucius' ideas from the fragments that remain. Confucius was a man of letters who worried about the
troubled times in which he lived. He went from place to place trying to spread his political ideas and influence to the many kings
contending for supremacy in China.

In the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (772-221 BCE), the reigning king of the Zhou gradually became a mere figurehead. In this power
vacuum, the rulers of small states began to vie with one another for military and political dominance. Deeply persuaded of the need for
his mission — "If right principles prevailed through the empire, there would be no need for me to change its state" Analects XVIII, 6
— Confucius tirelessly promoted the virtues of ancient illustrious sages such as the Duke of Zhou. Confucius tried to amass sufficient
political power to found a new dynasty, as when he planned to accept an invitation from a rebel to "make a Zhou dynasty in the East"
(Analects XV, 5). As the common saying that Confucius was a "king without a crown" indicates, however, he never gained the
opportunity to apply his ideas. He was expelled from states many times and eventually returned to his homeland to spend the last part
of his life teaching. The Analects of Confucius, the closest primary source we have for his thoughts, relates his sayings and discussions
with rulers and disciples in short passages. There is considerable debate over how to interpret the Analects.

Unlike most European and American philosophers, Confucius did not rely on deductive reasoning to convince his listeners. Instead, he
used figures of rhetoric such as analogy and aphorism to explain his ideas. Most of the time these techniques were highly
contextualised. For these reasons, European and American readers might find his philosophy muddled or unclear. However, Confucius
claimed that he sought "a unity all pervading" (Analects XV, 3) and that there was "one single thread binding my way together." ([op.
cit. IV, 15]). The first occurrences of a real Confucian system may have been created by his disciples or by their disciples. During the
philosophically fertile period of the Hundred Schools of Thought, great early figures of Confucianism such as Mencius and Xun Zi
(not to be confused with Sun Zi) developed Confucianism into an ethical and political doctrine. Both had to fight contemporary ideas
and gain the ruler's confidence through argumentation and reasoning. Mencius gave Confucianism a fuller explanation of human
nature, of what is needed for good government, of what morality is, and founded his idealist doctrine on the claim that human nature is
good. Xun Zi opposed many of Mencius' ideas, and built a structured system upon the idea that human nature is bad and had to be
educated and exposed to the rites (li), before being able to express their goodness for the people. Some of Xunzi's disciples, such as
Han Feizi and Li Si, became Legalists (a kind of law-based early totalitarianism, quite distant from virtue-based Confucianism) and
conceived the state system that allowed Qin Shi Huang to unify China under the strong state control of every human activity. The
culmination of Confucius' dream of unification and peace in China can therefore be argued to have come from Legalism, a school of
thought almost diametrically opposed to his reliance on rites and virtue.

[edit] The spread of Confucianism

Confucianism survived its suppression during the Qin Dynasty partly thanks to the discovery of a trove of Confucian classics hidden
in the walls of a scholar's house. After the Qin, the new Han Dynasty (206 BC–AD 220) approved of Confucian doctrine and
sponsored Confucian scholars, eventually making Confucianism the official state philosophy (see Emperor Wu of Han). Study of the
Confucian classics became the basis of the government examination system and the core of the educational curriculum. No serious
attempt to replace Confucianism arose until the May 4th Movement in the 20th century.

After its reformulation as Neo-Confucianism by Zhu Xi, Wang Yangming and the other Neo-Confucians, Confucianism also became
accepted as state philosophies in Korea and Japan. Korea of the Chosun Dynasty has been termed a "Confucian state." [1]

Under the Chinese domination, Confucianism had yet to gain a position in the Vietnamese society. [2]. However, Confucianism
permeated Vietnamese life after Vietnam gained independence from China in 939. [3] As in China, an intellectual elite developed, and
the principles of obedience and respect for education and authority were instilled throughout society. Confucianism profoundly
influenced the family structure and created a tightly defined social hierarchy.
In Hanoi in 1070, the establishment of the Van Mieu, a temple of learning dedicated to Confucius, marked the emergence of
Confucianism as a cult. Like China, Confucianism in Vietnam reached a peak during the 15th century. Due to the need of constructing
a unified nation, a centralized administration and a social order, Confucianism took the place of Buddhism to become the leading
philosophy under the Le Dynasty. Confucianism took root deep into the social and political structure, the system of education and
examinations and the circle of Confucian scholars gradually dominated social and moral life.

[edit] Rites

"Lead the people with administrative injunctions and put them in their place with penal law, and they will avoid punishments but will
be without a sense of shame. Lead them with excellence and put them in their place through roles and ritual practices, and in addition
to developing a sense of shame, they will order themselves harmoniously." (Analects II, 3)

The above explains an essential difference between legalism and ritualism and points to a key difference between European /
American and East Asian societies. Confucius argues that under law, external authorities administer punishments after illegal actions,
so people generally behave well without understanding reasons why they should; whereas with ritual, patterns of behavior are
internalized and exert their influence before actions are taken, so people behave properly because they fear shame and want to avoid
losing face. In this sense, 禮 is an ideal form of social norm.

"Rite" (Lǐ) stands here for a complex set of ideas that is difficult to render in European languages. The Chinese character for "rites"
previously had the religious meaning of "sacrifice" (the character 禮 is composed of the character 示, which means "altar", to the left
of the character 曲 placed over 豆, representing a vase full of flowers and offered as a sacrifice to the gods; cf. Wenlin). Its Confucian
meaning ranges from politeness and propriety to the understanding of each person's correct place in society. Externally, ritual is used
to distinguish between people; their usage allows people to know at all times who is the younger and who the elder, who is the guest
and who the host and so forth. Internally, they indicate to people their duty amongst others and what to expect from them.

Internalisation is the main process in ritual. Formalised behaviour becomes progressively internalised, desires are channelled and
personal cultivation becomes the mark of social correctness. Though this idea conflicts with the common saying that "the cowl does
not make the monk", in Confucianism sincerity is what enables behaviour to be absorbed by individuals. Obeying ritual with sincerity
makes ritual the most powerful way to cultivate oneself. Thus "Respectfulness, without the Rites, becomes laborious bustle;
carefulness, without the Rites, become timidity; boldness, without the Rites, becomes insubordination; straightforwardness, without
the Rites, becomes rudeness" (Analects VIII, 2). Ritual can be seen as a means to find the balance between opposing qualities that
might otherwise lead to conflict.

Ritual divides people into categories and builds hierarchical relationships through protocols and ceremonies, assigning everyone a
place in society and a form of behaviour. Music, which seems to have played a significant role in Confucius' life, is given as an
exception as it transcends such boundaries, 'unifying the hearts'.

Although the Analects promotes ritual heavily, Confucius himself often behaved otherwise; for example, when he cried at his
preferred disciple's death, or when he met a fiendish princess (VI, 28). Later more rigid ritualists who forgot that ritual is "more than
presents of jade and silk" (XVII, 12) strayed from their master's position.

[edit] Governing

"To govern by virtue, let us compare it to the North Star: it stays in its place, while the myriad stars wait upon it." (Analects II, 1)

Another key Confucian concept is that in order to govern others one must first govern oneself. When developed sufficiently, the king's
personal virtue spreads beneficent influence throughout the kingdom. This idea is developed further in the Great Learning and is
tightly linked with the Taoist concept of wu wei: the less the king does, the more that is done. By being the "calm centre" around
which the kingdom turns, the king allows everything to function smoothly and avoids having to tamper with the individual parts of the
whole.

This idea may be traced back to early shamanistic beliefs, such as that the king (wang, 王) being the axle between the sky, human
beings and the Earth. (The character itself shows the three levels of the universe, united by a single line.) Another complementary
view is that this idea may have been used by ministers and counsellors to deter aristocratic whims that would otherwise be to the
detriment of the population.

[edit] Meritocracy

"In teaching, there should be no distinction of classes."

(Analects XV, 39)

Although Confucius claimed that he never invented anything but was only transmitting ancient knowledge (see Analects VII, 1), he
did produce a number of new ideas. Many European and American admirers such as Voltaire and H. G. Creel point to the (then)
revolutionary idea of replacing the nobility of blood with one of virtue. Jūnzǐ (君子; see below), which had meant "noble man" before
Confucius' work, slowly assumed a new connotation in the course of his writings, rather as "gentleman" did in English. A virtuous
plebeian who cultivates his qualities can be a "gentleman", while a shameless son of the king is only a "small man". That he allowed
students of different classes to be his disciples is a clear demonstration that he fought against the feudal structures in Chinese society.

Another new intense idea, that of meritocracy, led to the introduction of the Imperial examination system in China. This system
allowed anyone who passed an examination to become a government officer, a position which would bring wealth and honor to the
whole family. Though the European enthusiasm toward China died away after 1789, China gave Europe one very important practical
legacy: the modern civil service. The Chinese examination system seems to have been started in 165 BCE, when certain candidates for
public office were called to the Chinese capital for examination of their moral excellence by the emperor. Over the following centuries
the system grew until finally almost anyone who wished to become an official had to prove his worth by passing written government
examinations.

Confucius praised those kings who left their kingdoms to those apparently most qualified rather than to their elder sons. His
achievement was the setting up of a school that produced statesmen with a strong sense of state and duty, known as Rujia 儒家, the
'School of the Literati'. During the Warring States Period and the early Han dynasty China grew greatly and the need for a solid and
centralized corporation of government officers able to read and write administrative papers arose. As a result Confucianism was
promoted and the corporation of men it produced became an effective counter to the remaining landowner aristocrats otherwise
threatening the unity of the state.

Since then Confucianism has been used as a kind of "state religion", with authoritarianism, legitimism, paternalism and submission to
authority used as political tools to rule China. In fact most emperors used a mix of legalism and Confucianism as their ruling doctrine,
often with the latter embellishing the former. They also often used different varieties of Taoism or Buddhism as their personal
philosophy or religion.

[edit] Themes in Confucian thought

A simple way to appreciate Confucian thought is to consider it as being based on varying levels of honesty. In practice, the elements
of Confucianism accumulated over time and matured into the following forms:

[edit] Ritual

Ritual (lǐ, 禮) originally signified "to sacrifice" in a religious ceremony. In Confucianism the term was soon extended to include
secular ceremonial behaviour before being used to refer to the propriety or politeness which colours everyday life. Rituals were
codified and treated as an all-embracing system of norms. Confucius himself tried to revive the etiquette of earlier dynasties, but
following his death he himself became regarded as the great authority on ritual behaviour. (Cf. contemporary term lǐmào 禮貌,
"polite"; mào 貌 = "appearance")

[edit] Relationships

One theme central to Confucianism is that of relationships, and the differing duties arising from the different status one held in relation
to others. Individuals are held to simultaneously stand in different degrees of relationship with different people, namely, as a junior in
relation to their parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to their younger siblings, students, and others. While juniors are
considered in Confucianism to owe strong duties of reverence and service to their seniors, seniors also have duties of benevolence and
concern toward juniors. This theme consistently manifests itself in many aspects of East Asian cultures even to this day, with extensive
filial duties on the part of children toward parents and elders, and great concern of parents toward their children.

Social harmony--the great goal of Confucianism--thus results from every individual knowing his or her place in the social order and
playing his or her part well.When Duke Jing of Qi asked about government, by which he meant proper administration so as to bring
social harmony, Confucius replied, "There is government, when the prince is prince, and the minister is minister; when the father is
father, and the son is son." (Analects XII, 11, tr. Legge).

[edit] Filial piety

Filial piety, or filial devotion (xiào 孝) is considered among the greatest of virtues and must be shown towards both the living and the
dead (ancestors). The term "filial", meaning "of a child", denotes the respect and obedience that a child, originally a son, should show
to his parents, especially to his father. This relationship was extended by analogy to a series of five relationships or five cardinal
relationships (五倫 Wǔlún):

Specific duties were prescribed to each of the participants in these sets of relationships. Such duties were also extended to the dead,
where the living stood as sons to their deceased family. This led to the veneration of ancestors.
In time, filial piety was also built into the Chinese legal system: a criminal would be punished more harshly if the culprit had
committed the crime against a parent, while fathers exercised enormous power over their children. Much the same was true of other
unequal relationships.

The main source of our knowledge of the importance of filial piety is The Book of Filial Piety, a work attributed to Confucius but
almost certainly written in the third century BCE. Filial piety has continued to play a central role in Confucian thinking to the present
day.

[edit] Loyalty

Loyalty (zhōng, 忠) is the equivalent of filial piety on a different plane, between ruler and minister. It was particularly relevant for the
social class, to which most of Confucius' students belonged, because the only way for an ambitious young scholar to make his way in
the Confucian Chinese world was to enter a ruler's civil service. Like filial piety, however, loyalty was often subverted by the
autocratic regimes of China. Confucius had advocated a sensitivity to the realpolitik of the class relations that existed in his time; he
did not propose that "might makes right", but that a superior who had received the "Mandate of Heaven" (see below) should be obeyed
because of his moral rectitude.

In later ages, however, emphasis was placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the
ruled.

[edit] Humaneness

Confucius was concerned with people's individual development, which he maintained took place within the context of human
relationships. Ritual and filial piety are the ways in which one should act towards others from an underlying attitude of humaneness.
Confucius' concept of humaneness (rén, 仁) is probably best expressed in the Confucian version of the (Ethic of reciprocity) Golden
Rule: "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others;".

Rén also has a political dimension. If the ruler lacks rén, Confucianism holds, it will be difficult if not impossible for his subjects to
behave humanely. Rén is the basis of Confucian political theory: it presupposes an autocratic ruler, exhorted to refrain from acting
inhumanely towards his subjects. An inhumane ruler runs the risk of losing the "Mandate of Heaven", the right to rule. Such a
mandateless ruler need not be obeyed. But a ruler who reigns humanely and takes care of the people is to be obeyed strictly, for the
benevolence of his dominion shows that he has been mandated by heaven. Confucius himself had little to say on the will of the people,
but his leading follower Mencius did state on one occasion that the people's opinion on certain weighty matters should be polled. (See
also the article "ubuntu".)

[edit] The gentleman

The term "Jūnzǐ" or "Chun-Tzu" (君子) is a term crucial to classical Confucianism. Literally meaning "son of a ruler", "prince" or
"noble", the ideal of a "gentleman", "proper man", "exemplary person" or "perfect man" is that for which Confucianism exhorts all
people to strive. A succinct description of the "perfect man" is one who "combine[s] the qualities of saint, scholar, and gentleman"
(CE). (In modern times, the masculine bias in Confucianism may have weakened, but the same term is still used; the masculine
translation in English is also traditional and still frequently used.) A hereditary elitism was bound up with the concept, and gentlemen
were expected to act as moral guides to the rest of society. They were to:

• cultivate themselves morally;

• participate in the correct performance of ritual;
• show filial piety and loyalty where these are due;
• cultivate humanity, or benevolence.

The great exemplar of the perfect gentleman is Confucius himself. Perhaps the greatest tragedy of his life was that he was never
awarded the high official position which he desired, from which he wished to demonstrate the general well-being that would ensue if
humane persons ruled and administered the state.

The opposite of the Jūnzǐ was the Xiǎorén (小人), literally "small person" or "petty person." Like English "small", the word in this
context in Chinese can mean petty in mind and heart, narrowly self-interested, greedy, superficial, and materialistic.

[edit] Rectification of Names

Confucius believed that social disorder stemmed from failure to perceive, understand, and deal with reality. Fundamentally, then,
social disorder stems from the failure to call things by their proper names, and his solution was "Rectification of Names/Terms"
(zhèngmíng, 正名). He gave an explanation of zhengming to one of his disciples.
Tsze-lu said, "The ruler of Wei has been waiting for you, in order with you to administer the government. What will you consider the
first thing to be done?" The Master replied, "What is necessary is to rectify names." "So! indeed!" said Tsze-lu. "You are wide of the
mark! Why must there be such rectification?" The Master said, "How uncultivated you are, Yu! A superior man, in regard to what he
does not know, shows a cautious reserve. If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with the truth of things. If language be
not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on to success. When affairs cannot be carried on to success,
proprieties and music do not flourish. When proprieties and music do not flourish, punishments will not be properly awarded. When
punishments are not properly awarded, the people do not know how to move hand or foot. Therefore a superior man considers it
necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately, and also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately. What
the superior man requires is just that in his words there may be nothing incorrect." (Analects XIII, 3, tr. Legge)

Xun Zi chapter (22) "On the Rectification of Names" claims the ancient sage kings chose names (ming 名 "name; appellation; term")
that directly corresponded with actualities (shi 實 "fact; real; true; actual"), but later generations confused terminology, coined new
nomenclature, and thus could no longer distinguish right from wrong.

[edit] Debates

[edit] Promotion of corruption

Different from many other political philosophies, Confucianism is reluctant to employ laws. In a society where relationships are
considered more important than the laws themselves, if no other power forces government officers to take the common interest into
consideration, corruption and nepotism will arise. As government officers' salary was often far lower than the minimum required to
raise a family, Chinese society has frequently been affected by those problems, and still is. Even if some means to control and reduce
corruption and nepotism have been successfully used in China, Confucianism is criticized for not providing such a means itself.

One major argument against this criticism is that Confucian East Asian societies such as China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan,
Singapore, and South Korea have exhibited high economic growth. Singapore has also consistently been noted as one of the most
corruption-free states in the world. Critics point to continuing problems with nepotism and corruption in those countries and slowing
economic growth in the past decade, not only in Japan, but also, to a lesser extent, in the others. Furthermore, Singapore may be
classed as an example of a European, Kantian system of rule by law, or perhaps a Legalist system, rather than Confucian.

However, the laws that Confucianism is reluctant to employ are those of Legalism (法家). "Laws" in Confucianism put an emphasis
on is 禮(Lǐ) that literally means "Rites" or "Ritual" but it also means social norm. If a society is full of corruption, that's because the
society does not follow 禮(Lǐ). Furthermore, political corruption and nepotism are not unique in East Asian societies and can be found
more in many societies other than East Asian countries. The criticism that Confucianism does not provide a means itself to control a
society is not a correct argument.

In addition, it is Taoism (道家) that is reluctant to employ "laws" whether they are laws of legalism or social norm of Confucianism.

[edit] Was there a Confucianism?

One of the many problems in discussing the history of Confucianism is the question of what Confucianism is. In this article,
Confucianism can be understood roughly as "the stream of individuals, claiming Master Kong to be the Greatest Master". It also
represents "the social group following moral, political, and philosophical doctrine of what was considered, at a given time, as the
orthodox understanding of Confucius". In this definition, this "group" can be identified during specific dynastic periods when self-
declared Confucians debated with others supporting different doctrines, such as during the Han and Tang dynasties. During periods of
Confucian hegemony, such as the Song, Ming and Qing dynasties, it can be identified roughly with the social class of government
officials.

However, the reality of these groupings is questioned by some. In his book, Manufacturing Confucianism, Lionel Jensen claims that
our modern image of Confucius and Confucianism, which is that of a wise symbol of learning and a state-sponsored quasi-religion,
did not exist in China from time immemorial, but was manufactured by European Jesuits, as a "translation" of the ancient indigenous
traditions, known as "Ru Jia", in order to portray Chinese society to Europeans. The notion of Confucianism was then borrowed back
by the Chinese, who used it for their own purposes.

Therefore, we could define Confucianism as "any system of thinking that has, at its foundations, the works that are regarded as the
'Confucian classics', which was the corpus used in the Imperial examination system". Even this definition runs into problems because
this corpus was subject to changes and additions. Neo-Confucianism, for instance, valorized the Great Learning and the Zhong Yong
in this corpus, because their themes are close to those of Taoism and Buddhism.

Judaism is the religion of the Jewish people, based on principles and ethics embodied in the Bible (Tanakh) and the Talmud.
According to Jewish tradition, the history of Judaism begins with the Covenant between God and Abraham (ca. 2000 BCE), the
patriarch and progenitor of the Jewish people. Judaism is the first recorded monotheistic faith and among the oldest religious traditions
still in practice today. Jewish history and doctrines have influenced other religions such as Christianity, Islam, Samaritanism and the
Bahá'í Faith.
While Judaism has seldom, if ever, been monolithic in practice, it has always been monotheistic in theology. It differs from many
religions in that central authority is not vested in a person or group, but in sacred texts and traditions. Throughout the ages, Judaism
has clung to a number of religious principles, the most important of which is the belief in a single, omniscient, omnipotent,
benevolent, transcendent God, who created the universe and continues to govern it. According to traditional Jewish belief, the God
who created the world established a covenant with the Jewish people, and revealed his laws and commandments to Moses on Mount
Sinai in the form of the Torah. The traditional practice of Judaism revolves around study and the observance of God's laws and
commandments as written in the Torah and expounded in the Talmud.

With an estimated 14 million adherents in 2006,[1][2] Judaism is the world's eleventh-largest organized religion.

At its core, the Bible is an account of the Israelites' relationship with God from their earliest history until the building of the Second
Temple (c. 350 BCE). This relationship is often a contentious one, as the Israelites struggle with their faith in God and attraction to
other gods. Among the larger-than-life figures we meet in the Bible are the Patriarchs — Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, who wrestled
with their beliefs —- and Moses, who led the Israelites out of Egypt.

Abraham, hailed as the first Hebrew and the father of the Jewish people, rejected the idolatry that he saw around him and embraced
monotheism. As a reward for this act of faith in one God, he was promised many offspring: "Look now toward heaven and count the
stars/So shall be your progeny." (Genesis 15:5) Abraham's first child was Ishmael and his second son was Isaac, whom God said
would continue Abraham's work and inherit the Land of Israel (then called Canaan), after having been exiled and redeemed. God sent
the patriarch Jacob and his children to Egypt, where after many generations they became enslaved. God later commanded Moses to
redeem the Israelites from slavery, leading to the Exodus from Egypt. The Israelites gathered at Mount Sinai in 1313 BCE (Jewish
Year 2448) and received the Torah - the five books of Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. These books,
together with Nevi'im and Ketuvim are known as Torah Shebikhtav: literally the "Written Torah," as opposed to the Oral Torah, which
refers to the Mishna and the Talmud. Eventually, God led them to the land of Israel.

God designated the descendants of Aaron, Moses' brother, to be a priestly class within the Israelite community. They first officiated in
the tabernacle (a portable house of worship), and later their descendants were in charge of worship in the Temple in Jerusalem.

Once the Israelites had settled in the land of Israel, the tabernacle was planted in the city of Shiloh for over 300 years during which
time God provided great men, and occasionally women, to rally the nation against attacking enemies, some of which were sent by God
as a punishment for the sins of the people. This is described in the Book of Joshua and the Book of Judges. As time went on, the
spiritual level of the nation declined to the point that God allowed the Philistines to capture the tabernacle in Shiloh.

The people of Israel then told Samuel the prophet that they had reached the point where they needed to be governed by a permanent
king, as were other nations, as described in the Books of Samuel. Samuel grudgingly acceded to this request and appointed Saul, a
great but very humble man, to be their King. When the people pressured Saul into going against a command conveyed to him by
Samuel, God told Samuel to appoint David in his stead.

Once King David was established, he told the prophet Nathan that he would like to build a permanent temple, and as a reward for his
actions, God promised David that he would allow his son to build the temple and the throne would never depart from his children
(David himself was not allowed to build the temple because he had been involved in many wars, making it inappropriate for him to
build a temple representing peace). As a result, it was David's son Solomon who built the first permanent temple according to God's
will, in Jerusalem, as described in the Books of Kings.

After Solomon's death, his Kingdom was split into the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah. After several hundred years, because of
rampant idolatry, God allowed Assyria to conquer Israel and exile its people. The southern Kingdom of Judah, whose capital was
Jerusalem, home of the Temple, remained under the rule of the House of David, however, as in the north, idolatry increased to the
point that God allowed Babylonia to conquer the Kingdom, destroy the Temple which had stood for 410 years, and exile its people to
Babylonia, with the promise that they would be redeemed after seventy years. These events are recorded in the Book of Isaiah and the
Book of Jeremiah.

After seventy years the Judahites were allowed back into Judaea under the leadership of Ezra, and the Temple was rebuilt, as recorded
in the Book of Ezra and the Book of Nehemiah. The Second Temple stood for 420 years, after which it was destroyed by the Roman
general (later emperor) Titus. The Israelite temple is to remain in ruins until a descendant of David arises to restore the glory of Israel
and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem.

Rabbinic tradition holds that the details and interpretation of the law, which are called the Oral Torah or oral law, were originally an
unwritten tradition based upon what God told Moses on Mount Sinai. However, as the persecutions of the Jews increased and the
details were in danger of being forgotten, these oral laws were recorded by Rabbi Judah haNasi (Judah the Prince) in the Mishnah,
redacted circa 200 CE. The Talmud was a compilation of both the Mishnah and the Gemara, rabbinic commentaries redacted over the
next three centuries. The Gemara originated in two major centers of Jewish scholarship, Palestine and Babylonia. Correspondingly,
two bodies of analysis developed, and two works of Talmud were created. The older compilation is called the Jerusalem Talmud. It
was compiled sometime during the fourth century in Israel. The Babylonian Talmud was compiled from discussions in the houses of
study by the scholars Ravina I, Ravina II, and Rav Ashi by 500 C.E., although it continued to be edited later.
Critical historical view of the development of Judaism

Although monotheism and Torah are fundamental to Rabbinic Judaism, many critical Bible scholars claim that certain verses in the
Torah imply that the early Israelites accepted the existence of other gods (possibly angels), while viewing their God as the sole
Creator, whose worship is obligated (a henotheistic point of view). Another way of putting this is that the Israelite, Yahwistic religion
that preceded Rabbinic Judaism, as represented by the early prophets, demanded monolatry: worship of a single, "jealous" God.
Interestingly, the biblical text that is considered to be the core of Judaism (Deut. 6,4: "Hear, O Israel, YHWH is our God, YHWH is
One" (in Hebrew, "Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad", with "Adonai" standing in for YHWH)), represents this God's
apparent intolerance of the worship of other gods. As YHWH Himself was originally a War-God ("YHWH of the hosts"), the worship
of fertility gods such as Baal (or the Baalim) was attractive once the Israelites had settled down. In this view, it was only by the
Hellenic period that most Jews came to believe that their God was the only God (and thus, the God of everyone), and that the record of
His revelation (the Torah) contained within it universal truths. This attitude reflected a growing Gentile interest in Judaism (some
Greeks and Romans considered the Jews a most "philosophical" people because of their belief in a God that cannot be represented
visually), and growing Jewish interest in Greek philosophy, which sought to establish universal truths, thus leading - potentially - to
the idea of monotheism, at least in the sense that "all gods are One".

According to this theory, Jews began to grapple with the tension between their claims of particularism (that only Jews were required to
obey the Torah), and universalism (that the Torah contained universal truths). The supposed result is a set of beliefs and practices
concerning identity, ethics, and the relationships between man and nature and man and God that examine and privilege "differences"
— for example the difference between Jews and non-Jews; the local differences in the practice of Judaism; a close attention, when
interpreting texts, to differences in the meanings of words; attempts to preserve and encode different points of view within texts, and a
relative avoidance of creed and dogma.

In contrast to the Orthodox religious view, critical biblical scholars suggest that the Torah consists of a variety of inconsistent texts
edited together in a way that calls attention to divergent accounts (see Documentary hypothesis).

Religious doctrine and Principles of FaithHistorically, Judaism has considered belief in the divine revelation and acceptance of the
Written and Oral Torah as its fundamental core belief, but Judaism does not have a centralized authority dictating religious dogma.
This gave rise to many different formulations as to the specific theological beliefs inherent in the Torah and Talmud. While some
rabbis have at times agreed upon a firm formulation, others have disagreed, many criticizing any such attempt as minimizing
acceptance of the entire Torah.[3] Notably, in the Talmud some principles of faith (e.g., the Divine origin of the Torah) are considered
important enough that rejection of them can put one in the category of "apikoros" (heretic).[4]

Over the centuries, a number of clear formulations of Jewish principles of faith have appeared, and though they differ with respect to
certain details, they demonstrate a commonality of core ideology. Of these, the one most widely considered authoritative is
Maimonides' thirteen principles of faith. These principles were controversial when first proposed, evoking criticism by Hasdai Crescas
and Joseph Albo. The thirteen principles were ignored by much of the Jewish community for the next few centuries. (Dogma in
Medieval Jewish Thought, Menachem Kellner). Over time two poetic restatements of these principles ("Ani Ma'amin" and "Yigdal")
became canonized in the Jewish prayer book, and eventually became widely held. Today most Orthodox authorities hold that these
beliefs are obligatory, and that Jews who do not fully accept each one of them are potentially heretical:

1. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is the Creator and Guide of everything that has been
created; He alone has made, does make, and will make all things.
2. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is One, and that there is no unity in any manner like His,
and that He alone is our God, who was, and is, and will be.
3. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is not a body, and that He is free from all the properties
of matter, and that there can be no (physical) comparison to Him whatsoever.
4. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is the first and the last.
5. I believe with perfect faith that to the Creator, blessed be His Name, and to Him alone, it is right to pray, and that it is not
right to pray to any being besides Him.
6. I believe with perfect faith that all the works of the prophets are true.
7. I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of Moses, our teacher, peace be upon him, was true, and that he was the chief
of the prophets, both of those who preceded him and of those who followed him.
8. I believe with perfect faith that the entire Torah that is now in our possession is the same that was given to Moses, our
teacher, peace be upon him.
9. I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be changed, and that there will never be any other Law from the Creator,
blessed be His name.
10. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, knows all the deeds of human beings, and all their
thoughts, as it is said: “[He] that fashioned the hearts of them all, [He] that comprehends all their actions.”
11. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, rewards those that keep His commandments and
punishes those that transgress them.
12. I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah; and even though he may tarry, with all this I wait every day for
his coming.
13. I believe with perfect faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time when it shall please the Creator, blessed be
His name, and exalted be His Name forever and ever.
Some, such as Rabbi Joseph Albo and the Raavad, criticized Maimonides' list as containing too many items that, while true, were not
fundamentals of the faith, and thus placed too many Jews in the category of "heretic", rather than those who were simply in error.
Many others criticized any such formulation as minimizing acceptance of the entire Torah (see above). As noted however, neither
Maimonides nor his contemporaries viewed these principles as encompassing all of Jewish belief, but rather as the core theological
underpinnings of the acceptance of Judaism. Along these lines, the ancient historian Josephus emphasized practices and observances
rather than religious beliefs, associating apostasy with a failure to observe Jewish law and maintaining that the requirements for
conversion to Judaism included circumcision and adherence to traditional customs.

Jewish religious texts

Rabbinic literature

Jews are often called the "People of the Book," and not without reason: Judaism has an age-old intellectual tradition of text-based
Torah study. The following is a basic, structured list of the central works of Jewish practice and thought. For more detail, see Rabbinic
literature.

• Tanakh[5] (Hebrew Bible) and commentaries

o Mesorah
o Targum
o Jewish Biblical exegesis (also see Midrash below)
• Works of the Talmudic Era (classic rabbinic literature)
o Mishnah and commentaries
o Tosefta and the minor tractates
o Talmud:
 Jerusalem Talmud and commentaries
 The Babylonian Talmud and commentaries
• Midrashic literature:
o Halakhic Midrash
o Aggadic Midrash
• Halakhic literature
o Major Codes of Jewish Law and Custom
 Mishneh Torah and commentaries
 Tur and commentaries
 Shulchan Aruch and commentaries
o Responsa literature
• Jewish Thought and Ethics
o Jewish philosophy
o Kabbalah
o Hasidic works
o Jewish ethics and the Mussar Movement
• Siddur and Jewish liturgy
• Piyyut (Classical Jewish poetry)

Jewish Legal Literature

Main article: Halakha

The basis of Jewish law and tradition ("halakha") is the Torah (also known as the Pentateuch or the Five Books of Moses). According
to rabbinic tradition there are 613 commandments in the Torah. Some of these laws are directed only to men or to women, some only
to the ancient priestly groups, the Kohanim and Leviyim (members of the tribe of Levi), some only to farmers within the land of
Israel. Many laws were only applicable when the Temple in Jerusalem existed, and fewer than 300 of these commandments are still
applicable today.

While there have been Jewish groups which claimed to be based on the written text of the Torah alone (e.g., the Sadducees, and the
Karaites), most Jews believed in what they call the oral law. These oral traditions were transmitted by the Pharisee sect of ancient
Judaism, and were later recorded in written form and expanded upon by the rabbis.
Rabbinic Judaism has always held that the books of the Torah (called the written law) have always been transmitted in parallel with an
oral tradition. To justify this viewpoint, Jews point to the text of the Torah, where many words are left undefined, and many
procedures mentioned without explanation or instructions; this, they argue, means that the reader is assumed to be familiar with the
details from other, i.e., oral, sources. This parallel set of material was originally transmitted orally, and came to be known as "the oral
law".

By the time of Rabbi Judah haNasi (200 CE), after the destruction of Jerusalem, much of this material was edited together into the
Mishnah. Over the next four centuries this law underwent discussion and debate in both of the world's major Jewish communities (in
Israel and Babylonia), and the commentaries on the Mishnah from each of these communities eventually came to be edited together
into compilations known as the two Talmuds. These have been expounded by commentaries of various Torah scholars during the ages.

Halakha, the rabbinic Jewish way of life, then, is based on a combined reading of the Torah, and the oral tradition - the Mishnah, the
halakhic Midrash, the Talmud and its commentaries. The Halakha has developed slowly, through a precedent-based system. The
literature of questions to rabbis, and their considered answers, is referred to as responsa (in Hebrew, Sheelot U-Teshuvot.) Over time,
as practices develop, codes of Jewish law are written that are based on the responsa; the most important code, the Shulchan Aruch,
largely determines Orthodox religious practice today.

Jewish philosophy

Jewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology. Major Jewish philosophers
include Solomon ibn Gabirol, Saadia Gaon, Maimonides, and Gersonides. Major changes occurred in response to the Enlightenment
(late 1700s to early 1800s) leading to the post-Enlightenment Jewish philosophers. Modern Jewish philosophy consists of both
Orthodox and non-Orthodox oriented philosophy. Notable among Orthodox Jewish philosophers are Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler, Joseph
B. Soloveitchik, and Yitzchok Hutner. Well-known non-Orthodox Jewish philosophers include Martin Buber, Franz Rosenzweig,
Mordecai Kaplan, Abraham Joshua Heschel, and Emmanuel Lévinas.

Islam (Arabic: ‫ ;السلم‬al-'islām (help·info)) is a monotheistic religion originating with the teachings of Muhammad, a 7th-century
Arab religious and political figure. The word Islam means "submission", or the total surrender of oneself to God (Arabic: ‫ال‬, Allāh).
An adherent of Islam is known as a Muslim, meaning "one who submits (to God)".[1] There are between 0.9 and 1.4 billion Muslims,
making Islam the second-largest religion in the world, after Christianity.[2]

Muslims believe that God revealed the Qur'an to Muhammad, God's final prophet, and regard the Qur'an and the Sunnah (the words
and deeds of Muhammad) as the fundamental sources of Islam.[3] They do not regard Muhammad as the founder of a new religion, but
as the restorer of the original monotheistic faith of Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. Islamic tradition holds that Judaism
and Christianity distorted the messages of these prophets over time either in interpretation, in text, or both.[4]

Islam includes many religious practices. Adherents are generally required to observe the Five Pillars of Islam, which are five duties
that unite Muslims into a community.[5] In addition to the Five Pillars, Islamic law (Sharia) has developed a tradition of rulings that
touch on virtually all aspects of life and society. This tradition encompasses everything from practical matters like dietary laws and
banking to warfare.[6]

Almost all Muslims belong to one of two major denominations, the Sunni and Shi'a. The schism developed in the late 7th century
following disagreements over the religious and political leadership of the Muslim community. Roughly 85 percent of Muslims are
Sunni and 15 percent are Shi'a. Islam is the predominant religion throughout the Middle East, as well as in parts of Africa, Central
Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia. Large communities are also found in China, Western Europe, the Balkan Peninsula, and Russia.
About 20 percent of Muslims live in Arab countries.[7]

Etymology and meaning

The word islām is derived from the Arabic verb aslama, which means to accept, surrender, or submit. Thus, Islam means submission
to and acceptance of God, and believers must demonstrate this by worshiping him, following his commands, and avoiding polytheism.
The word is given a number of meanings in the Qur'an. In some verses (ayat), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is stressed:
"Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."[8] Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually translated as
"religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for
your religion."[9] Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.[10]

Beliefs

Main article: Aqidah

According to the Qur'an all Muslims have to believe in God, his revelations, his angels, his messengers, and in the "Day of
Judgment".[11] Also, there are other beliefs that differ between particular sects. The Sunni concept of predestination is called divine
decree,[12] while the Shi'a version is called divine justice. Unique to the Shi'a is the doctrine of Imamah, or the political and spiritual
leadership of the Imams.[13]

Muslims believe that God revealed his final message to humanity through the Islamic prophet Muhammad via the angel Gabriel. For
them, Muhammad was God's final prophet and the Qur'an is the revelations he received over more than two decades.[14] In Islam,
prophets are men selected by God to be his messengers. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are
able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic prophets are considered to be the closest to perfection of all humans, and are
uniquely the recipients of divine revelation—either directly from God or through angels.[15] Islamic theology says that all of God's
messengers since Adam preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of the one God. Islam is described in the Qur'an as
"the primordial nature upon which God created mankind",[16] and the Qur'an states that the proper name Muslim was given by
Abraham.[17]

As a historical phenomenon, Islam originated in Arabia in the early 7th century.[18] Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as
prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians "People of the Book" (ahl al-kitāb),
and distinguishes them from polytheists. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the
Injil (Gospels), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.[4]

God

Main article: Allah

See also: Islamic concept of God

Islam's fundamental theological concept is tawhīd—the belief that there is only one God. The Arabic term for God is Allāh; most
scholars believe it was derived from a contraction of the words al- (the) and ʾilāh (deity, masculine form), meaning "the God" (al-
ilāh), but others trace its origin to the Aramaic Alāhā.[19] The first of the Five Pillars of Islam, tawhīd is expressed in the shahadah
(testification), which declares that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is God's messenger. In traditional Islamic theology,
God is beyond all comprehension; Muslims are not expected to visualize God but to worship and adore him as a protector. Although
Muslims believe that Jesus was a prophet, they reject the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, comparing it to polytheism. In Islamic
theology, Jesus is just a man and not the son of God;[20] God is described in a chapter (sura) of the Qur'an as "…God, the One and
Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."[21]

Qur'an

Muslims consider the Qur'an to be the literal word of God; it is the central religious text of Islam.[22] Muslims believe that the verses of
the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the angel Gabriel on many occasions between the years 610 and his death on
July 6, 632. The Qur'an was written down by Muhammad's companions (sahabah) while he was alive, although the prime method of
transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, and was standardized in the time of Uthman, the
third caliph. From textual evidence, modern Western academics find that the Qur'an of today has not changed significantly over the
years.[23]

The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 āyāt, or poetic verses. The chronologically earlier
suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and
moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[24] The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is
considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".[25] Muslim jurists consult the hadith, or the written record of
Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is
known as tafsir.[26]

The word Qur'an means "recitation". When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as
recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original
Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of
preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of
its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.[27]

Angels

Main article: Angels in Islam

Belief in angels is crucial to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for Angels (malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in
Hebrew (malakh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess free will, and worship God in perfect
obedience.[28] Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and
taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as
"messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases…"[29]
Muhammad

Main article: Muhammad

Muhammad (c. 570 – July 6, 632) was an Arab religious, political, and military leader who founded the religion of Islam as a
historical phenomenon. Muslims view him not as the creator of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted
monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and others. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last and the greatest in a series of
prophets—as the man closest to perfection, the possessor of all virtues.[30] For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40,
Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and
recorded by his companions.[31]

During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to
Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 13 years of preaching, Muhammad and
the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan
converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad established his political and religious authority. Within years,
two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the Battle of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the Battle of Uhud in
625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement or
death, and the Jewish enclave of Khaybar was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought
surrounding desert tribes under his control.[32] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by
the time of his death in 632 he ruled over the Arabian peninsula.[33]

In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in
traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim
jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) established the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims were encouraged to emulate
Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.[34]

Resurrection and judgment

Main article: Qiyama

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", yawm al-Qiyāmah (also known as yawm ad-dīn, "Day of Judgment" and as-sā`a, "the Last Hour")
is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and
tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of Islamic
scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death. It states that
resurrection will be followed by the gathering of mankind, culminating in their judgment by God.[35]

The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, usury and dishonesty. Muslims view paradise
(jannah) as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also
references to a greater joy—acceptance by God (ridwān).[36] Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of
an ecstatic awareness of God.[37]

Predestination

Main articles: Predestination in Islam and Adalah

In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa'l-qadar), God has full knowledge and
control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has
decreed for us: He is our protector'…"[38] For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and
nothing can happen unless permitted by God. In Islamic theology, divine preordainment does not suggest an absence of God's
indignation against evil, because any evils that do occur are thought to result in future benefits men may not be able to see. According
to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right
and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-
Lawh al-Mahfūz, the "Preserved Tablet".[39]

The Shi'a understanding of predestination is called "divine justice" (Adalah). This doctrine, originally developed by the Mu'tazila,
stresses the importance of man's responsibility for his own actions. In contrast, the Sunni deemphasize the role of individual free will
in the context of God's creation and foreknowledge of all things.[40]

Duties and practices

Five Pillars
The Five Pillars of Islam (Arabic: : ‫ )اركان الدين‬are five practices essential to Sunni Islam. Shi'a Muslims subscribe to eight ritual
practices which substantially overlap with the Five Pillars.[41] They are:

• The shahadah, which is the basic creed or tenet of Islam: "'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna
muħammadan rasūlu-llāh", or "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that
Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam (although
technically the Shi'a do not consider the shahadah to be a separate pillar, just a belief). Muslims must repeat the shahadah
in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.[42]

• Salah, or ritual prayer, which must be performed five times a day. (However, the Shi'a are permitted to run together the
noon with the afternoon prayers, and the evening with the night prayers). Each salah is done facing towards the Kaaba in
Mecca. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses
gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. In many
Muslim countries, reminders called Adhan (call to prayer) are broadcast publicly from local mosques at the appropriate
times. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Qur'an.[43]

• Zakat, or alms-giving. This is the practice of giving based on accumulated wealth, and is obligatory for all Muslims who
can afford it. A fixed portion is spent to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. The zakat is
considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth
is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of
voluntary alms-giving (sadaqah). Many Shi'ites are expected to pay an additional amount in the form of a khums tax,
which they consider to be a separate ritual practice.[44]

• Sawm, or fasting during the month of Ramadan. Muslims must not eat or drink (among other things) from dawn to dusk
during this month, and must be mindful of other sins. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it
Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm
is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed
depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.[45]

• The Hajj, which is the pilgrimage during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied
Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. When the pilgrim is about
ten kilometers from Mecca, he must dress in Ihram clothing, which consists of two white seamless sheets. Rituals of the
Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the Black Stone, running seven times between Mount Safa
and Mount Marwah, and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina. The pilgrim, or the hajji, is honored in his or her
community, although Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God instead of a means to
gain social standing.[46]

In addition to the khums tax, Shi'a Muslims consider three additional practices essential to the religion of Islam. The first is jihad,
which is also important to the Sunni, but not considered a pillar. The second is Amr-Bil-Ma'rūf, the "Enjoining to Do Good", which
calls for every Muslim to live a virtuous life and to encourage others to do the same. The third is Nahi-Anil-Munkar, the "Exhortation
to Desist from Evil", which tells Muslims to refrain from vice and from evil actions and to also encourage others to do the same.[47]

Law

Main articles: Sharia and Fiqh

The Sharia (literally: "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship. In Islam,
Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his
religious belief".[48]

Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur'an
defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption
of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries
and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, these prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so their
application in practice varies. Islamic scholars (known as ulema) have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their
interpretations.[49]

Fiqh, or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive
rulings is known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four
fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the
consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than
pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the
principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-Risālah.[50]

Religion and state

Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the ulema function as both jurists and
theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts"
over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in
different ways. Turkey has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In contrast, the 1979
Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini.[51]

Etiquette and diet

Main articles: Adab (behavior) and Islamic dietary laws

Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu `alaykum" ("peace be
unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic
hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health, such as the circumcision of male offspring. Islamic
burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a
grave. Muslims, like Jews, are restricted in their diet, and prohibited foods include pig products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat
must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that
one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.[52]

Jihad

Main articles: Jihad and Islamic military jurisprudence

Jihad means "to strive or struggle," and is considered the "sixth pillar of Islam" by a minority of Muslim authorities.[53] Within Islamic
jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the defense or expansion of the
Islamic state, the ultimate purpose of which is to establish the universal domination of Islam. Jihad, the only form of warfare
permissible in Islamic law, may be declared against non-Muslims who refuse to convert to Islam or submit to Islamic rule.[54] Jihad is
perpetual in nature; in theory, there can be no permanent peace with non-Muslim states, only truces which can be repudiated when
circumstances become favorable for the resumption of hostilities. It ceases only when Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians submit to the
authority of Islam and agree to pay the jizya (a poll tax) and kharaj (a land tax), and when polytheists convert to Islam.[54]

Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (fard kifaya): its performance by some individuals exempts
the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (imam), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of
the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[54] For most Shias, jihad can only be declared by a divinely
appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended in his absence.[54] Some Muslim authorities, especially among
the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined
as warfare.[55] Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.[56]

History

Main articles: Muslim history and Spread of Islam

Islam's historical development resulted in major political, economic, and military effects inside and outside the Islamic world. Within
a century of Muhammad's first recitations of the Qur'an, an Islamic empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central
Asia in the east. This new polity soon broke into civil war, and successor states fought each other and outside forces. However, Islam
continued to spread into regions like Africa, the Indian subcontinent, and Southeast Asia. The Islamic civilization was one of the most
advanced in the world during the Middle Ages, but was surpassed by Europe with the economic and military growth of the West.
During the 18th and 19th centuries, Islamic dynasties such as the Ottomans and Mughals fell under the sway of European imperial
powers. In the 20th century new religious and political movements and newfound wealth in the Islamic world led to both rebirth and
conflict.[57]

Rise of empire (632–750)

Further information: Succession to Muhammad, Muslim conquests, and Arab Empire

Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to Medina, from where he united the tribes of Arabia into a singular
Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the
Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's
intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by
some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu
Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put
down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[58]

His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four
are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into
Persian Empire and Byzantine territories.[59] When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with
increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first
civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu'awiyah, who was governor of Levant,
seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty.[60]

These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the
legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only
rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a.[61] After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a
civil war known as the "Second Fitna". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the
Maghrib as well as the Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula, former Visigothic Hispania) and the Narbonnese Gaul. While the Muslim-
Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather
poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-
Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism.[62]

For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only;[63] the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the
assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to
convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not
achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied
discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and
general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.[64] Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "Islamic
Golden Age", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.[65]

Golden Age (750–1258)

By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North
Africa, Persia, and Central Asia emirates formed as provinces broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously
homogenized Muslim world where the Shia Fatimids contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. By 1055 the Seljuq Turks
had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph's titular authority.[66] During this
time expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both conquest and peaceful proselytism even as both Islam and Muslim trade
networks were extending into sub-Saharan West Africa, Inner Asia, Volga Bulgaria and the Malay archipelago.[1]

The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious developments. The major hadith collections were compiled and the four
modern Sunni Madh'habs were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist al-Shafi'i; he
codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.[67]
Philosophers Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the
11th century theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.[68] Finally, Sufism and Shi'ism both
underwent major changes in the 9th century. Sufism became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away
from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams.[69]

Starting in the 9th century, Muslim conquests in Christian Europe began to be reversed. The Reconquista was launched against
Muslim principalities in Iberia, and Muslim Italian possessions were lost to the Normans. From the 11th Century onwards a series of
wars known as the Crusades brought the Muslim world into conflict with Christendom. Successful at first in their of capturing the
Holy land which resulted in the establishment of the Crusader states, Crusader gains in the Holy Land were reversed by later Muslim
generals such as Saladin, who recaptured Jerusalem during the Second Crusade.[70] The Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbasid
dynasty at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258, which saw the Muslims overrun by the superior Mongol army. Meanwhile in Egypt, the
slave-soldier Mamluks took control in an uprising in 1250.[71]

Ottomans and Mughals (1258–1918)

The Seljuk Turks fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 13th century. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman empire (named
after Osman I) was established with a string of conquests that included the Balkans, parts of Greece, and western Anatolia. In 1453
under Mehmed II the Ottomans laid siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. The Byzantine fortress succumbed shortly
thereafter, having been battered by superior Ottoman cannonry.[72]

Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and
reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.[73] Also of
importance to Sufism was the creation of the Masnavi, a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet Rumi. The
Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the
Qur'an.[74]

In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there,
and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained powerful for two centuries. Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in
1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529.[75] During the early 16th century
the Muslim Mughal empire was formed in the Indian subcontinent, but by the mid-18th century the British empire had ended the
Mughal dynasty.[76] The Mughals were noted for their achievements in art and architecture, exemplified by the Taj Mahal, which Shah
Jahan built as a memorial to his wife.[77] In the 18th century the Wahhabi movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the
preacher Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of
saints as un-Islamic.[78]

By the 17th and 18th centuries, despite attempts at modernization, the Ottoman empire had begun to feel threatened by European
economic and military advantages. In the 19th century, the rise of nationalism resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence
in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The
Ottoman era came to a close at the end of World War I.[79]

Modern times (1918–present)

After World War I losses, the remnants of the empire were parceled out as European protectorates or spheres of influence. Since then
most Muslim societies have become independent nations, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the state of Israel have
assumed prominence.[80]

The 20th century saw the creation of many new Islamic "revivalist" movements. Groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt
and Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. Sometimes called
Islamist, they see Western cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private
question of importance. In countries like Iran and Afghanistan (under the Taliban), revolutionary movements replaced existing regimes
with Islamist states, while transnational groups like Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda engage in terrorism to further their goals. In contrast,
liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights.
Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought
on religious matters".[81]