DG Course All Presentations

IEEE San Francisco Power Engineering Society
DG Fundamentals Workshop
October 18, 2003
Registration 8:00 AM
1. Introductory Remarks 8:15 AM
2. DG Principles –Mechanical systems Brian Sekula (Altran) 8:30 AM

• Renewable types
• PV module orientation, shading & insolation level
• Wind turbine
• Small hydro
• Fuel types
• Fuel Cell
• Combustion Turbines
• Conventional gas turbine
• Micro-turbine
• Steam turbines
• Reciprocating Engine
3. DG Principles – Electrical systems Prof. Liou (SFSU) 9:00 AM

• PV cell & module
• Induction Generator
• Synchronous Generator
• Inverters
• Electrical characteristics of the above devices
• Fault duty
• Voltage and frequency regulation capability
4. Distribution System Characteristics – Willie Chew (PG&E Dist. Planning) 9:30 AM

• Radial Configuration
• Protection
• Voltage Regulation
• Network Configuration
• Protection
• Typical Load Profile
• Typical distribution system load and fault capabilities
Break 10:30 AM
October 18, 2003
(continued)
5. Typical DG systems & DG applications – Gary Olson (Cummins) 10:45 AM

• Typical sizes/configurations/costs
• $/kW installed
• $/kWH
• Emission level & air quality restrictions
• Stand-alone/Standby/Parallel/utility-interactive/certified/load management
• Generator/facility Protection
• Considerations for one or more generator operations
• Frequency Regulation
• Load Sharing/following/shedding
Lunch 12:15 PM
6. System Impact Review/Interconnection Study 1:15 PM

– Mohammad Vaziri (PG&E System Protection)
• DG compatibility with existing distribution system design at the point of interconnection
• Potential system modifications
• Interconnection study example
Break 2:15 PM
7. Standards and references - Chuck Whitaker (Endecon) 2:30 PM

• CPUC Rule 21 and supplementary review guideline for low and moderate penetration systems
• IEEE-929 for utility interactive PV inverter systems
• UL-1741 for certifying utility interactive systems
• IEEE-1547 and sister standards
8. Bonus presentation on DG interconnection - Anthony Mazy (CPUC/ORA) 3:30 PM

On the way to a Plug and Play DG
9. Q&A 3:40 PM
Adjourn 4:00 PM
San Francisco
Power Engineering Society
Distributed Generation Course
Introductory Remarks
Chase Sun
PG&E
October 18, 2003
Concerns that spurred interest in
DG & interconnection areas
• Cost
– California Energy Crisis
– Interconnection cost
• Environmental
– Emissions from fuel fired plants
– Green House Gases
• Reliability
– Aging infrastructure
– Power generation capacity did not keep pace with load
growth and led to inadequate reserve margin
October 18, 2003 San Francisco Power Engineering Society 2 of 7
Major factors for power system
design
• Safety
• Required Capacity Level
• Required Reliability Level
• Required Power Quality Level
• Minimum Cost

Transmission System
Characteristics
• Multiple paths to load
• Spare capacity in each path
• Potential bi-directional power flow in each path
• Ability to clear line fault with no interruption to
load. Designed for one or more contingencies
• Traditional method to interconnect generator
• Complex to operate
• High cost & high reliability
Distribution System
Characteristics
• Radial – unidirectional power flow but may have
backtie
• Moderate reliability
• Line fault will interrupt downstream load
• Designed to provide acceptable voltage and
frequency from zero load to maximum load in the
load direction.
• Low cost
• Simple to operate
Existing System
• Existing distribution system is engineered to
safely serve a given level of load at a given level
of reliability with minimal cost.
• The distribution system is dynamic and changes to
meet the requirements of load growth and other
customer needs.
• The radial distribution system is configured
similar to a tree, with the feeder outlet being the
trunk and the leaves/fruits being the loads,
supported by branches of progressively smaller
sizes. So, no two circuit are exactly alike.
Existing System (Continued)
• We have an interconnected system where
disturbance at one location can propagate to
other locations. We have seen this
demonstrated in the 8/14/03 NE Blackout.
• It is very important that the utilities and DG
developers work together to reduce the DG
interconnection costs while preserving the
power system integrity.

DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
MECHANICAL SYSTEM OVERVIEW

Brian Sekula
Altran
IEEE San Francisco PES DG Fundamentals Workshop

San Francisco State University
October 18, 2003
1 of 42
October 18, 2003 Distributed Generation Course San Francisco Power
Engineering Society
INTRODUCTION
2 of 42
Engineering Society
What is a Distributed Energy System?
A power source close to the end user of electricity (at

a home, business or industrial site)
Typically less than 10MW in size
3 of 42
Engineering Society
History
Early power plants were distributed since the

transmission and distribution system were not
well developed and many users had to
provide the power themselves.
Before WWII, many industries had on-site

generation
After WWII, utilities developed large power

stations to take advantage of the economics
of scale and the improved efficiency of larger 4 of 42
power plants
Engineering Society
Why is Distributed Energy Attractive
Today?
Reliability
9 The end user can have a higher reliability source of power.
Can Reduce Electrical Grid Expenditures
9 Local energy production can reduce the load on the
transmission and distribution grid if done properly and properly
coordinated with the utility.
Efficiency
9 Distributed energy systems that utilize cogeneration can have a
higher efficiency than central power plants that only produce
electricity.
Low Emissions
9 Fossil fuel powered, distributed energy systems are now
available with very low emissions and alternative energy
systems may have zero emissions. 5 of 42
Engineering Society
Photovoltaics
Principles of Operation
Direct conversion of sunlight to DC electric power
6 of 42
Engineering Society
Photovoltaics
(cont’d)
Efficiency
100’s of watts to MW size
Depends on efficiency, insolation, orientation and shading
¾ Insolation varies throughout the day. Peak is about 1000
watts/square meter. Daily average is about 250 watts/

square meter.
¾ A fixed panel is cheaper than a tracking system but power
output is reduced.
¾ A typical system will produce about 100 peak watts/square
meter and about 200kwh/year per square meter.
Special Requirements
Requires an inverter to produce 60Hz AC power of sufficient
voltage.
7 of 42
Engineering Society
Photovoltaics
(cont’d)
Advantages
No emissions
No moving parts
Low maintenance
Long life Potential
Disadvantages
Initial Cost
Low utilization factor
Low energy density, a large surface is required
PV output will decrease if shaded by adjacent buildings or trees
8 of 42
Engineering Society
Photovoltaics
(cont’d)
Good Applications
Low power remote applications away from the grid
Large flat roofed warehouses and stores are an ideal location
9 of 42
Engineering Society
Wind Turbine
10 of 42
Engineering Society
Wind Turbine
(cont’d)
Principle of Operation
Convert the kinetic energy of the wind to rotational motion of a
generator
Use of variable speed generators and inverters allows variable
speed operation
¾ Increases efficiency
¾ Reduces blade loads and weight
The most successful designs are horizontal axis with 3 blades.
Efficiency
Approximately 20 –40%
11 of 42
Engineering Society
Wind Turbine
(cont’d)
Power Output
100s of watts to 5MW
Power is proportional to wind speed cubed and diameter
squared
A 25ft diameter wind turbine produces about 10KW at 25mph
wind speed
Typical capacity factor approximately 25%
Need to be in areas of consistent high wind speeds
12 of 42
Engineering Society
Wind Turbine
(cont’d)
Advantages
Relatively low cost
No emissions
Disadvantages
The end user of electricity rarely is in a high wind area and there
are restrictions on installation of towers.
Weather dependent
Good Applications
Limited use by individuals in remote areas
Principal use is in large wind farms
¾ Not a typically distributed generator
13 of 42
Engineering Society
Small Hydro
Principle of Operation
Converts the potential energy of falling water into rotation of a
generator.
Typically use Pelton wheels
14 of 42
Engineering Society
Small Hydro
(cont’d)
Efficiency
About 80%
Power Output
100’s of watts to MW’s
A function of available head and water flow
Require penstocks and sometimes dams
Advantages
Low cost
Disadvantages
Limited sites
Permitting is difficult
October 18, 2003 Distributed Generation Course
15 of 42
San Francisco Power
Engineering Society
Small Hydro
(cont’d)
Good Applications
Remote sites
16 of 42
Engineering Society
Conventional Gas Turbine
17 of 42
Engineering Society
(cont’d)
FUEL
COMBUSTOR
GENERATOR
AIR
COMPRESSOR TURBINE ~ POWER
18 of 42
Engineering Society
(cont’d)
Efficiency
20-40% (size dependent)
Up to 80% when used for cogeneration
Fuels
Natural gas, liquid fuels
Power Output
500 KW – 100 MW
Dependent on ambient conditions
19 of 42
Engineering Society
(cont’d)
High pressure gas or gas compressor required
To meet California emissions limits
¾ Use only natural gas and
¾ Steam injection or
¾ Selective catalytic reduction
In hot areas inlet air chillers or evaporative cooling helps

maintain power output
20 of 42
Engineering Society
(cont’d)
Advantages
Low capital cost
Proven technology
Disadvantages
Air permitting required
Relatively skilled operating and maintenance personal required
Good Applications
MW size cogeneration at industrial facilities
21 of 42
Engineering Society
Microturbine
Similar to conventional gas turbines but typically use single
stage compressor and turbine.
22 of 42
Engineering Society
Microturbine
(cont’d)
Efficiency
20-28%
Up to 80% when used for cogeneration
Power Output
25-500KW
Fuels
Natural gas, liquid fuels, landfill gas (down to 350 BTU/scf)
Require 100psi gas or compressor
Cogeneration works best when providing hot water
23 of 42
Engineering Society
Microturbine
(cont’d)
Advantages
Physically small, packaged systems available with all controls
and electrical protective functions
Relatively low capital cost
Meet California emissions requirements
If used base loaded, yearly maintenance is limited to air filter
replacement
Disadvantages
5 year life
Life will be reduced by frequent starts and stops and cycling
24 of 42
Engineering Society
Microturbine
(cont’d)
Good Applications
Cogeneration at commercial and industrial sites
Landfill power
25 of 42
Engineering Society
Internal Combustion Engines
Use either Otto cycle (similar to automotive engines) or diesel
Efficiency
25-45%
Fuels
Natural gas, diesel, landfill gas, digester gas
Power Output
5KW - 7MW
26 of 42
Engineering Society
(cont’d)
To meet California emissions requirements require SCR and
use of natural gas
Advantages
Technically mature, widely used technology
Disadvantages
High noise
Emissions
Maintenance
27 of 42
Engineering Society
(cont’d)
Good Applications
Cogeneration (using jacket water) at commercial and industrial
sites
28 of 42
Engineering Society
Steam Turbine
Expand steam to produce rotation of a generator
Efficiency
Approximately 20-40% cycle efficiency
Fuels
Boiler required
¾ Can burn a variety of fuels
29 of 42
Engineering Society
Steam Turbine
(cont’d)
Power Output
KW – MW size
Requires a boiler with sufficient pressure and temperature
steam
Requires overspeed protection
30 of 42
Engineering Society
Steam Turbine
(cont’d)
Advantages
Low cost if boiler exists
Disadvantages
Typical commercial and industrial boilers do not provide high
pressure steam
Good Applications
Limited uses for distributed generation
May be part of a combined cycle plant in which gas turbine
waste heat is recovered in a heat exchanger to run a steam
turbine.
31 of 42
Engineering Society
Fuel Cells
Four types under development
¾ Phosphoric Acid (PAFC)
¾ Molton Carbonate (MCFC)
¾ Solid Oxide (SOFC)
¾ Proton Exchange Membrane (PEMFC)
Similar to a battery (chemical reaction)
32 of 42
Engineering Society
Fuel Cells
(cont’d)
Hydrogen mixes with air, is broken down into protons

and electrons, and positively charged ions move
through the electrolyte across a voltage to produce
electric power
33 of 42
Engineering Society
Fuel Cells
(cont’d)
Efficiency
30-60%
Fuels
Natural gas, hydrogen. Some can use landfill gas, propane, and
diesel
Power Output
1 KW-10MW
Non hydrogen fuels must be reformed into hydrogen (e.g.,
steam reformer for methane)
34 of 42
Engineering Society
Fuel Cells
(cont’d)
Advantages
High efficiency
Potentially 0 emissions
Disadvantages
Complex
Still experimental
High cost
Good Applications
Once perfected could have very wide application
35 of 42
Engineering Society
Fuel Cells
(cont’d)
36 of 42
Engineering Society
Hybrid Fuel Cell/Microturbine
FUEL FUEL
FUEL CELL COMBUSTOR
GENERATOR
POWER
AIR
COMPRESSOR TURBINE ~ POWER
O Fuel cell efficiency is improved at high pressure

O Combines a solidoxide fuel cell with a microturbine
37 of 42
Engineering Society
(cont’d)
Efficiency
60-70%
Fuels
Natural gas, hydrogen
38 of 42
Engineering Society
(cont’d)
Power Output
KW – MW
Advantages
Extremely high fuel to electric conversion efficiency
Low emissions
Disadvantages
Very high cost
Infant technology
Good Applications
If perfected will have very wide applicability
39 of 42
Engineering Society
Installed Costs
40 of 42
Engineering Society
CONCLUSIONS
41 of 42
Engineering Society
Many technologies are available and proven
Distributed generation has barely made inroads in a

potentially massive market
Distributed generation has huge potential to reduce

fossil fuel consumption via the high efficiency of
cogeneration v.s. centralized power plants
For more information, see:

www.energy.ca.gov/distgen
42 of 42
Engineering Society
Distributed Generation Principles
Electrical Systems
Presented by Dr. ShyShenq Liou

IEEE San Francisco Power

Engineering Society
October 18, 2003
Solar Power
•Fundamentals
•Electrical Characteristics
•Cell, Module, and Array
•Maximum Power Tracker
•Power Electronics Circuits
Incoming p-type mateiral
Photon
Hole
EHP
n-type material
Electron
Basic Operation of Solar pn Junction

V-I Characteristics of Solar Cell
 qV

I = I l − I o  e kT
− 1 
 
I l is the current from Photon
−19
q =1.6 ×10 coul
− 23
k =1.38 ×10 j/K
T is the cell temperatur e in K
V is the voltage of the cell
I SC = I l
kT I l + I o
VOC = ln
q Io
Pmax = I m Vm = FF I SC VOC
FF is the cell fill factor
Cell Current
Illumination Level
Cell Voltage
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell

I
Cell
Module
V
Array

Blocking Diode
Bypass Diode

Concept of Maximum Power Tracker
Load Line
Cell Current
Load Line
Illumination Level
Load Line
Cell Voltage

D
Vout = Vin
1− D
MOSFET
Diode
Inductor
Capacitor
Resistor
Cell
Module
Buck-Boost DC to DC Converter
Overview of Fuel Cell
•Brief Introduction
•Fundamentals
•Electrical Characteristics
Brief Introduction
• Fuel Cell was invented by William R.
Grove in 1839. It was called
“Gaseous Voltaic Battery
• Fuel Cell is an electrochemical

“device” that continuously converts
chemical energy into electric energy
(and some heat) for as long as fuel
and oxidant are supplied.
Three Major Applications
• Transportation
–Automobiles
• Stationary Power Generation

–Low CO2 emission
–CHP
• Portable Applications
–Camping
–Yachting
Type of Fuel Cell
FC Type Electrolyte Operatin Fuel Electric Power
g Temp. Efficiency Range
AFC KOH 60-120 C Pure H2 35-55% < 5 kW
PEMFC Solid 50-100 C Pure H2 35-45% 5-250 kW

Polymer
PAFC Phosphoric ~220 C Pure H2 40% 200 kW
acid (CHP)
MCFC Lithium & ~650 C H2, CO, > 50% 200 kW to
Potassium CH2, and MW
Carbonate others
SOFC Solid Oxide ~1000 C H2, CO, >50% 2 kW to
CH2, and MW
others
AFC: Alkaline FC PEMFC: Proton Exchange Membrane FC
PAFC: Phosphoric Acid FC MCFC: Molten Carbonate
SOFC:
October 18, Solid
2003 Oxide FC San Francisco Power Engineering Society 14 of 38
Membrane Electrode Assembly of PEMFC
e−
+
H
Anode
Cathode
H+ H +
H 2 in H+ O2 in
+
H
M em brane
G as D iffusion
Layer/S ubstrate C atalyst Layer
H 2 O out
H 2 → 2H + + 2 e−
1
O 2 + 2 H + + 2 e − → H 2 O ( E r = 1 . 23 V )
2
V-I Characteristic of Fuel Cell
Cell Potential in volt
E ffic ienc y of F C ~ to C ell Voltage
Power C urve
C ell C urrent in A /(c m square)

Wind Power
• Major components
• Typical Wind Turbine Power Curve
• Possible choices of generator
• Power Electronics

Major Components of a Wind Turbine
Control
Hub
Drive Train Generator
Main Frame/Yaw System
Rotor
Balance of
Electrical System
Tower
Foundation

Typical Wind Turbine Power Curve
C u t-ou t
(~ 2 0 m /s )
Power
R ated
C u t-in
(~ 7 m /s )
W in d S peed, m /s
Possible Generators
• Synchronous Machine
• Induction Machine
• Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine
• Direct Drive Generator
• Switched Reluctance Generator
• DC Machine
– DC Shunt Machine
– High Maintenance and high cost
Induction Machine
• Motoring when speed is less than
synchronous speed
– 2-pole: 3600 RPM
– 4-pole:1800 RPM
– 6-pole: 1200 RPM
• Generating when speed is above the
synchronous
• Slip is usually 2% to 3%
• Self starting using wind!
• Run as induction motor to start!
Torque/Power Speed Curve for
Induction Generator/Motor

Synchronous Machine
• Usually started by the wind

• Synchronization is needed to connect to
existing AC power system
• Active rotor speed control maybe needed

Permanent Magnet Machine
• Generator of choice for <10 kW unit

• Permanent magnets mounted on rotor
provides field excitation
• Armature on stator is stationary! No need
to have commutator, slip rings, brushes!
• AC output has variable frequency and
magnitude.
• Rectified to DC, inverted to AC, then
connected to grid.
Direct Drive Generator
• Synchronous Generator of special design

• Large no. of poles so it can be coupled to
the wind turbine rotor. No gearbox is
needed.
• Diameter is large!
• Power Converters are needed to cope with
varying magnitude and frequency!

Switched Reluctance Machine
• a.k.a. Variable Reluctance Machine

• A huge stepper motor or generator
• Popular in traction applications
• Electrical characteristics are similar to
those of series DC machines
• Made possible because of power
electronics and digital control
• Difficult to compete against Induction
Machines economically
Power Converter
• Block diagram of a motor drive where the power

flow is unidirectional
Diode-Rectifier with a Capacitor Filter
• Power electronics load is represented by an equivalent load

resistance
Three-Phase, Full-Bridge Rectifier
• Commonly used

Three-Phase Inverter
• Three inverter legs; capacitor mid-point is

fictitious
Switch-Mode DC-AC Inverter
• Block diagram of a motor drive where the power

flow can be bi-directional
Vdc A VAB B
Single-Phase DC-AC Inverter

PWM to Synthesize Sinusoidal Output
• The dotted curve is the desired output; also the

fundamental frequency
Three-
Phase
PWM
Waveforms

Vdc A VAB B
Single-Phase DC-AC Inverter

X
Current I
AC AC
VAB
VSource
I
VSource jIX
VAB
pf = 0, leading
X
Current I
AC AC
VAB
VSource
pf = 0, lagging VAB jIX
I
VSource

Vdc A B C
Three-Phase DC-AC Inverter

Distribution System Characteristics
Presented by Willie Chew

Pacific Gas & Electric Company

October 18, 2003
Radial Distribution
Most Common Type Used by most Utilities

• Single Path of Supply – One primary
source, one transformer, one secondary
source
• Main Line Usually Connected at
various points to Adjacent Circuits
by Switches
Radial Primary Feeder
Mainly used for overhead distribution systems

• Customers exposed to outages when
equipment fails
• Easy to locate trouble and faults
• Cost effective to install

Radial Primary – Overhead

Overhead Line Protection
• Fuses
• Line Reclosers
• Circuit breaker at substation has automatic
reclosing
-- Typical 3 shots to lockout

Radial Loop Primary
• Mainly for Underground Distribution

Systems
• Provides 2 Supply Paths for Loads
• Usually installed where there is a
concentration of Commercial or Industrial
Customers

Radial Loop - Primary

Underground Protection
Subsurface Fused Switches

• Interrupters
• Circuit breaker at substation has no
automatic reclosing

Most Common Causes of Faults
• Wind and Trees (46%)

• Equipment Failure (12%)
• Human Error ( 9%)
• Weather (26%)
• Foreign Objects (1.5%)

Voltage Regulation
• Load Tap Changers (LTC) on substation

banks
• Station Capacitor Banks
• Field Capacitor Banks
• Autoboosters

Low Voltage AC Network
Distribution Systems
Uses Redundant Facilities to Provide

almost 100% Service Reliability
Intended to serve Commercial Loads in a
High Density Areas
Design for Underground Installations
Two Types – Grid & Spot Networks
Grid or Dispersed Network
Used for Small to Medium Commercial Loads

Transformers dispersed over a Large Area
Has a “Grid” of Interconnected Cables
energized at 120/208 Volt, 3 phase
Grid energized at multiple points by
Transformers
Multiple Primary Circuits operate in parallel to
supply power to Grid Transformers
Dispersed Network

Spot Networks
For Large Concentrated, Commercial Loads

Has Same Reliability and Operating Features as
a Grid
Secondary Voltage is usually 277/480 Volt
Usually Serves only one Customer
Types of Customers: High Rise Office Bldgs
and Hotels, Computer Facilities,
Communication Centers, & Retail Centers
Spot Network

Disadvantages
High Secondary Fault Currents – Up to 200,000

Amp. In Certain Areas
Large Space Requirement for Transformer
Vaults
Cost of Purchasing Multiple Transformers and
Extension of Multiple Primary Circuits
Reliability affected by Bulk Power Source
RADIAL NETWORK
One source Multiple sources
One transformer Multiple
One sec path. transformers
Reliability: Multiple sec paths
~95% for some rural areas Reliability: >99.999%
~99.85-99.95 % for urban
areas

Measured Reliability of
Overhead Underground Automatic
Grid Spot
Type of System Radial Loop Radial Loop Radial Transfer
Network Network
System System Scheme
Outages Per Year 0.3 - 1.3 0.4 - 0.7 0.4 - 0.7 0.1 - 0.5 0.005 - 0.020 0.02 - 0.10
Average Outage
90 65 60 180 135 180
Duration (min)
Momentary
Interruptions Per 5 - 10 10 - 15 4-8 4-8 ~0 0-1
Year
Table extracted from ELECTRICAL WORLD, May 1992

Based on information supplied by Consolidated Edison
Fault Capabilities
(3 phase RMS symmetrical)
Voltage Radial Network
Primary 600 to 21,000 8600 to 21,000 A.

Amp. 13,500 t0 12,000 A.
(4 to 34.5 KV)
Secondary 10,000 to 3,000 to
(208 & 240 V) 42,000 Amp 200,000 Amp
Secondary 18,000 to 36,000 to

(460 & 480 V) 52,000 Amp 175,000 Amp
Assymmetry Factor : 1.0 to 1.6
Commercial Load Pattern

Residential Load Pattern

Commercially Available
DG Systems & Applications –
Gary Olson
Cummins Power Generation
October 18, 2003

DG Fundamentals Workshop 1 of 55 San Francisco Power Engineering Society
October 2003 DG Systems and Applications
DG Concept Changing load dynamics
z Move to service economy
z Flexible manufacturing (automation)
z Deregulation
7,000
z Available technology is more flexible
Peak
•Capacity… 25% to 20% US market size
•Energy… 2.5% to 2.5% z 13GW new load per year*
z Peaking and shoulder = 7.5GW new load
Shoulder Targeted Generation delivers lowest

•Capacity… 30% to 30% cost energy
100 •Energy… 12.5% to 17.5% z Use base load assets to supply base load
$/MWh
z Efficient Intermediate assets remove need

for true “peak” assets
Market uncertainty creates a premium
Base for flexible assets
•Capacity… 45% to 50%
•Energy… 85% to 80%
20
3,000 4,800 8,760
Annual Running Hours

DG Fundamentals Workshop 2 of 55 *Source: EIA/DOE Annual Energy Outlook 2002 -2020
San Francisco Power Engineering Society
Drivers for New Technology
–Lower total cost
• Equipment
• Fuel efficiency
–Lower emissions
–Power quality

Technologies Reviewed
• Recip Diesel Engines
• Advanced Recip Gaseous Fuel
Engines
• Gas Turbines
• Microturbines
• Fuel cells
• Wind/Solar

How do the Technologies and
Markets Fit Together?
Fuel Cell
Ultra low emissions
Diesel Recip High efficiency
Low $/kW Cogen options
High efficiency Very high $/kW
NOx/PM Issues Size Issues
Application needs
Hours operation?
Capital availability?
Permitting requirements?
Fuel availability? Microturbine
Natural Gas Recip Fuel tolerant
Low emissions Very low emissions
Low $/kW Compact size
Cogen options Cogen options
Size Issues High $/kW
Fuel issues

Distributed Generation
Growth rate of DG is highly dependent on assumptions and
variables.
Factors Expectations Impact
Ratio ofavg utility rates to DOE Short term estimate = regional TBD
gas fuel prices DOE Long term estimate. = Negative
declining
Peak utility rates in high Political pressure to hold retail Positive if utilities rebate
service cost areas (< 5% of pricing, utility rebates are a
service) possibility (to promote getting off the
grid)
- Utility generating Positive
reserve capacity New gas plant additions
diminishing
Positive
- Utility transmission More capacity with efficient
capacity diminishing management
Utility support of dist. gen. Improving due to growing Positive

deregulation
Energy service companies Entrepreneurial adoption of new Positive

technology

Market Trends
• Standby
– Significant growth in IT and Telecom
• Interruptible and Peak shaving
– Growth
• Distributed Generation
– Potential for Growth

Distributed Generation Application Issues
• Equipment cost
• Operating costs
– Fuel (consumption and price)
– Maintenance
• Emissions regulations
• Utility interconnection issues
• Utility Rate Structure
– Demand, energy, backup
– Evaluate based on site conditions

Pros and Cons for DG
• Pro: • Con:
– Low risk venture – Most Customers are not in the
– Returns can be very good power generation business
– Improves Facility Power – Return may not be as high as
System Reliability other projects competing for
capital
• “Free” Standby
– More complex power system
– Test/Exercise Benefits
• less reliable?
– Environmental Issues
• Exhaust
• Noise

Equipment Costs Vs Technology
3000 FY03 TQG
Fuel Cells Near Term
2500
DOE Fuel Cell

Better
2000 Program Targets

Price ($/kWe)
Long Term
1500
Microturbine Gas Turbine

1000 (Recuperated) (Non-recuperated)
500
Natural Gas Diesel Recip
Recip
0
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Power (Kw)

Thermal Efficiency Vs. Technology
0.55 Fuel Cell/
M icroturbine
Target 60-70%
0.50 Fuel Cells Diesel Recip
Efficiency (full load)
0.45
Natural Gas Recip
0.40 (Lean Burn)
Stationary
0.35 DOE Fuel
Cell Target
0.30
Mobile
Electrical
0.25
Better
0.20 Gas Turbine Gas Turbine

Natural Gas Recip Recuperated (Non-recuperated)
0.15 (Stoichiometric)
0.10
1 10 100 1000 10000
Power (kWe)
Hydrocarbon Fuels
CHP = Cogeneration
Mechanical Electrical output 42%
HT circuit (90-100°C)16% Total

efficiency
Lube Oil circuit (75-90°C) 5%
Thermal 87 %
Exhaust gas ( -> 120°C) 24%
Generator losses 1% Losses 14 %

Cooling circuit CAC 2%
Engine radiation 3%
Exhaust gas (120° + unburnt HC.) 8%

Market Segment Drivers
Market Operation Low Low low Low
Segment Hours per Initial Fuel Maint. Emissions
Year Cost Use ($/hr)
Standby <200
Interruptible 100-500
Peaking 1000-2000
Distributed >2000
Generation
Importance: High = green

Medium = yellow
Low = red
Economic Evaluation
Cost Benefit
Initial/Leased Cost Lower Cost Power
vs.
Operating Cost Business Doesn’t
fail with the power

Emission level & air quality restrictions

Emissions Requirements
• There are no federal genset emissions standards for
stationary gensets
• Local state or county regulations exist in air quality non-
attainment areas.
– Often federal Mobile Off Highway (MOH) regulations
are adapted for diesel generators in non emergency
standby applications >200 hr/yr.
• Many states have no specific genset emissions
regulations
– General site emissions permitting requirements apply
– Typical solutions to issues are increasing exhaust
stack to increase dispersion
Some Emissions Basics
Cx Hy Sz + O2 + N2 CO2 + H2O + N2 + O2 + NOx + HC + CO + SOx + C
Diesel Air Major exhaust Exhaust components found

fuel constituents in trace concentrations
• NOx (NO & NO2) is a function of combustion when N2 and O2 react

under high temperatures
– Reacts with hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight to form ozone, a
component of photochemical smog
• CO is a function of combustion completeness
– Excess air, and stratified charge helps
• CO2 is a function of engine thermal efficiency
• Particulate matter is a function of fuel type and delivery system
(mainly a diesel engine issue with incomplete combustion of carbon)
• Low emissions can be attained by
– Fuel selection
– Engine technology
– Exhaust aftertreatment
Emissions Standards and Controls
Technology Options
Aftertreatment
Gas Turbine+ SCR 0.02 MOH - Mobile Off-
Highway
Lean burn gas recip + SCR 0.03
Tier 3 Diesel+ SCR 0.16 SCR - Selective

Catalytic Reduction
Tier 2 Diesel + SCR 0.27
TWC - Three-Way
Tier 1 Diesel+ SCR 0.42
Catalyst
Rich burn gas recip + TWC 0.45
Base Plant
Fuel Cell 0.01
Microturbine 0.40
Gas Turbine 0.76
Lean burn gas recip 1.5
US Utility Average 3.4
MOH Federal Regulations

Tier 3 Diesel 8.2
Tier 2 Diesel 13.6
Tier 1 Diesel 20.9
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00

NOx (lb/MWe-hr)

SCR Systems
• Effective, Rapidly Developing Technology
• High Cost
– Initial cost
– Operating cost
• Risks
2 MW Diesel DG Module with SCR

Noise
dBA
Noise Level vs. Technology
85
84
83
82 Open GenSet
81
80 85 dBA
79
78
77 Attenuated modular Microturbine
76 GenSet or custom
75 GenSet
74 Stage I 71 dBA
73 73 dBA
72 Stage II 67 dBA
71 63 dBA w/silencer Fuel Cell
70 option
69
59 dBA est..
68
67
66
65 Ref., commercial air
64 conditioner is 61 dBA
63
62
61 Common Property Line Requirement:
60
59
58
50 dBA
57
60 KW @ 7 Meters - Uninstalled
Hythane
• Potential to introduce H2 using existing distribution and minor
engine modifications
• 20% H2 and 80% NG can provide a 50% reduction in NOx
emissions at equivalent efficiencies
Hydrogen
• Easily used in turbines and fuel cells
• Advance reciprocating engines can provide low emissions and
good fuel economy
• Fuel cells provide an incremental improvement in fuel efficiency
and emissions over turbines and reciprocating engines
•A challenge is to produce and distribute hydrogen at a
commercially viable cost
Fuel Storage Volume and Cost Comparison
Fuel Storage Capacity Required gal/kW-hr Fuel Cost Comparison for <10kW Generation
1.80 $5.00
Industrial $4.38
1.54 $4.50 "A"
1.60
Fuel Storage Volume Req'd gal/kW-hr
Cylinder
$4.00
1.40
$3.50
1.20
Fuel Cost $/kW-hr

$3.00 Industrial
1.00
Bulk Gas
$2.50
Pricing
0.80
$2.00
DOE-GTI
0.60 $1.63
$1.50 NG
Reforming
0.40
0.25 $1.00 Study
0.20 0.13
$0.50 $0.28
$0.11 $0.29
0.00
$-
#2 Diesel Fuel LPG H2 @ 3600 PSI Diesel Genset LPG Genset PEM Cell
(Genset 1/2 (Genset 1/2 (PEM Cell) (1/2 load) (1/2 load) on H2
Load) Load) no tax no tax

Fuel Cell Technologies
Germanischer Lloyd

Attributes of fuel cell technologies
Technology Size Eff. Operating Maturity COST FEATURES ISSUES

N gas fuel Temp C 5-8 yr
< 100KW 36% 20 - 120 C medium high fast complex
PEM
response reformer
3M, Ballard 28% sm.
Phosphoric >100KW 40% 160 - 650 C high very mature expensive
Fuel Cells Int'l.
high
Carbonate >100KW 50% 600 - 650 C medium high efficient •low density
FuelCell Energy •therm.cycle
Solid Oxide 5-1000KW 50% 900 - 1,000 C low high efficient •maturity
Westinghouse
SOFCo 30% sm. •start time
Highest potential for broad applications

Gaseous Recip Fuel Engines
• Stoichiometric Engines
– Carburated, spark plug ignition
• Lean Burn Engines
– Close fuel/air ratio control, spark ignited
• Fumigation Techniques
– Diesel start and pilot ignition, gas induction
– 5% diesel in operation = lower maintenance
• High Pressure Injection
– Higher power (+30%), efficiency (+2%)
– Lower emissions (1/2 g/bhp-hr NOx w/o aftertreat)

Direct Gas Injection Technology
• Gas is compressed on
the engine and Injected in
the cylinder at 3600psi
• Diesel fuel is injected to

initiate combustion
Natural Gas Jet
(approx.. 5% of fuel) A
• The lean gas/air mixture

burns to completion

Microturbine Manufactures
Elliott 45 kW System Cummins Power Generation

NREC 80 kW System
30KW and 60 KW Systems

What Makes Up a Microturbine System?
EXHAUST
Recuperator
Combustor Fuel
Compressor FUEL
Power AC
AIR Compressor Turbine Generator Inverter POWER
60 Hz, 480
VAC

Block Diagram:
Microturbine system with CHP

Integrating DG into a Site
New Systems:
– Traditional Practical Limit for Synchronous Generator
Sets: >600A
• New breaker and control technologies make “electrically”
practical down to approx. 200A
– NO DISTURBANCE
• Soft Transfer Systems
» Hard closed transition doesn’t work
• Paralleling/Soft Transfer Systems
» To stay connected, or not: that is the question...
– Cogen/Renewable any size
• Retrofit Systems
– Paralleling and Large Generator Sets

New Installations
Utility
GenSet
52 = CIRCUIT BREAKER
R R = UTILITY PROTECTION
52 52
52
52 52 52

New Multiple Unit Installations
Utility
GenSet GenSet GenSet
R 52 52 52
52 52
52
52 52 52
DG Fundamentals Workshop 32 of 55 R = UTILITY

San Francisco Power
PROTECTION
Engineering Society
Typical Small DG or CHP
Utility
R = UTILITY PROTECTION
52
52 52 52
52 GenSet

Retrofit: Single Generator Set
Utility
GenSet
R 52 52
52
52 52 52 52 52 52 52
ATS
CRITICAL LOADS
ATS
CRITICAL LOADS
ATS
October 2003 DG Systems
CRITICALand Applications
LOADS
Retrofit: Multiple Gensets
Utility GenSet GenSet
R 52 52 52
52
52 52 52 52 52 52
ATS
CRITICAL LOADS
ATS
CRITICAL LOADS
ATS
October 2003 DG Systems
CRITICALand Applications
LOADS
Closed Transition Transfer
Closed Transition Watch For:
• Compliance to Rule 21
Transfer Equipment
– Fail to disconnect
IS • Compliance to NEC
UTILITY – Labeling
– Protection
PARALLELING
– Load Control (?)
EQUIPMENT • Performance you NEED
– Fast transfer = sudden load
change
– Transient Performance of
Genset

Stand-alone/Standby/Parallel/utility-
interactive/certified/load management
(No Utility Service or Standby Only)

PRIME Stand-Alone (Prime) Stand-Alone (Prime)
Power to Loads Power to Loads
SYSTEM DOWN
Standby Standby
STANDBY Utility Power Utility Power
Power to Loads Power to Loads

SYSTEM DOWN ON
Standby Standby NORMAL FAILURE
Standby
STANDBY
AND UTILITY Utility Power Utility Power
INTERACTIVE Power to Loads Power to Loads
time SYSTEM DOWN ON

LOAD SHARE
DG Fundamentals Workshop 37 of 55 NORMAL FAILURE
System Protection
UTILITY
PROTECTION
G G G
12470 V
2000
(TYP 3)
480 V
GENERATOR
PROTECTION
4000
4000
SWITCHGEAR &
FEEDER PROTECTION

REMOTE
Generator Protection
• I/O availability in digital controls
EC makes anything possible
ENGINE • Difficulty of:
GOV Protection vs. Reliability
• Protection Tuned for the Generator
AVR GEN – Overcurrent
– Over/Under Voltage
– Over/Under Frequency
CB – Loss of Field/Reverse Power
– Differential
POWER
TO
October 2003 LOAD DG Systems and Applications
Control and Protective Functions
GENSET
SURGE SUPPRESSORS
AM SW KW KWH PF 40 32 65 90 51V
VM SW HZ 27 81U 59
86
VM SW HZ 47 SYNC 25
SS
DIGITAL CONTROL
SWITCHGEAR TRIP
CLOSE

Utility Protection
• Design Depends • Common Protective
on: Devices:
– Local conditions – Over/Under Volts,
– Codes and Hz
Standards – Reverse Power
– Utility Practice – Directional Current
– More Variety than • Distribution
Generator Changes

Voltage Regulation/Frequency Regulation
• To the generator guy:
– The difference between steady state no load
and full load voltage or frequency, as a
percentage of nominal level
– Describes how well the machine can maintain
nominal levels over time
– Typical: +1% for voltage, +0.25% for Hz
• To a utility:
– An attempt by a device to change the voltage
or frequency of the utility service

REMOTE
Synchronous Generator Control
EC
ENGINE
• Active Controls include:
– Governor
GOV
• Measures speed
• Controls fuel rate AVR GEN
– AVR
• Measures voltage
• Controls excitation (field strength)
CB
• Both work like a cruise control
POWER
TO
DG Fundamentals Workshop 43 of 55 LOAD
The Need for Load Sharing
A
B RED: Phases
C Blue: Neutral
N
Green: Ground
G

Intertied Synchronous Generator Control
System
REMOTE
UTILITY/
MAINS
ALARM
PROT EC
ENGINE
LOAD SHARE
DATA
SENSE
LOGIC
GOV
I/E VAR/PF METER PROT SYNC ILS
25
AVR GEN
CB CB
POWER
TO
LOAD

Load Sharing/Following/Shedding
Utility
Sharing/Following:
GenSet
• 2 or more Sources
• Equal load share
R • Base load DG
52 52 • Track Utility
Shedding: Utility Only Source

• Peak Shave
52 • Drop Part Load
• Discontinue Operations
52 52 52

Mechanical Considerations
• Where are you going to put it?
• Mechanical Issues
– Getting waste heat out
– Using as much as practical
– Exhaust
– Vibration/Noise
– Fuel Storage and System Design

No Problem, we have PLENTY of room…

GenSet Energy Balance
• Recip Engine Burns Fuel--creates:
– Rotating mechanical energy/electrical power
– Heat
Exhaust 30%
Radiated Heat 10%
Cooling System 25%
Power Out 35%
Mechanical Energy
DG Fundamentals Workshop 49 of 55 Fuel (BTU) In

Wind Effects on HVAC

Noise Concerns
130 Pneumatic Riveter (130)
120 • Noise Ordinances Strict
110
100 Jet @ 1000ft (103) • Noise Levels of Many DG
90 Power Mower (96) 2000KW
High
80 Heavy Street Traffic (85) Genset Range
70 • 50KW
Cost of Noise Treatment is
60 Normal Conversation (65)
High
50 Light Traffic @ 100ft (55)
40 Library (40) – Particularly if you screw up
30
20 Broadcast Studio (20)
• Uncertain Enforcement

Fuel Storage…

Big Things to Remember…
• Best technology for a site depends on:
– Fuel availability, cost
– Emissions Restrictions
– Efficiency
– Mechanical Concerns
• There is no one best technology that will
work for every site
• Technology is driving costs down, so
owners need to keep watching for
opportunities
Prognosis
• DG will grow
– Big Incentives Nationally
– Economic viability to User
• Risk needs to be reduced
• Success depends on
– Planning
– Cooperative Venture between:
• User
• Developer/Supplier
• Utility
• Regulators
Questions?
Gary Olson
Cummins Power Generation
763-574-5055
Gary.L.Olson@cummins.com
Effects of Generation on
Radial Distribution Feeders
An IEEE Presentation
October 18, 2003
By
Mohammad Vaziri, Ph.D., P.E.

Generation Effects on:
A) Planning & Design

• Feeder Loading
• Voltage Regulators (Steady State)
• Voltage Flicker (Transient)
• Capacitor Controls
• Stability concerns
October 18, 2003 Distributed Generation Course 2 of 21

B) System Protection
• Overstress on equipment
• Protective equipment desensitization
• Islanding Conditions
• Ferro-resonance
• Nuisance Tripping

"Comparison of "Open Delta" and "Closed Delta"
Distribution Line Regulators.
1 - Phasor Diagram for the "Open-Delta" regulators

shows the Neutral Shift associated with Open Delta
regulators under "Full 10% Boost" condition.
2 - Phasor Diagram for the Closed Delta regulators
shows the derivation of the 15% regulation capability (
under full boost condition) when the 10% regulators are
connected in a Closed Delta configuration.

A’
1) A,B,C & N are source side phase &
neutral references
2) A’,B’C & N’ are load side phase &
A
0%
neutral references.
11
3) Matched regular steps assumed.

0%
10
N’
N
B
B’ C C’
BA = 100% AA’ = 10% Regulation
KVLL = BA’ = 110% of BA
NN’ = 5.8%(of line to line value = 10% of line to neutral value) = Neutral Shift
Source: M. Vaziri, “Effects of Co-Generation on Distribution System”, Thesis, CSUS 1991
1) Phasor Diagram – Open Delta Regulators

Consider the triangle AA’C, where angle A=120° and the sides AC’=a=1.1p.u. and AA’=b=0.1p.u. (assuming 10%
boost for the regulators).
Then; c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab Cos(A)

= 1.12 +0.12 -2(0.1)(1.1) Cos(120°) That is; 10% regulators are capable of 15%
regulation in a closed delta configuration. To
Then; c = √ 1.33 = 1.153
limit the regulation to a maximum of 10%, then
each regulator must be blocked at 87%.
b = 0.1 A’ 1) A,B,C & N are source side phase &

A’ neutral references
120° 2) A’,B’C & N’ are load side phase &
A neutral references.
c=
A 3) Matched regular steps assumed.
5%
Calculating the maximum
1.1
11
a
1.
possible shift;
5
0
0%
1.
Using the law of sines,
1
10
X°
N, °N’ sin 120° = sin X°
B 1.15 .1
0.
1
C’ solving for X;
B’ C C’
X = 4.3°
BA = 100% AA’ = 10%

KVLL = B’A’ = 115%
NN’ = 0 Neutral Shift
2) Phasor Diagram – Closed Delta Regulation

A’
1) A,B,C & N are source side phase &

0%
A neutral references
100 %
11
110 %
2) A’,B’C’ & N’ are load side phase &
0%
neutral references.
10
3) Matched regular steps assumed.

N, N’
B
C
C’
B’
NA = 100% AA’ = 10% L-N Regulation

KVLL = NA’ = 110%
NN’ = 0
1) Phasor Diagram – WYE Connected Regulators

Thevenin Equivalent of sequence networks at resonance neglecting resistance
Connection of sequence networks for a single phase-to-ground fault
October 18, 2003 11 of 21
Sanon thePower
Francisco 12.47 feeder
Engineering Society
Line Drop Compensator Circuitry in Voltage Regulators

I2t for a 3-phase fault on a 12.47 Kv feeder with a dispersed
synchronous generator

I2t for a phase-to-ground fault on a 12.47 Kv feeder with a
dispersed synchronous generator connected through grounded wye-
October 18, 2003
delta transformer of equal
Distributed Generation Course capacity 14 of 21
Open Delta Regulation:
• Usually installed on 3 wire systems
•Generates the same % neutral shift (of the line to neutral value) as the regulator contacts move away
from their neutral points. This neutral shift translates into E0 voltage, which means each stage of open
deltaOctober 18, 2003can produce a maximum Distributed
regulation
Generation Course
E0. Engineering Society
of 10%Power 15 of 21
San Francisco
fault
~ 10%
As it can be seen from the aboveDistributed

sequence network, E seen by the relay can be
Generation Course0
October 18, 2003 16 of 21
effected by the E0 generatedSan
byFrancisco
open deltaPowerregulators.
Engineering Society
Coordination Against Nuisance Tripping
Single Line, Positive, Negative, and Zero Sequence Diagram
Coordination Against Nuisance Tripping Using Xd’
Three Phases and Three Io Currents for Faults at F2
Desensetization of Recloser R1 after Interconnection of SDG
Three Phases Io Currents for Faults at F1
Grounded Y- Connection
San Francisco for SDG
Power Main Transformer
Engineering Society is assumed
References
1) Mohamad Y. Vaziri P.E., “Effects of GO Generation on
Distribution System”, M.S.EE Thesis CSUS 1991
2) Richard M. Moffatt, Customer Generation on the Distribution
System. Presented at the 34th Annual Conference for
Protective Relay Engineers, Texas A&M University, Collage
Station, Texas. April 13-18, 1981.
3) Roger C. Dugan and Dwight T. Rizy, “Electric Distribution
Protection Problems Associated with the Interconnection of
Small, Dispersed Generation Devices”. IEEE Transactions on
Power Apparatus and Systems, PAS-103 No. 6 June 1984

4) N.H. Malik, and A.A. Mazi, “Capacitance Requirements for
Isolated Self-Excited Induction Generators”, IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems 86 WM 219-0 pp. 62-69,
March 1987
5) Robert H. Jones, Measuring the Effects of Dispersed
Generation, Rochester Gas and Electric Company. Published
by Transmission & Distribution, a Cleworth Publication, pp.
50-54, August 1987.

Distributed Generation
Interconnection
Standards & Guidelines
Chuck Whitaker
Endecon Engineering
IEEE San Francisco PES DG Fundamentals Workshop

October 18, 2003
ENDECON
ENGINEERING
Interconnection Standards & Guidelines
• Regulatory Agency Interconnection Rules

– Muni Boards, State PUCs (i.e. Rule 21), FERC
• Equipment and Facility Requirement Standards
– IEEE 929, IEEE 1547, IEEE 1547.2
• Product Testing Standards
– UL1741, UL2200, IEEE C37.X , IEEE P1547.1, NEMA,
etc.
October 18, 2003 2 of 97

ENDECON Distributed Generation Course
ENGINEERING
Presentation Overview
• California Electric Rule 21

• IEEE 929
• IEEE 1547 Family
– 1547
– 1547.1
– 1547.2
• UL 1741
October 18, 2003 3 of 97

ENGINEERING
California Electric Rule 21
Standard for Interconnecting

Distributed Resources with Electric
Power Systems
(Thanks to Scott Tomashefsky)
October 18, 2003 4 of 97

ENGINEERING
What Is Rule 21?
• A term commonly referred to as interconnection

rules.
• Specific rule contained in the electricity tariff
booklets of the utilities under CPUC jurisdiction.
• Documentation of technical and procedural criteria
for connecting generation equipment to the utility
systems.
• Technology and size neutral.
October 18, 2003 5 of 97

ENGINEERING
Why Did Rule 21 Need Refinement?
• Rule was not designed for small-scale

DG interconnections.
• It did not address the benefits of

having a standardized rule in place.
– Increased cost to DG manufacturers.
– Larger degree of customization
required.
• It did not obligate utilities to review

applications within a particular
timeframe or provide any detailed
cost estimate to applicant.
October 18, 2003 6 of 97

ENGINEERING
What Were the Guiding Principles?
• Rules, protocols and processes should be clear and

transparent.
• Rules should be technology neutral, except when
differences are fully justified.
• A level playing field should be established for all DG
providers.
• Rules should be uniform throughout California.
• Utilities should be fairly compensated for
distribution services that support DG installations
and customers.
October 18, 2003 7 of 97

ENGINEERING
Rule 21 - Highlights
CPUC Jurisdictional Projects Only
Application Process
▲ Standard CPUC Form
▲ Application Fee:
➤ $800: Initial Review Only

➤ $600 Additional: Supplemental Review
➤ Cost Estimate for IC Study
▲ Utilities to Complete Within 10/20 Days
(Initial/Supplemental
October 18, 2003
Reviews Only) 8 of 97
ENGINEERING
Issues Addressed by the Rule 21 Working
Group
• Interconnection Fees
• Testing and Certification
Procedures
• Clear Engineering Review Process
• Interconnection Agreements
• Application Forms (Paper and
Electronic)
• Process for Continuing
Refinement
October 18, 2003 9 of 97

ENGINEERING
Technical Basis for Rule 21
Safety Is First Priority
Performance-Based
Technical Requirements
Identify Review Time and Potential

Costs
Technology-Neutral
October 18, 2003 10 of 97

ENGINEERING
Rule 21 Technical Requirements
Section D - Design & Operating

Requirements
1. General
• Protective Functions
• Momentary Paralleling
• Equipment Requirements
• Visible Disconnect
• Drawings Required DG Section D
October 18, 2003 11 of 97

ENGINEERING
(cont.)

Requirements
2. Prevention of Interference
• Normal Voltage Operating Range
• Flicker
• Frequency
• Harmonics
• Power Factor
October 18, 2003 12 of 97
ENGINEERING
(cont.)

Requirements
3. Control & Protective Functions

• Technology Specific Requirements
• Mitigation of Unintended Islanding
• Fault Detection
October 18, 2003 13 of 97

ENGINEERING
(cont.)
Section I - Review Process
Determines:
• Simplified Interconnection (via Initial

Review)
• Supplemental Review Determines If There

Are Additional Requirements for
Interconnection or...
• If an Interconnection Study Is Required

October 18, 2003 14 of 97
ENGINEERING
“The Networked Secondary System?
Yes
Review/ No
Screening Power Exported? Yes
Process” No
No
Supplemental
Equipment Certified?
Review
Yes
Aggregate Capacity < 15% of
No
Line Section Peak Load?
Yes $600
Starting Voltage Drop No
Screen Met?
Qualifies for Yes Yes
Simplified 11 kVA Or Less? No
Interconnection “or”
No
Meets Short Circuit Current No
Contribution Screen? Utility Provides
Qualifies Cost &
Yes
Yes for Schedule for
Meets Line
Interconnection Interconnection
Configuration Screen? Study
ENDECON
$800 Distributed
October 18, 2003
Generation Course
15 of 97
ENGINEERING
(cont.)
Section I - Supplemental Review
– Guideline Developed in 2002 Through

Rule 21 Working Group Process
– Goals: Identify Review Criteria and

Study Requirements
– Draft Issued in January
2003
October 18, 2003 16 of 97
ENGINEERING
(cont.)
Section J - Testing and Certification
– Certification Criteria
– Type Testing
CERTIFICATION
• Individual Tests - By Technology Type
• UL 1741 Referenced
• Surge Withstand Test
October 18, 2003 17 of 97

ENGINEERING
(cont.)
Section J - Testing/Certification
- Production Testing
- Commissioning Testing
• General Requirements
• Protective Functions to Be
Tested
• Impact of Certification
• Verification of Settings
• Trip Test
October 18, 2003 18 of 97

ENGINEERING
For More Information...
Scott Tomashefsky
California Energy Commission
Stomashe@energy.state.ca.us
www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/interconnection/interconnection.html
October 18, 2003 19 of 97

ENGINEERING
Other State Requirements
• NY SIR
http://www.dps.state.ny.us/distgen.htm
• Texas:
http://www.puc.state.tx.us/electric/projects/21965/21965.cfm
http://www.puc.state.tx.us/rules/subrules/electric/25.211/25.211ei.cfm
• Good resource: www.irecusa.org

– Sign up for Steve Kalland’s newsletter
October 18, 2003 20 of 97

ENGINEERING
IEEE Standards Classifications
1. Standards: documents with
mandatory requirements (shall)
2. Recommended Practices: documents in which
procedures and positions preferred
by the IEEE are presented (should)
3. Guides: documents in which alternative approaches
to good practice are suggested but
no clear-cut recommendations are made (may)
IEEE Standards are Voluntary.
October 18, 2003 21 of 97

ENGINEERING
IEEE 929-2000
P929
Recommended Practice for
• Passed by IEEE Utility Interface of
Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
Standards Board
in January, 2000.
Prepared by the Utility Working Group of
• Provides an
Standards Coordinating Committee 21, on Photovoltaics
Copyright © 1998 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc.
excellent primer
345 East 47th Street
New York, NY 10017, USA
All Rights Reserved
on PV inverter This is an IEEE Standards Project, subject to change. Permission is hereby granted for
IEEE Standards committee participants to reproduce this document for purposes of
IEEE standardization activities, including balloting and coordination. If this document
interconnection
is to be submitted to ISO or IEC, notification shall be given to the IEEE Copyrights
Administrator. Permission is also granted for member bodies and technical committees
of ISO and IEC to reproduce this document for purposes of developing a national
position. Other entities seeking permission to reproduce portions of this document for
issues. these or other uses must contact the IEEE Standards Department for the appropriate
license. Use of information contained in the unapproved draft is at your own risk.
IEEE Standards Department

Copyrights and Permissions
445 Hoes Lane, P.O. Box 1331
Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331, USA
October 18, 2003 22 of 97

ENGINEERING
The Need for PV Interconnection
Standards
● Many utilities were using rotating machinery
requirements for PV systems
● Many of the Interconnection Requirements
were established in early “PURPA” days
• too many requirements
• telemetery and “Utility Grade” relays
• special (and costly) engineering was needed for
each specific utility requirement
October 18, 2003 23 of 97

ENGINEERING
Purpose of IEEE 929
“This recommended practice contains guidance

regarding equipment and functions necessary to
ensure compatible operation of photovoltaic
systems which are connected in parallel with
the electric utility. This includes factors
relating to personnel safety, equipment
protection, power quality and utility system
operation.”
October 18, 2003 24 of 97

ENGINEERING
IEEE 929 Working Group
Consisted of Utilities and Industry
John Stevens, Chair D. Lane Garrett Miles Russell, Secr.
Sandia National Labs Southern Co. Services Ascension Technology
Mike Behnke Steve Hester, John Moriarty
Trace Technology UPVG Raytheon
Bill Brooks John Hoffner, Planergy Chet Napikoski

N. Carolina Sol. Center (ex Austin Electric) Arizona Public Service
John Bzura Barry Hornberger Jean Posbic
New England Electric PECO Energy Solarex
Steve Chalmers (Ret.) Bob Jones Jodi Smythe
Salt River Project Rochester G&E Underwriters Labs
Joe Chau Greg Kern Chase Sun
Florida Power & Light Ascension Technology Pacific Gas and Electric
Doug Dawson (Ret.) Leslie Libby Rick West
Southern Cal Edison Austin Electric UPG
Dick DeBlasio Don Loweberg Chuck Whitaker
Chair – IEEE SCC 21 IPP Endecon
Tom Duffy Tron Melzl Robert Wills
Central Hudson G&E Omnion Advanced Energy Sys.
Chris Freitas Tim Zgonena
Trace Engineering Underwriters Labs
October 18, 2003 25 of 97

ENGINEERING
What Does IEEE 929 Really Impact?
Utility Inverter PV Array

M
System
October 18, 2003 26 of 97

ENGINEERING
IEEE 929 Outline
• Introduction
• 1. Overview (scope & purpose)
• 2. References
• 3. Definitions (inverter, islanding, PCC,
quality factor, etc.)
• 4. Power quality
• 5. Safety and protection functions
• Annexes
October 18, 2003 27 of 97
ENGINEERING
IEEE 929-2000 Power Quality
• Power quality problems in general are rising

because of proliferation of non-linear loads on
utility systems -- all customers suffer
• PV should not add to that problem
October 18, 2003 28 of 97

ENGINEERING
IEEE 929-2000 Power Quality
• Power Quality
– 1. Service Voltage
• Inverters inject current, don’t regulate voltage
• Voltage operating range is a protective function
– 2. Voltage Flicker
• IEEE 519-1992
– 3. Frequency
• Frequency operating range is a protective function
– 4. Waveform Distortion
• IEEE 519-1992
– 5. Power Factor
• >0.85 at >10% of rated output power
October 18, 2003 29 of 97

ENGINEERING
IEEE 929-2000
Safety and Protection Functions
• Response to Abnormal Utility Conditions
– Voltage Disturbances
– Frequency Disturbances
– Islanding Protection
• Annex A Anti-Islanding Test
– Reconnect After a Utility Disturbance
• 5 min delay
• Direct Current Isolation
– <0.5% of rated output current
• Grounding
– Meet local codes
• Manual Disconnect
– Not required for non-islanding inverters
October 18, 2003 30 of 97

ENGINEERING
IEEE 929-2000 Response to
Abnormal Utility Conditions
Voltage (at PCC) Maximum Trip Time*
V< 60 (V<50%) 6 cycles
60≤V<106 (50%≤V<88%) 120 cycles
106≤V≤132 (88%≤V≤110%) Normal Operation
132<V<165 (110%<V<137%) 120 cycles
165≤V (137%≤V) 2 cycles
Frequency (at PCC) Maximum Trip Time*
<59.3 Hz 6 cycles
59.3 - 60.5 Hz (normal) --
>60.5 Hz 6 cycles
*”Trip time” refers to the time between the abnormal condition being applied and the
inverter ceasing to energize the utility line. The inverter will actually remain
connected to the utility to allow sensing of utility electrical conditions for use by the
“reconnect” feature.
October 18, 2003 31 of 97
ENGINEERING
IEEE 929-2000
Manual Disconnect Switch
PV Array
Local
Loads
Utility
System M Inverter
October 18, 2003 32 of 97

ENGINEERING
IEEE 929-2000 - Annexes
• Annex A (Normative) – Minimum Test Procedure for

a Non-Islanding PV Inverter
• Annex B (Informative) - Bibliography
• Annex C - PV Inverters and the Utility Interface
(Terminology)
• Annex D - Disconnect Switches & Utility Procedures
• Annex E - Islanding as it Applies to PV Systems
• Annex F - The PV Inverter Under Utility Fault
Conditions
• Annex G - Dedicated Distribution Transformer
October 18, 2003 33 of 97
ENGINEERING
IEEE 1547-2003
Standard for Interconnecting

Distributed Resources with Electric
Power Systems
(Thanks to Richard DeBlasio and Tom Basso)
October 18, 2003 34 of 97

ENGINEERING
IEEE 1547 Body of Standards
1547 Standard for Interconnecting Distributed
Resources with Electric Power Systems
Guide for Networks
Guide for Impacts
P1547.3
Draft Guide for Monitoring,
Information Exchange and Guide for Islanding &
Control of DR
Guide Anti-Islanding
Interconnected with EPS For
Interconnection
P1547.2 P1547.1
System Draft Standard for
Draft Application
Guide for IEEE Certification Conformance Test
P1547 Draft Procedures for
Standard for Equipment
Interconnecting Interconnecting
Distributed Distributed
Resources with Resources with
Electric Power Electric Power
DR Specifications and
Systems Systems
Performance
October 18, 2003 35 of 97
ENGINEERING
IEEE P1547
Drafts 7 and 8 Ballot Status
Requirements for adoption: 75% ballot return, 75% affirmative
Round 1-- Draft 7 Round 2 -- Draft 8

• Balloting completed 4/1/01 • Recirculation completed 10/2/01
• 91% ballot returns • 96% ballot returns
• 66% affirmative • 66% affirmative
• Addressed negative comments • New Draft TBD
Voter Category Affirm Negative Voter Category Affirm Negative

- User 30 23 - User 25 33
- Producer 35 12 - Producer 43 6
- General Interest 28 15 - General Interest 35 14
October 18, 2003 36 of 97

ENGINEERING
IEEE P1547 Draft 10 Ballot Status
Requirements for adoption: 75% ballot returns, 75% affirmatives
Ballot Results
• Ballot Action August 28 - September 26, 2002
• 93% ballot returns (230 in ballot group)
• 90% affirmatives
• 10% negatives
• 3% abstentions
Voter Category Affirmatives Negatives

- User 63 9
- Producer 57 4
- General Interest 59 6
- Government 8 1
Voting Tally 187 20
October 18, 2003 37 of 97
ENGINEERING
IEEE P1547 Draft 11 Ballot Status
Requirements for adoption: 75% ballot returns, 75% affirmatives
D
• June 2003: IEEE Standards Board Meeting
V E Ballot Results
O
• Ballot Action February 7 - 28, 2003
• 95% ballot returns (230 in ballot group)
P R
• 89% affirmatives
• 9% negatives
P
• 2% abstentions
A
October 18, 2003 38 of 97
ENGINEERING
1547: Interconnection Is The Focus
Area
Distributed Interconnection Electric
Resource Power
(DR) System System
unit (EPS)
October 18, 2003 39 of 97

ENGINEERING
1547 Interconnection Terms
Area Electric Power System (EPS)
Point of Common
PCC PCC
Coupling (PCC)
Point of DR
Connection Point of DR
Connection
Load DR unit DR unit Load
Local EPS 1 Local EPS 2 Local EPS 3

Note: There can be any
October number of Local EPSs.
18, 2003 40 of 97
ENGINEERING
IEEE 1547-2003 Contents
INTRODUCTION
1.0 OVERVIEW
1.1 Scope
1.2 Purpose
1.3 Limitations
2.0 REFERENCES
3.0 DEFINITIONS
October 18, 2003 41 of 97

ENGINEERING
1.1 Scope
This standard establishes criteria and requirements for interconnection of
distributed resources (DR) with electric power systems (EPS).
1.2 Purpose
This document provides a uniform standard for interconnection of distributed
resources with electric power systems. It provides requirements relevant to
the performance, operation, testing, safety considerations, and maintenance
of the interconnection.
The requirements shall be met at the point of common coupling (PCC),
although the devices used to meet these requirements can be located
elsewhere. This standard applies to interconnection based on the aggregate
rating of all the DR units that are within the Local EPS. The functions of the
interconnection system hardware and software that affect the Area EPS are
required to meet this standard regardless of their location on the EPS.
The stated specifications and requirements, both technical and testing, are
universally needed for interconnection of DR, including synchronous
machines, induction machines, or power inverters/converters, and will be
sufficient for most installations.1
1 Additional technical requirements and/or tests may be necessary for some limited situations.
situations.
October 18, 2003 42 of 97

ENGINEERING
4.0 INTERCONNECTION TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS AND
REQUIREMENTS
4.1 General Requirements
4.2 Response to Area EPS Abnormal Conditions
4.3 Power Quality
4.4 Islanding
5.0 INTERCONNECTION TEST SPECIFICATIONS AND
REQUIREMENTS
5.1 Design Test
5.2 Production Tests
5.3 Interconnection Installation Evaluation
5.4 Commissioning Tests
5.5 Periodic Interconnection Tests
ANNEX A (INFORMATIVE) BIBLIOGRAPHY

October 18, 2003 43 of 97
ENGINEERING
4.1.1 Voltage Regulation (Don’t!)
4.1.2 Integration with Area EPS Grounding (Coordinate)
4.1.3 Synchronization (<5% voltage fluctuation, no flicker)
4.1.4 Distributed Resources on Distribution Secondary Grid and Spot
Networks
4.1.4.1 Distribution Secondary Grid Networks
4.1.4.2 Distribution Secondary Spot Networks
4.1.5 Inadvertent Energization of the Area EPS (Don’t!)
4.1.6 Monitoring Provisions
4.1.7 Isolation Device (Disconnect Switch)
4.1.8 Interconnect Integrity
4.1.8.1 Protection from Electromagnetic Interference (C37.90.2)
4.1.8.2 Surge Withstand Performance (C62.41 or C37.90.1)
4.1.8.3 Paralleling Device (withstand 220% of rated voltage)
October 18, 2003 44 of 97
ENGINEERING
4.2 Response to Area EPS Abnormal Conditions
4.2.1 Area EPS Faults (detect faults, cease to energize)
4.2.2 Area EPS Reclosing Coordination (coordinate)
4.2.3 Voltage (<60V,106V – 132V, >144V)
4.2.4 Frequency (59.3 – 60.5 Hz)
4.2.5 Loss of Synchronism (not required unless there is flicker)
4.2.6 Reconnection To Area EPS (up to 5 min, C84.1 Range B)
4.3 Power Quality
4.3.1 Limitation of DC Injection (>0.5% of rated output current)
4.3.2 Limitation of Flicker Induced by the DR (Don’t)
4.3.3 Harmonics (~IEEE 519)
4.4 Islanding
4.4.1 Unintentional Islanding (Don’t)
4.4.2 Intentional Islanding (Don’t know)
October 18, 2003 45 of 97

ENGINEERING
5.0 INTERCONNECTION TEST SPECIFICATIONS AND

REQUIREMENTS
5.1 Design Test
5.1.1 Response to Abnormal Voltage and Frequency
5.1.2 Synchronization
5.1.3 Interconnect Integrity Test
5.1.3.1 Protection From Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
5.1.3.2 Surge Withstand Performance
5.1.3.3 Paralleling Device
5.1.4 Unintentional Islanding
5.1.5 Limitation of DC Injection
5.1.6 Harmonics
October 18, 2003 46 of 97

ENGINEERING
5.3 Interconnection Installation Evaluation
5.3.1 Grounding Integration with Area Electric Power System
5.3.2 Isolation Device
5.3.3 Monitoring Provisions
5.3.4 Area EPS Faults
5.3.5 Area EPS Reclosing Coordination.
5.4.1 Unintentional Islanding Functionality Test
5.4.1.1 Reverse-Power or Minimum Power Test
5.4.1.2 Non-Islanding Functionality Test7
5.4.1.3 Other Unintentional Islanding Functionality Tests
5.4.2 Cease to Energize Functionality Test
5.5 Periodic Interconnection Tests
October 18, 2003 47 of 97

ENGINEERING
IEEE P1547.1
Draft Standard for Conformance Test Procedures
for Equipment Interconnecting Distributed
• Verifies Conformance to IEEE 1547-2003

• Provides Test Procedures and order, but does
not define a comprehensive Certification
Process
October 18, 2003 48 of 97

ENGINEERING
IEEE P1547.1
Draft Standard for Conformance Test Procedures
for Equipment Interconnecting Distributed
Scope:
This standard specifies the type, production, and
commissioning tests that shall be performed to
demonstrate that the interconnection functions
and equipment of a distributed resource (DR)
conform to IEEE Standard P1547.
October 18, 2003 49 of 97
ENGINEERING
IEEE P1547.1
Purpose:
Interconnection equipment that connects
distributed resources (DR) to an electric power
system (EPS) must meet the requirements
specified in IEEE Standard P1547. Standardized
test procedures are necessary to establish and
verify compliance with those requirements. These
test procedures must provide both repeatable
results, independent of test location, and
flexibility to accommodate a variety of DR
technologies.
October 18, 2003 50 of 97
ENGINEERING
IEEE P1547.1 Outline
1.0 Overview
2.0 References
3.0 Definitions
5.0 Type Tests
Annex A (Normative) Test Signals
Annex B (Informative) Bibliography
Annex C (Informative) Sample Data Pages for
Temperature Stability Test
October 18, 2003 51 of 97
ENGINEERING

4.1 Test result accuracy (verify Mfg stated accuracy)
4.2 Testing Environment (-5 to +40°C minimum)
4.3 Measurement accuracy and calibration of the
testing equipment
4.4 Product information
4.5 Test Reports
4.6 Source requirements
October 18, 2003 52 of 97
ENGINEERING
5.1 Test for Response to Abnormal Voltage Conditions
5.1.1 Test for Overvoltage (Separate magnitude and timing)
5.1.2 Test for Undervoltage
5.2 Test for Response to Abnormal Frequency Conditions
5.2.1 Test for Overfrequency (Separate magnitude and timing)
5.2.2 Test for Underfrequency
5.3 Test for Synchronization
5.3.1 Synchronization Control Function using Simulated
Sources (Method 1) (vary V, f, Φ)
5.3.2 Synchronization Control Function using Actual
Generator Equipment (Method 1)
5.3.3 Startup Current Measurement (Method 2) 53 of 97
October 18, 2003
ENGINEERING
5.4 Interconnection Integrity Tests
5.4.1 Protection From Electromagnetic Interference
(EMI) (C37-90.2)
5.4.2 Surge Withstand Performance (C62.41/C37-90.1)
5.4.3 Paralleling Device (Hi Pot)
5.5 Test for Limitation of DC Injection
5.5.1 DR with interconnection transformer (Saturation)
5.5.2 Inverter-based DR without interconnection
transformer
5.6 Unintentional Islanding
October 18, 2003 54 of 97
ENGINEERING
IEEE P1547.1 Draft 2: Islanding
• Unintentional Islanding of exporting DR is a bad thing

• Inverter/induction-based DR that is not attempting to
regulate voltage is nearly impossible to make island
• For now, “nearly” is enough of a concern
• PV inverter Islanding testing goes back more than 20 yrs
• Sandia responsible for development of 929/1741 test
procedure (www.sandia.gov/pv/docs/Invertesintro.htm )
October 18, 2003 55 of 97

ENGINEERING
• Resonant Tank circuit used to stabilize island

voltage and frequency
• Real load to generation match determines
operating voltage
• Capacitance to Inductance match determines
operating frequency
• Quality factor, Q, defines circuit resonance:
kVAR L × kVAR C
Q=
kW
October 18, 2003 56 of 97
ENGINEERING
Anti-Islanding Test Circuit
S1
S2 S3
Simulated
Utility R L C DR
October 18, 2003 57 of 97

ENGINEERING
• Test performed over range of output power

levels with Q=1.8 (IEEE 929 and current 1741
use Q=2.5)
• Under stable, matched conditions, such as
specified in the procedure, an inverter relying
only on frequency and voltage trip points will
run on indefinitely
• Additional detection methods must be
employed to meet 2 second trip requirement
October 18, 2003 58 of 97
ENGINEERING
• Test is intended to be detection-method

neutral
• Other method-specific or less rigorous tests are
being considered
October 18, 2003 59 of 97

ENGINEERING
5.7 Reverse Power (for unintentional islanding)
5.7.1 Reverse-Power Magnitude Test
5.7.2 Reverse-Power Time Test
5.8 Cease to Energize Functionality and Loss of
Phase Test Requirements
5.9 Reconnect Following Abnormal Condition
Disconnect (restart magnitude and delay)
5.10 Harmonics
5.11 Temperature Stability Test
October 18, 2003 60 of 97
ENGINEERING
6.0 Production Tests (simplified versions of Type

Tests)
6.1 Response to Abnormal Voltage
6.2 Response to Abnormal Frequency
6.3 Synchronization
6.4 Documentation
October 18, 2003 61 of 97

ENGINEERING
7 Commissioning Tests
7.1 Verifications and Inspections
7.2 Field Conducted Type and Production tests
7.3 Permission from Area EPS operator to parallel DR
7.4 Unintentional Islanding
7.4.1 Unintentional Islanding Procedure for Synchronous
machine
7.4.2 Unintentional Islanding Procedure for Inverter
October 18, 2003 62 of 97

ENGINEERING
IEEE P1547.1 Status
• Writing Committee is preparing Draft 3 for

review at Nov 12-14 workgroup meeting
• Section 5 (Type Tests) is fairly well developed
• Section 6 (Production Tests) has first cuts for
most elements
• Section 7 (Commissioning Test) is under initial
development
• Expect to have document approved by June
2005
October 18, 2003 63 of 97
ENGINEERING
IEEE P1547.2
Draft Application Guide For IEEE Std. 1547,
Standard For Interconnecting Distributed
Resources With Electric Power Systems
Thanks to Tom Basso and Richard Friedman
October 18, 2003 64 of 97

ENGINEERING
IEEE P1547.2
Scope:
This guide provides technical background and
application details to support the
understanding of IEEE 1547, Standard for
Interconnecting Distributed Resources with
Electric Power Systems.
October 18, 2003 65 of 97

ENGINEERING
IEEE P1547.2
Purpose:
This document facilitates the use of IEEE Std. 1547 by
characterizing the various forms of distributed resource
technologies and the associated interconnection issues.
Additionally, the background and rationale of the
technical requirements are discussed in terms of the
operation of the distributed resource interconnection with
the electric power system. Presented in the document are
technical descriptions and schematics, applications
guidance and interconnection examples to enhance the
use of IEEE 1547.
October 18, 2003 66 of 97
ENGINEERING
What P1547.2 is Intended to Do
Support understanding and facilitate use of IEEE 1547 by
• Providing technical background
• Providing application details
• Characterizing various forms of DR technologies
• Characterizing associated interconnection issues
• Discussing background and rationale of the technical
requirements in terms of the operation of the
interconnection
• Presenting good practice approaches
October 18, 2003 67 of 97

ENGINEERING
What P1547.2 Will NOT Do
• Interpret IEEE 1547

• Introduce new requirements to IEEE 1547
• Address issues not covered in IEEE 1547, other
than as needed to help enhance the user's
understanding of IEEE 1547
• Provide a "guarantee" that IEEE 1547
requirements will be met
October 18, 2003 68 of 97

ENGINEERING
Other IEEE SCC21
Interconnection Projects
Title Scope and Purpose
P1547.3: Draft • This document provides guidelines for monitoring, information
Guide for exchange, and control for distributed resources (DR) interconnected
Monitoring, with electric power systems (EPS).
Information • This document facilitates the interoperability of one or more
distributed resources interconnected with electric power systems.
Exchange and
It describes functionality, parameters and methodologies for
Control of monitoring, information exchange and control for the
Distributed interconnected distributed resources with, or associated with,
Resources electric power systems. Distributed resources include systems in
Interconnected the areas of fuel cells, photovoltaics, wind turbines, microturbines,
with Electric other distributed generators, and, distributed energy storage
Power Systems systems.
October 18, 2003 69 of 97

ENGINEERING
69
SCC 21 Contact Information
• Dr. Richard DeBlasio ddeblasi@nrel.gov (303) 275 - 4333
• Mr. Tom S. Basso thomas_basso@nrel.gov (303) 275 - 3753
• IEEE SCC21 -- IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 21 on Fuel Cells,

Photovoltaics, Dispersed Generation, & Energy Storage
http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/scc21/
• 1547 web sites

• http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/scc21/1547
• http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/scc21/1547.1/1547.1_index.html
October 18, 2003 70 of 97

ENGINEERING
70
UL 1741
Standard for Inverters, Converters and

Controllers for Use In Independent
Power Systems
(Thanks to Tim Zgonena of UL)
October 18, 2003 71 of 97

ENGINEERING
UL 1741 Addresses
• Electric Shock Hazards

• Fire Hazards
• Mechanical Hazards
• Utility Compatibility and
Interconnection for Grid Tied
Applications
October 18, 2003 72 of 97
ENGINEERING
Electric Shock Hazards (Testing)
• Testing for prevention of electric shock

includes:
– Earth ground paths ability to carry current
– Dielectric tests verify insulation systems
– Induced faults to verify suitability of electrical
insulation and operation of protective devices such
as fuses, circuit breakers and thermal cut offs
October 18, 2003 73 of 97

ENGINEERING
Electric Shock Hazards
(Construction)
• Enclosure and Barriers
• Insulate accessible live parts for both
end users and service personnel
• Insulation between circuits of different
potential or separation of circuits
• Markings and labeling
October 18, 2003 74 of 97

ENGINEERING
Fire Hazards
• Verification of normal operating temperatures

• Acceptable operation of transformers under
short circuit and overload conditions
• Under no circumstances shall a product emit
sparks, flames or molten metal
October 18, 2003 75 of 97

ENGINEERING
Mechanical Hazards
– Sharp Edges
– Mounting means
– Stability
October 18, 2003 76 of 97

ENGINEERING
UL 1741
• Many of the performance issues

associated with the grid interactive
operation of DG products are important
Safety Issues. This is unlike many other
product categories covered by UL
Standards.
October 18, 2003 77 of 97

ENGINEERING
Utility Compatibility and
Interconnection Concerns
• The following performance parameters
are safety issues
– Utility operating voltage and frequency
parameters
– Islanding protection
– Output Power Quality
October 18, 2003 78 of 97

ENGINEERING
Utility Voltage and Frequency
Operating Parameters
• Products ability to detect and cease
exporting power to the utility grid during
a utility grid over / under voltage or
over / under frequency situations
– The normal operating Voltage window is
nominal -12% to +10%
– The normal operating Frequency window is
nominal -0.7Hz to +0.5Hz
October 18, 2003 79 of 97

ENGINEERING
Voltage Frequency Variation Test
for 120V Rated Unit
CALCULATIONS FROM TABLE 46.1
Condition Simulated Utility Source Maximum Trip Time

Voltage, V Frequency, Hz seconds cycles
A 60 Rated 0.1 6
B 105.6 Rated 2 120
C Rated Rated Normal Condition
D 132 Rated 2 120
E 164.4 Rated 2/60 2
F Rated 59.3 0.1 6
G Rated 60.5 0.1 6
October 18, 2003 80 of 97

ENGINEERING
Under-Voltage Test
50% of Rated for 120V Unit
Scope Readout for Transient by Simulated Utility
dX: 100.0 ms
X: 0 s
1> T
1) Simulated Utility: 50 Volt 20San

October 18, 2003 ms Francisco Power Engineering
81 of 97
Society
ENGINEERING
October 18, 2003 82 of 97
ENGINEERING
Islanding Protection
• Islanding is when a distributed source continues

to operate, feeding power into a portion of the
grid when the utility source is no longer
present. This situation presents many hazards
including lethal electric shock to utility service
personnel that think that the load side of the
utility transmission line is “electrically dead.”
• Utility and DG equipment damage.
October 18, 2003 83 of 97

ENGINEERING
Anti-Islanding Test Circuit
S1
S2 S3
Simulated
Utility R L C DR
October 18, 2003 84 of 97

ENGINEERING
Power Quality
• These utility interconnected DG products
must meet minimum output power quality
requirements
– Output power Factor 0.85% or higher
– Harmonic Distortion <5% at full output power
– DC Injection minimized to < 0.5% of rated output
current
October 18, 2003 88 of 97

ENGINEERING
UL 1741 Covers
Utility Interactive, Stand-alone,
and Multi-Mode Products.
• Utility Interactive - Products that operate in
parallel with or backfeed power to the utility
grid to supply common loads.
• Stand Alone - Products that supply power to
loads independent of the utility grid.
• Multimode - Products that can operate in both
utility interactive and stand-alone modes in case
of utility failure.
October 18, 2003 89 of 97

ENGINEERING
UL 1741 Expansion to Cover the
Interconnect of All Types of DG
• UL1741 New Title - The Standard For Inverters,
Converters and Controllers For Use In Independent
Power Production Systems.
– Photovoltaic Modules
– Fuel Cells
– Micro-turbines
– Wind and Hydro Turbines
– Engine Gen-Set Interconnect Controllers
October 18, 2003 90 of 97

ENGINEERING
UL 1741 Status
• Harmonized with IEEE 1547 and IEEE

P1547.1
• Developed as an ANSI Standard
October 18, 2003 91 of 97

ENGINEERING
• UL1741 is being harmonized with
IEEE 1547 and IEEE P1547.1
October 18, 2003 92 of 97

ENGINEERING
For More Information...
Tim Zgonena
Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
333 Pfingsten Rd.
Northbrook, IL 60062
847-272-8800 ext. 43051

timothy.p.zgonena@us.ul.com
October 18, 2003 93 of 97

ENGINEERING
On the Road to
‘Plug-&-Play’
DG?
Anthony Mazy, PE
CALIFORNIA PUBLIC UTILITIES COMMISSION
Office of Ratepayer Advocates
An epilogue . . .
. . . about the limits of:
z what we know
z what we agree upon
z what we believe
CPUC regulates revenues, rates, and rules of service
for investor-owned electric, gas, telecom, and water utilities
ORA represents the interests of small ratepayers

Anthony Mazy, PE
Energy Auditor of over 225 Commercial/Industrial facilities,
Utilities Engineer for two major USAF bases,
Commercial/Industrial Lighting/Power/Controls Design
ORA Project Coordinator, DG Policy
Disclaimer
The Opinions Expressed
Are Those of the Individual Speaker
and Do Not Necessarily Represent The Opinions
of the California Public Utilities Commission,
The Office of Ratepayer Advocate,
or Their Managements
We don’t know as much as we
like to think we do
z Industry (or gov’t) isn’t well documented

z Utilities, Developers, Regulators all make
decisions without adequate information
z Example: Documentation of Unintended Islanding
Example:
Documentation of Islanding
(Unintended Islanding, not Microgrids)
z Utility Engineers universally aver

existence, significance of islanding
z Academic researchers universally
deride probable significance
z Almost no actual documentation exists
We disagree more than we
really like to talk about
z Technical decisions have business implications

z Institutions are highly risk-averse
z Example: Utility Discretion
Example:
The Problem with “Discretion”
How to distinguish between . . .
“Good” Discretion “Bad” Discretion

Resolve problems with (i.e., “Market Power”)
and
z Undefined situations z Reward affiliates
z New situations z Punish competitors
z Unintended unfairness z Rogue individuals
We have radically divergent
beliefs about what’s
. . . “good,”
. . . “progress,” and
. . . “the future”
z “Well-bred people never discuss their
religion, money, or politics”
z DG as a triple-point
z Example: T&D Architecture
Example:
T & D Architecture
Should It Continue to Should It Evolve into a
“Transmit” & “Distribute” “Physical Marketplace”
“Public Utility” Power to Between “Willing Sellers”
Retail Customers and “Willing Buyers” of
or
Competitive Energy
With: With:
z Hierarchical structure, protection z Negotiable structure, protection

z Nominally “predictable” power flow z Explicitly unpredictable power flow
z “Low Cost” Strategy z “High Value” Strategy
The Upshot
z Developers and Utilities frequently
disagree about . . .
– What Rule 21 is trying to accomplish,
– What Rule 21 means, and even
– What Rule 21 says.
z Should Not Be Cause for Despair!
Example:
How “non-exporting”?
z Rule 21 includes “screens” for

Simplified Interconnection
z Screen 2: “Will power be exported
across the PCC?”
z If “No,” four options, three
implicitly addressing some export.
Bottom Line
z Only the CPUC sets Rules for utility service

z Rule 21 is the only applicable
interconnection rule
z Rule 2, etc., apply just as they apply to all
other electric service installations
z “Interpretations” of Rule 21 must be fair,
reasonable, and consistent
Where to Get More Information
z California Attorney General investigates
violations of state law
z CPUC Consumer Affairs Board, investigates
violations of regulatory rules, rates, or utility
service standards
z CPUC Energy Division investigates
noncompliance with Commission policies
z CPUC Office of Ratepayer Advocates
investigates abusive, unfair, or unreasonable
utility policies or practices
For Further Assistance:
Write: Anthony Mazy, PE
Project Coordinator, DG Policy
Office of Ratepayer Advocates
California Public Utilities Commission
505 Van Ness Avenue, 4th Floor
San Francisco, California 94102
E-mail: amazy@cpuc.ca.gov
Or, Call: (415) 703-3036

DG Course All Presentations

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

DG Course All Presentations

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

IEEE San Francisco Power Engineering Society

1. Introductory Remarks 8:15 AM

2. DG Principles –Mechanical systems Brian Sekula (Altran) 8:30 AM

3. DG Principles – Electrical systems Prof. Liou (SFSU) 9:00 AM

4. Distribution System Characteristics – Willie Chew (PG&E Dist. Planning) 9:30 AM

5. Typical DG systems & DG applications – Gary Olson (Cummins) 10:45 AM

6. System Impact Review/Interconnection Study 1:15 PM

7. Standards and references - Chuck Whitaker (Endecon) 2:30 PM

8. Bonus presentation on DG interconnection - Anthony Mazy (CPUC/ORA) 3:30 PM

October 18, 2003 San Francisco Power Engineering Society 3 of 7

October 18, 2003 San Francisco Power Engineering Society 7 of 7

MECHANICAL SYSTEM OVERVIEW

IEEE San Francisco PES DG Fundamentals Workshop

 A power source close to the end user of electricity (at

 Typically less than 10MW in size

 Early power plants were distributed since the

 Before WWII, many industries had on-site

 After WWII, utilities developed large power

watts/square meter. Daily average is about 250 watts/

meter and about 200kwh/year per square meter.

¾ Reduces blade loads and weight

 The most successful designs are horizontal axis with 3 blades.

¾ Selective catalytic reduction

 In hot areas inlet air chillers or evaporative cooling helps

¾ Molton Carbonate (MCFC)

¾ Solid Oxide (SOFC)

¾ Proton Exchange Membrane (PEMFC)

 Similar to a battery (chemical reaction)

 Hydrogen mixes with air, is broken down into protons

FUEL CELL COMBUSTOR

 O Fuel cell efficiency is improved at high pressure

 Distributed generation has barely made inroads in a

 Distributed generation has huge potential to reduce

 For more information, see:

Presented by Dr. ShyShenq Liou

IEEE San Francisco Power

Basic Operation of Solar pn Junction

I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell

October 18, 2003 San Francisco Power Engineering Society 6 of 38

October 18, 2003 San Francisco Power Engineering Society 7 of 38

October 18, 2003 San Francisco Power Engineering Society 8 of 38

October 18, 2003 San Francisco Power Engineering Society 9 of 38

• Fuel Cell is an electrochemical

• Stationary Power Generation

PEMFC Solid 50-100 C Pure H2 35-45% 5-250 kW

E ffic ienc y of F C ~ to C ell Voltage

C ell C urrent in A /(c m square)

October 18, 2003 San Francisco Power Engineering Society 16 of 38

October 18, 2003 San Francisco Power Engineering Society 17 of 38

Main Frame/Yaw System

October 18, 2003 San Francisco Power Engineering Society 18 of 38

October 18, 2003 San Francisco Power Engineering Society 22 of 38

• Usually started by the wind

October 18, 2003 San Francisco Power Engineering Society 23 of 38

• Generator of choice for <10 kW unit

• Synchronous Generator of special design

October 18, 2003 San Francisco Power Engineering Society 25 of 38

• a.k.a. Variable Reluctance Machine

• Block diagram of a motor drive where the power

• Power electronics load is represented by an equivalent load

October 18, 2003 San Francisco Power Engineering Society 29 of 38

• Three inverter legs; capacitor mid-point is

• Block diagram of a motor drive where the power

A power source close to the end user of electricity (at

Typically less than 10MW in size

Early power plants were distributed since the

Before WWII, many industries had on-site

After WWII, utilities developed large power

The most successful designs are horizontal axis with 3 blades.

In hot areas inlet air chillers or evaporative cooling helps

Similar to a battery (chemical reaction)

Hydrogen mixes with air, is broken down into protons

O Fuel cell efficiency is improved at high pressure

Distributed generation has barely made inroads in a

Distributed generation has huge potential to reduce

For more information, see:

Uses Redundant Facilities to Provide

Used for Small to Medium Commercial Loads

For Large Concentrated, Commercial Loads

High Secondary Fault Currents – Up to 200,000

Shoulder Targeted Generation delivers lowest