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Thomasenia Lott Adams
Reading mathematics:
An understanding of mathematical More than words
literacy draws on many of the
same skills as print literacy. can say
M
y colleagues often discuss in facul-
ty meetings the various components
of teaching children to read with
fluency, proficiency, and comprehension. When
I visit these colleagues’ offices, I notice that their
shelves are lined with books about teaching chil-
dren to read, children reading and being read to,
helping children with reading difficulties, pro-
viding strategies for struggling readers, and
reading in the content areas as an integral part
of the school experience. The notion of reading
in content areas, specifically mathematics, is the
impetus for this article. However, many people
limit such reading to activities like reading bi-
ographies of mathematicians, reading the history
of mathematics concepts, and reading mathe-
matics word problems with real-life contexts.
While these activities are important to students’
school mathematics experiences, what is often
excluded or given little attention is the basic no-
tion of reading mathematics as a language.
Reading mathematics is a multifaceted task
because the reader is challenged to acquire com-
prehension and mathematical understanding
with fluency and proficiency through the read-
ing of numerals and symbols, in addition to
words. Although numerals (written numbers) are
technically symbols, the use of the word symbol
in this article refers to symbols other than nu-
merals (e.g., signs of operation). For students
across all grade levels, weakness in their math-
ematics ability is often due in part to the obsta-
cles they face in focusing on these symbols as
they attempt to read the “language of mathemat-
ics.” Some scholars might include graphics, di-
agrams, and illustrations in addition to words,
numerals, and symbols, in the sense that “signs”
786 The Reading Teacher Vol. 56, No. 8 May 2003
of all types express and construct meaning—see
Berghoff (1998)—but this would involve stu-
dents’ abilities to visualize, an additional and
major topic. I omit them from this discussion.
Mathematics is a language that people use to
communicate, to solve problems, to engage in
recreation, and to create works of art and me-
chanical tools. It is a language of words, numer-
als, and symbols that are at times interrelated
and interdependent and at other times disjointed
and autonomous. In fact, Wakefield (2000) sug-
gested that the following characteristics of math-
ematics do indeed qualify it as a language:
1. Abstractions (verbal or written symbols representing
ideas or images) are used to communicate.
2. Symbols and rules are uniform and consistent.
3. Expressions are linear and serial.
4. Understanding increases with practice.
5. Success requires memorization of symbols and rules.
6. Translations and interpretations are required for novice
learners.
7. Meaning is influenced by symbol order.
8. Communication requires encoding and decoding.
9. Intuition, insightfulness, and “speaking without thinking”
accompany fluency.
10. Experiences from childhood supply the foundation for fu-
ture development.
11. The possibilities for expressions are infinite. (pp.
272–273)
A significant factor for children in the ele-
mentary grades as they begin to learn the intri-
cacies involved in reading their first language
(for example, English) is that it also serves as a
conduit for the language of mathematics.
Specifically, the skill of reading mathematics is
©2003 International Reading Association (pp. 786–795)
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related to children’s metalinguistic awareness—
their ability to reflect on and analyze a language.
MacGregor and Price (1999) suggested
metalinguistic awareness enables the language user to reflect
on the structural and functional features of text as an object, to
make choices about how to communicate information, and to
manipulate perceived units of language.… [A]nalyzing struc-
ture, making choices about representation, and manipulating
expressions are intrinsic to mathematics. (p. 452)
Hence, when we pass up opportunities to focus
children’s attention on mathematics as a lan-
guage and not just as something we do, children
may miss the underlying concepts of mathemat-
ics that would enhance and reinforce their un-
derstanding.
The purpose of this article is to provide im-
petus for teaching children to read mathematics.
This entails reading words, numerals, and sym-
bols to successfully uncover the messages of and
about mathematics. Furthermore, the perspective
of mathematics as a language is supported by the
order governing the discipline. I provide a vari-
ety of examples related to reading mathematics
through words, numerals, and symbols and also
suggestions that transcend particular mathemat-
ics topics and are applicable across grade levels.
Reading words in mathematics
Each discipline has its own code of commu-
nication, the particular terminology that is used
to communicate ideas within the discipline.
These are the words that carry meanings that
may or may not make sense outside of the disci-
pline. The words, terminology, and vocabulary
used in mathematics are key factors in the com-
munication process. The following sections ex-
plore a variety of factors related to reading
words in mathematics.
Definitions
In order to make communication clearer
when reading words in mathematics, the reader
has to develop meaningful, correct, and applica-
ble definitions of mathematical terminology. In
mathematics, it is acceptable for students to use
informal definitions as an introduction to for-
mal definitions. For example, a child may ini-
tially define square as a shape with all equal
sides. While at the outset this is beneficial for the
child, it is a definition that will by necessity un-
(Black plate)
dergo a transformation, as there are many poly-
gons with all equal sides. These regular polygons
include pentagons, octagons, and nonagons. A
student might later say that a square is a four-
sided shape with all equal sides. This, too, will
eventually undergo transformation, as a rhombus
is a four-sided shape with all equal sides, but not
all rhombi are squares. These informal defini-
tions help children construct their own under-
standings, and these are the definitions students
might use when reading an instruction such as
“Draw a square.” On the other hand, a major
learning objective in mathematics is for students
to demonstrate understanding of formal defini-
tions. For example, “a square is a rectangle with
all equal sides” or “a square is a quadrilateral
with all 90-degree angles and all equal sides.” A
student’s ability to recognize and employ the for-
mal definition is key to understanding and ap-
plying concepts when reading mathematical text.
One way to help students develop defini-
tions in mathematics is to ask them to examine
examples that do or do not fit the definition of a
concept to discern differences that might lead to
a formal definition (see the Figure). It is helpful
for students to know a formal definition of poly-
gon when asked to respond to the following: “Is
a circle a polygon? Explain.” A student not em-
powered by a formal definition might respond
with, “No. Because squares are polygons and
circles are not squares.” Though the explanation
is true, the student has only a limited under-
standing of polygons. A formal definition for
polygon provides a justification that accounts for
all polygons, not just squares. Definitions,
whether informal or formal, enable students to
appropriately apply the mathematics vocabulary
they encounter when reading mathematics. The
model presented in the Figure can be used for
very simple concepts appropriate for the ele-
mentary grades as well as more complex con-
cepts found in middle or high school
mathematics (e.g., function graphs).
Multiple meanings
Another issue in reading mathematics is
mathematics vocabulary that has multiple mean-
ings. Consider the examples listed in Table 1.
These are just a few words that are used in math-
ematics that also have meaning in everyday con-
texts and interactions. The importance of
attending to the presence of multiple meanings is
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Developing definitions

These are polygons. These are not polygons. What are polygons?
Draw examples of polygons.

supported by the fact that “the pre-adolescent
child has multiple meanings for words used in
the interactions and is comfortable with moving
between meanings even in the same interaction”
(Berenson, 1997, p. 4). It is important to know
which meaning of a word students are using
when trying to make sense of mathematics be-
cause words used in everyday language may
confuse their understanding of mathematics
(MacGregor, 2002).
When students are challenged by words with
multiple meanings, it is helpful to make connec-
tions between children’s prior understandings
of the word and the mathematical meaning of the
word so that children can develop definitions
from their own experiences (Berenson, 1997).
For example, one everyday meaning of the word
base means the place a baseball player runs or
walks to when the player has hit the ball. In an
everyday context, base also refers to the bottom

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Table 1
Multiple meanings

Word Mathematical meaning Everyday meaning

Volume Amount of space taken up by an object Noise level of electronic equipment
Graduated Marked with degrees of measurement Received an academic degree
Product Result of multiplying numbers Items produced by a company
Net A two-dimensional pattern for a A finely meshed hair covering
three-dimensional object
Ruler Tool for measuring length Person in authority
Plot To locate and make a point on a grid Place to build a house
Yard Three feet Grassy area around a house
Mass Amount of matter in an object A church service
Cubed Raised to the third power Form for a piece of steak
Count To enumerate To rely or depend on
Face Flat surface on a solid The front of something
Fair Equal chance of happening A temporary amusement park
Range Numerical difference between two values Cooking equipment (stove)

of an object such as a statue, mountain, or lamp.
In mathematics, base means the perceived hori-
zontal side on which a plane figure rests or a
number equal to the number of units in a given
number system required to move one group of
values to the next highest place, such as the base-
10 number system. Hence, for a child who pre-
sents a baseball understanding of the word base,
a connection between the everyday meaning of
base and one mathematical meaning can be
made as follows: When a baseball player waits
for play to resume, he or she stays or rests at the
base. So baseball players and mathematical
shapes both rest on bases at given times. In ad-
dition, there is a condition that must be met be-
fore the player moves from one base to another.
Likewise, in the base-10 number system, a con-
dition must be met (must have a group of 10)
before one can move from one place to the next
place. The goal of any connection should be to
develop opportunities for students to strengthen
their understanding of mathematics terminology
and concepts.
Homophones and similar-sounding words
Another challenge of reading mathematics
involves homophones—words with identical
pronunciations—and similar-sounding words. In
each category, though pronounced alike, these
words may have different meanings and
spellings. “Vocabulary in the mathematics class-
room not only includes specialized terms such as
quotient, multiplication, divisor, denominator,
minuend, and subtraction but also everyday
terms that take on new meaning when used in a
mathematical context” (Mather & Chiodo, 1994,
p. 2). Consider Tables 2 and 3. These are words
that may interfere with comprehension of what
students read, or understand when read to, in the
classroom. Without thought to the mathematical
context, students may attach the incorrect mean-
ing to the word if they confuse it with its
homonymic partner or partners. Drawing stu-
dents’ attention to the fact that there are words
in mathematics that sound like everyday words
is one way to deal with this issue. One sugges-
tion is to design a homonymic bulletin board or
list of homophones and similar-sounding words
for students to add to as they study. In addition,
journal writing prompts can be developed to
learn how students perceive specific words that
have homophonic or sound-alike partners. For
example, a prompt for the word altitude might
read, “If I were to compare two triangles by their
altitude, I would....”
Reading passages
As students advance through the elementary
grades, they need increased opportunities to read
mathematics in textual and often abstract form.

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Table 2 Box lid Ruler Protractor Book Ink pen

Homophones (exact pronunciation) Compass ID card Soda can File folder

Mathematics word Everyday word 2. Can a straightedge be used to construct an angle? If so,
how?
Plane Plain
One Won 3. If more than two points are given (say three points) and
one can still construct a line, ray, or segment using the
Whole Hole
three points, what must be true?
Sum Some
Two To 4. What is the difference between constructing and drawing?
Weight Wait 5. Construct a square using only a straightedge and/or com-
Weigh Way pass according to the passage.
Eight Ate
Symbol Cymbal To address students’ difficulties with math-
Hour Our
ematics vocabulary such as that found in the pre-
vious passage, instructional strategies modified
Cent Scent or sent
from those presented by Garbe (1985) include
Real Reel
the following:
Gram Graham
Chord Cord 1. Establish a list of mathematics vocabulary for each such
subject area (e.g., geometry).
2. Evaluate students’ comprehension of mathematics vocabu-
lary on a periodic basis (e.g., end of a passage, lesson, or
unit).
These opportunities will be beneficial for stu-
dents when they are confronted with mathemat- 3. Make inquiries into students’ previous knowledge or
usages of mathematics vocabulary before it is introduced in
ics in middle school. Consider the following
instruction (e.g., straightedge) and use this knowledge to
passage from a middle school mathematics text: help students develop meanings.
The only instruments used for construction in geometry are a 4. Frame the context for new mathematics vocabulary (e.g.,
straightedge and a compass. A straightedge is used to con- “Construct is not limited to three dimensions”).
struct a line, ray, or segment when two points are given. The
5. Develop an environment where mathematics vocabulary is
straightedge’s marks may not be used for measurement. A
a normal part of instruction, curriculum, and assessment—
compass is used to construct an arc or a circle, given a cen-
not an add-on.
ter point and a radius length. (Kalin & Corbitt, 1993, p. 396)
Two additional suggestions I would make are as
Students must be able to recognize the individual follows:
concepts as well as the relationships between the
concepts in order to obtain full meaning from the 6. For particular passages, instruct students to indicate the vo-
cabulary they do not understand and collaborate in small
passage. The density of the mathematics vocab-
groups to discuss these terms and share their understand-
ulary (e.g., line, ray, segment, arc, radius) adds ings of other terms. After the small-group engagement, ad-
to the complexity of the passage. With mathe- dress any remaining vocabulary as a whole class.
matics as with other disciplines, students are ex-
pected to integrate their linguistic, cognitive, and 7. When students’ efforts at acquiring meanings and under-
metacognitive skills to comprehend text (Mather standings have been exhausted, provide them an opportu-
nity to employ a mathematics dictionary, a useful tool for
& Chiodo, 1994). However, Garbe (1985) stat-
the classroom.
ed “perhaps we do not spend enough time teach-
ing the vocabulary necessary for students to read
and understand mathematics” (p. 39). Following Word problems
are examples that can be used to examine stu- Word problems are mathematical problems
dents’ understanding of the passage: presented in the context of a story or real-life
1. Consider the list below. Which items can or cannot be used scenario. Because the mathematical nature of the
as a straightedge? Explain. problem may not be obvious to the reader, the

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reader has to have some skill at decoding text
so that the information needed to solve the prob-
lem or answer the question can be gathered.
Students need opportunities to read word prob-
lems and examine them for necessary, extrane-
ous, or missing information so they can develop
their skills for solving word problems. George
Polya, commonly known as the “father of prob-
lem solving” (1945) is noted for his four-step
problem-solving process as follows:
1. Read the problem. This first phase in-
volves the student reading the problem in its en-
tirety without focusing on such things as key
words and the question(s). In many instances,
students target the key words and question(s) of
a problem without actually reading the problem,
often missing or skipping important information.
2. Understand the problem. In this second
phase, the student should attend to vocabulary,
context/setting, question(s) of the problem,
needed information, and extraneous informa-
tion. This phase should leave the student under-
standing the problem. Questions such as “Do
you know what this problem is asking?” and
“Can you restate the problem in your own
words?” are typical questions to pose to students
or for students to pose to themselves. In many in-
stances, students may have to return to the first
process, reading the problem, in order to sup-
port this second process.
3. Solve the problem. Students must select
and use appropriate strategies to respond to the
problem. These strategies may be student-
created or introduced by the teacher. In either
case, there are myriad strategies that students can
rely on to solve problems (e.g., use trial and er-
ror; look for patterns; make a model; eliminate
possibilities; use simpler numbers; make a table,
chart, or diagram; draw a picture; work back-
ward; estimate). For a more detailed discussion
on specific strategies see Dolan and Williamson
(1983) and Meyer and Sallee (1983). Again, the
student may need to return to either of the first
two phases to be successful in this phase.
4. Look back. In the traditional sense, a
problem-solving process is complete when the
solution is obtained. However, looking back pro-
vides an opportunity to check the validity and
accuracy of the solution. By viewing the solution
in the context of the problem, students can find
errors in understanding the problem, the proce-
dures, or even in the recording of the solution.
(Black plate)
In addition, looking back lets students engage
in discussions about the problem-solving
process to further enhance their reasoning skills
and abilities to explain and justify solutions. The
look back phase also stimulates additional in-
struction by incorporating extension problems
and requests for students to solve the problem
in a different way. This approach to problem
solving “makes use of the diversity of approach-
es to the problem in order to give students expe-
riences in finding or discovering new things by
combining all the knowledge, skills, and mathe-
matical ways of thinking they have previously
learned” (Sawada, 1997, p. 23). There are many
other models for providing guidance for stu-
dents’ problem-solving experiences. For an ad-
ditional example that uses a graphic organizer
approach, see Braselton and Decker (1994).
Reading numerals in context
When reading mathematics, students must be
able to read numerals in context. Often the con-
texts are embedded, and by reading the numerals
with or without any additional symbols, the
meanings of the numerals are apparent. Students
simply need examples and experiences that use
these socially accepted numeral formats so that
when they read mathematics in which these types
of numerals are used, they will be familiar with
the embedded context. Consider the examples in
Table 4. These examples are not meant to indi-
cate that the meanings for these numerals will
always be obvious and apparent, but these are
mere examples of how numerals and their struc-
ture have roles in everyday communication.
Perhaps the most obvious way to direct stu-
dents’ attention to numerals in context is to ex-
amine numerals within their contexts. I ask my
Table 3
Sound-alike words
Mathematics word Everyday sound-alike word
Quart Court
Altitude Attitude
Sphere Spear
Tenths Tents
Half Have
Cents Sense
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Table 4
Embedded contexts
Numerals Embedded context
123-45-6789 Social security number
08-17-01 or 08/17/01 Date
352-555-1212 Phone number
32601-7049 Zip code
1.599 Gas price
students to work in groups to write on a large
piece of paper all of the numbers each has used
that day. If there are standard contextual symbols
such as dollar signs and weight abbreviations,
they may include those signs and abbreviations.
Then I introduce number contexts to the students
(see Table 5) and ask the students to classify all
of their numbers into the various contexts. They
have to discuss and justify their classifications
and consider other examples of numbers that
they may not have initially listed. This helps stu-
dents to recognize numbers and their uses in
their own environments, and I use this experi-
ence to guide their recognition of numbers and
their uses in the context of mathematics.
Reading symbols in context
Symbols have important roles in mathemat-
ics, and the reader must be able to decipher them
when reading mathematics. Symbols are used
to indicate an operation to be performed, such
as in 45  6 = ? The “” is a standard symbol
that, in this context, indicates one should per-
form the operation of multiplication. Symbols
communicate meaning and messages. Consider
this example: #8. The “#” symbol communicates
that the focus might be on a list and the eighth
item on the list is to be noticed. Symbols also
provide organization and management. In the
expression (4  (2+3))3, the first operation to be
performed is the addition within the internal
parentheses, followed by the multiplication of
four with this sum and then the raising of this
product to the third power. The parentheses in-
form the reader how the expression is to be han-
dled. Students must be able to decipher the
meanings of symbols in order to effectively read
mathematics.
792 The Reading Teacher Vol. 56, No. 8 May 2003
As words are used differently in different
spoken languages, symbols are used differently
as well (Hirigoyen, 1997). For example, in coun-
tries around the world, the comma (e.g., 236,69)
or a raised dot (e.g., 236.69) is used to separate
a whole number and a fractional part, whereas
in the English language, we use a decimal point
to make this indication (e.g., 236.69). This is just
one example that reflects the need to acquire in-
formation about students’ prior knowledge of
mathematics, particularly for those whose first
language is not English and who may not rec-
ognize the different ways mathematical symbols
are used within that context.
Three simple instructional activities that
support students’ learning of mathematical sym-
bols are modifications of two games. For the
first, write as many symbols as desired, depend-
ing on the grade level, on index cards. Write the
symbol words on other index cards and then pro-
ceed to play matching games or draw cards to
get a pair. This works very well to help students
learn symbol names.
In another activity using either symbols or
words for symbols, students draw one card from
the deck of index cards. The card is won only if
the student can create a “mathematical sentence”
that includes the symbol. For example, if a stu-
dent draws absolute value, the student can win
the card by writing or saying “The absolute val-
ue of negative two is two.”
A third activity can be made on other index
cards by writing various numerals on them that
are appropriate for the specific grade level.
Combine the numerals and symbols into one
deck and allow students to draw five cards to
start the game. As students draw individual cards
from the deck, the goal is for the student to be
able to use the numerals and symbols to make a
mathematical expression to which they must
know the answer in order to win the cards.
Approaching the abstract
Without a context, students must, at a mini-
mum, be familiar with various aspects of number
theory. To be equipped to read numerals, stu-
dents must first know basic number words (e.g.,
one, two, ten, hundred) and have an understand-
ing of place value. Consider the numeral
4,327,785,650,409. As a stand-alone numeral
without a context, at the very least, it can be
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Table 5
Numerals in contexts

Context Example
Cardinal (quantity, measurement) 2 (I ate two pancakes for breakfast.)
Nominal 3342 (The serial number on the pan is 3342.)
Ordinal 4th (John won 4th place in the shot-put contest.)
Rational 1, 2, 3,… (I heard my niece counting 1, 2, 3,…today.)
Sequence pattern 6, 7, 6, 7, 6,… (The pattern for the beat was 6, 7, 6, 7, 6….)

recognized by its magnitude as one examines its
place-value characteristics. For example, it has
five place-value periods (e.g., 785 is in the mil-
lions period). The digit 8 is in the 10 millions
place and has a value of 80 million. The numer-
al can also be analyzed by number-theory clas-
sifications like odd, even, positive, negative,
prime, and divisibility by other numbers. When
reading mathematics and encountering numerals
in the abstract, students need to recognize im-
portant characteristics.
Relationships between words,
numerals, and symbols
Reading mathematics requires that students
navigate the relationship(s) between words, nu-
merals, and symbols. This is exemplified by
word problems, such as the following.
Mr. Johns and Mr. Sams are taking their classes on a field trip
to the Ocean View Aquarium. There are a total of 57 children in
the two classes. The teachers need to request buses for the
trip. Each bus seats 25 persons. How many buses should Mr.
Johnson and Mr. Sams request?
First of all, students need to be made aware
that they should attend to the relationship be-
tween words, numerals, and symbols. This may
not be automatically apparent to all students.
Once they recognize that this is something that
improves their reading of mathematics, they will
be more likely to do so.
Students also have to be encouraged to see
“sense making” as an important part of reading
information presented in the word problem. This
sense making is dependent on students’ compre-
hension of some mathematical terminology
(e.g., total) as well as on general terminology
(e.g., seats). From this point, a successful solu-
tion strategy is to represent the word problem
by mathematical symbols (including numerals).
Students also need to see the interaction of
words (the word problem itself), numerals, and
symbols as a necessary process in mathematics.
In fact, students should have experiences in
translating from either representation to the oth-
er two to support their conceptual understand-
ings. The totality of the mathematical message is
often embedded in the context of this three-way
relationship. I liken it to this phrase: “Words tell.
Numerals listen. Symbols show.” Words, explic-
itly or implicitly, tell the reader what is to be
known and done. The reader’s response to nu-
merals is guided by what the words tell. Symbols
are efficient means of showing what the words
say and how the numerals are to be responded
to according to the words. In the case of word
problems, if there is a breakdown at any junction
of the interaction, there is an increased chance of
students having difficulty succeeding with the
mathematics.
Mathematics is a language of order
Mathematics is a language of order, and
reading mathematics requires that one pay at-
tention to several principles that guide how the
reading must take place if accurate interpreta-
tion, comprehension, and communication are to
result.
Principle 1
Mathematical operations are performed
within a binary framework between only two
numbers at a time. For example, when students
are reading a string or list of numerals to be
added, remembering that only two numbers can

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be added at a time decreases anxiety and makes
the task seem easier.
Principle 2
The order in which operations are written or
read is not necessarily the order in which they
are performed. We read mathematics from left to
right, right to left, top to bottom, and bottom to
top (e.g., vertical multiplication, long division).
Consider this simple exercise: 3  (5 + 2) = ?
One might read it initially from left to right, but
the nature of the exercise requires that the oper-
ations be performed from right to left, that is, 5 +
2 must be completed first. However, the follow-
ing exercise might be read and performed from
top to bottom or bottom to top:
78
 64
Principle 3
There is order in mathematical language,
and it is well grounded in concept, theory, and
procedure, but there are still variations and
changes in content, style, and representation
over time. For example, as I read a newspaper
several months ago, I noticed that the new phone
number for a local hospital was 265.0111. I did-
n’t realize that the hospital had adopted a new
format for its telephone number. On first glance,
it simply looked like a decimal numeral, but the
context required it to be comprehended as a tele-
phone number. On a drive on a major street in
the city, I noticed that prices were displayed in
the format of $1.599 at one gas station and in the
format of $1.599/10 at another. These are just two
examples of how formats and presentation of
numbers can change and vary with the trends of
society.
Doing mathematics is reading
mathematics
Reading mathematics can be interesting if
readers are committed to learning. It is para-
mount that learners develop a purpose for com-
municating mathematically through words,
symbols, and numerals. Instruction that helps
learners view mathematics as a tool for solving
problems, participating in recreation and other
pleasurable activities, and making sense of the
world as the learner sees it is instruction that mo-
tivates students to read mathematics.
794 The Reading Teacher Vol. 56, No. 8 May 2003
The National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics posited that knowing mathematics
is doing mathematics (1989). In other words, to
know mathematics means that one is able to ap-
ply mathematics. With this philosophy one can
pair the position that doing mathematics necessi-
tates reading mathematics. The words, symbols,
and numerals that give the discipline its sub-
stance, framework, and power are the same
words, symbols, and numerals that students must
use to communicate ideas, perform procedures,
explain processes, and solve problems. Hence a
knower of mathematics is a doer of mathematics,
and a doer of mathematics is a reader of mathe-
matics.
Adams teaches at the University of Florida (School of
Teaching & Learning, 2403 Norman Hall, Box 117048,
Gainesville, FL 32611-7048, USA). She may be contacted by
e-mail at tla@coe.ufl.edu.
References
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mathematics learning. Focus on Learning Problems in
Mathematics, 19(4), 1–9.
Berghoff, B. (1998). Multiple sign systems and reading. The
Reading Teacher, 51, 520–523.
Braselton, S., & Decker, B.C. (1994). Using graphic organizers to
improve the reading of mathematics. The Reading Teacher,
48, 276–281.
Dolan, D.T., & Williamson, J. (1983). Teaching problem-
solving strategies. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley.
Garbe, D.G. (1985). Mathematics vocabulary and the culturally
different student. Arithmetic Teacher, 33, 39–42.
Hirigoyen, H. (1997). Dialectal variations in the language of
mathematics: A source of multicultural experiences. In
J. Trentacosta & M.J. Kenney (Eds.), 1997 National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics yearbook (pp. 164–173). Reston,
VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
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NJ: Prentice Hall.
MacGregor, M. (2002). Using words to explain mathematical
ideas. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 25(1),
78–89.
MacGregor, M., & Price, E. (1999). An exploration of aspects
of language proficiency and algebra learning. Journal of
Research in Mathematics Education, 30, 449–467.
Mather, J.R.C., & Chiodo, J.J. (1994). A mathematical problem:
How do we teach mathematics to LEP elementary students?
The Journal of Educational Issues of Language Minority
Students, 13, 1–12.
Meyer, C., & Sallee, T. (1983). Make it simpler: A practical
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Reston,VA: Author.
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Polya, G. (1945). How to solve it. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
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Additional resources
Borowski, E.J., & Borwein, J.M. (1991). The HarperCollins
mathematics dictionary. New York, NY: HarperPerennial.
Whitin, D.J., & Whitin, P. (2000). Math is language too: Talking
and writing in the mathematics classroom. Reston, VA:
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (Copublished
with the National Council of Teachers of English).

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