Chemistry 2 Quarter I.

Empirical and Molecular Formula Empirical Formula Shows the simplest number ratio for the elements in a compound Molecular Formula Shows the number of elements of each kind in a compound Multiples of the Empirical Formula Multiply Mass(grams) molar mass (g/mole) Divide Mole Avogadros Number Moles Atoms Particles a.

nd

Particle Theory Robert Boyle Postulates that gasses are composed of discrete particles separated by a void Isaac Newton God formed matter in solid, massy, hard, impenetrable movable particles Daltons Atomic Theory 1808 a new system of chemical philosophy All matter is composed of indestructible atoms. The atoms of a given element are identical, but different from other elements and are unchangeable. 3. Compounds are formed by the combination of the atoms of two or more elements forming molecules. They combine in definite ratios of small whole numbers (Law of Definite Composition Proust). 4. Chemical reactants involve only the separation and or union of atoms. They are only rearranged; are neither created nor destroyed. 1. 2. Foundations of Discovery of Electrons

b.

Divide II.

Multiply

Stoichiometry The study of the amounts of material consumed and produced in chemical reactions Greek: Stoichion (Element); Metron (measure) aA + bB cC to solve for number of moles 1. 2. 3. 4. Write the balanced equation Calculate the available moles of each reactant Determine the mole ratio (using the balanced equation) of the reactants in the chemical reaction Compare; limiting = smaller amount; excess = larger amount Limiting reactant Reactant in a chemical reaction that limits the amount of product that can be formed Completely consumed Excess Reactant Reactant in a chemical reaction that remains when a reaction stops (when limiting reactant is completely consumed)

a.

Thales Amber when rubbed attracted small fibers b. Sir William Gilbert Materials rubbed = charge Elektron (Greek for Amber) Polarization neutrally charged objects interacting with charged objects c. Charles Coulomb Force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance to the charged bodies -

III. Pecent Yield 1. Write the balanced equation 2. Do stoichiomety (get the limiting reactant) 3. Limiting reactant is the Theoretical Yield 4. Actual Yield__ x 100 = Percent Yield Theoretical Yield IV. History Of Atomic Structure a. Leucippus and Democritus A material can be broken down into smaller pieces Atomos (Greek for indivisible) Aristotle Rejected the atomic//particulate view Matter is made up of 4 elements (Fire, Air, Wind, Earth); continuous all of one piece

Coulomb (C) amount of charge that passes through a circuit if a current of one ampere passes for one second Discovery of Electrons (Before Thompson)

a. -

Sir Humphry Davy When electric current is passed through molten compounds of metals resulted in the decomposition of compounds to produce the metals Michael Faraday Mass of the element formed is proportional to the quantity of electricity passed George J. Stoney Amica !

b.

b. -

c.

suggested the name electron for the particle of electricity

plum pudding Milikans Experiment

d.

Heinrich Geissler was able to device a method of producing a good vacuum in glass tubes Julius Plucker sealed two metal pieces into a Geissler tube and applied a high voltage across the electrodes and observe a greenish luminescence emanating from the negative electrode, the cathode cathode ray is drawn to the positively charged plate, called the anode Eugene Goldstein proposed that the luminescence observed by Plucker is cathode ray (later on identified as electron by Thomson) William Crookes Cathode ray travelled in a straight line and objects placed in its path cast a shadow at the opposite side of the tube Cathode Ray Tube

e.

Robert Millikan determine the charge of a particle ( + -) and magnitude of electric charge observed that the electrical charge was always a whole-number multiple of a smallest charge, which he called the unit charge Oil Drop Experiment oil drops atomizer speed As oil droplet falls through the air, it may acquire a positive or negative charge due to friction -19 value of the unit charge is 1.60 x 10 coulomb balanced state will be shown by the state of the particle; it will remain suspended in the mid-air Radioactivity

f.

g. -

Wilhelm Roentgen noticed that cathode rays caused glass and metals to emit unusual rays

No external fields straight Magnetic field applied up ( ) Electric field applied down ( + ) Electromagnetic Theory a moving charged body behaves like a magnet and can interact with electric and magnetic fields though which it passes attracted by + and repelled by Ray travels form cathode to anode Actual ray is invisible but seen as green because of Zinc Sulfide Thompsons Experiment

Radioactivity (by Marie Curie) spontaneous emission of particles and or radiation A. Alpha rays ( ) consist of positively charged particles called alpha particles and therefore are deflected by the positively charged plate. B. Beta rays ( ) or beta particles are electrons and deflected by negatively charged plate C. Gamma rays ( ) have no charged and are not affected by an external electric field or magnetic field Rutherfords Experiment

Passing an electric current makes a beam appear to move from the negative to the positive end By adding an electric field he found that the moving pieces were negative JJ Thompson measured the charge mass ratio of electron thus providing a way of identifying it 8 e/m = 1.76 x 10 C/g made the cathode ray tube found that metals emit these same particles when light of appropriate wavelength shines on them Thompsons model Atoms were made of small negatively charged particles larger part of atom is positively charged with small electrons scattered in it -

Ernest Rutherford Conducted an experiment to isolate the positive particles in an atom knew that atoms had positive and negative particles, didnt know how they were arranged Hans Geiger (associate) Alpha particles are found to be helium atoms with their electrons removed (x2500 electron) Gold Foil Experiment Expected: alpha particles to pass through without changing direction very much (he thought the mass was evenly distributed in the atom) Atom consists of a very small nucleus surrounded by electrons Nucleus contains most of the mass of the atom and all of its positive charge. Alpha particles are deflected by nucleus it if they get close enough with each other Amica !

Modern Atomic Theory 1. 2. 3. All matter is composed of atoms Atoms of one element cannot be converted into atoms of another element in a chemical reaction All atoms of an element have the same number of protons , which determines the chemical behaviour of the element Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements in specific ratios

Radioisotopes Atoms containing radionuclide

4.

Mode of Decay: 1. High n/p ratio (too many neutrons; lie above band of stability) --- undergoes beta decay 2. Low n/p ratio (neutron poor; lie below band of stability) --- positron decay or electron capture 3. Heavy nuclides ( Z > 83) --- alpha decay Half-life Indicates the rate at which a radionuclide decays Mass Defect mass difference due to the release of energy Nuclear binding energy (BE) is the energy required to break up a nucleus into its component protons and neutrons

Electron Cloud Model Bohrs Model Electrons move in circular orbits around the nucleus Energies are quantized (Planck) Nuclear chain reaction is a self-sustaining sequence of nuclear fission reactions Positron Positive Electron Emission Product side; decay Capture Reactant side

3 Postulates : Only orbits of certain radii, corresponding to certain energies, are permitted for electrons in an atom. An electron in a permitted orbit has a specific energy and is in an allowed energy state. Electron will not radiate energy. Energy is only emitted or absorbed by an electron as it changes from one allowed energy state to another. This energy is emitted or absorbed as a photon. V. Nuclear Chemistry Nuclear Reactions Changes in matter originating from the nucleus of an atom Elements are converted; involves epn; absorption/release of a lot of energy; not affected temp Chemical Reactions Atoms rearranged; only electrons; absorption/release of small energy; affected by temp, prssr Radioactive When a nuclei change spontaneously, emitting energy Nucleons Particles in the nucleus Radionuclide Radioactive nucleus

Amica !