The analysis of trusses

A truss: A truss is a structure made of two force members all pin connected to each other.

The method of joints: This method uses the free-body-diagram of joints in the structure to determine the forces in each member. For example, in the above structure we have 5 joints each having a free body diagram as follows

Note how Newtons third law controls how one introduces

on the joints A and on the

joint B. For each joint one can write two equations ( ). The moment equation is trivially satisfied since all forces on a joint pass trough the joint. For example, for the above truss we have 5 joints, therefore we can write 10 equations of equilibrium (two for each joint). In the above example there are seven unknown member forces (FAB, FBC, FCD, FED, FEC, FBE, FAE) plus three unknown support reactions (A, Dx, Dy), giving a total of 10 unknowns to solve for using the 10 equations obtained from equilibrium.

The method of sections: This method uses free-body-diagrams of sections of the truss to obtain unknown forces. For example, if one needs only to find the force in BC, it is possible to do this by only writing two equations. First, draw the free body diagram of the full truss and solve for the reaction at A by taking moments about D. Next draw the free body diagram of the section shown and take moments about E to find the force inBC.

In the method of sections one can write three equations for each free-body-diagram (two components of force and one moment equation).

Things to consider: Zero force members: Some members in a truss cannot carry load. These members are called zero force members. Examples of zero force members are the colored members (AB, BC, and DG) in the following truss.

Consider the following free-body-diagrams

If you sum the forces in the y-direction in the left free-body-diagram, you will see that FAB must be zero since it is not balanced by another force. Then if you sum forces in the y-direction you will find thatFBC must also be zero. If you sum the forces in the y direction in the right free-body-diagram, you will see that FDG must be zero since it is not balanced by another force. A redundant joint: Sometimes a joint is redundant. For example, in the following free-body-diagram the load is directly transmitted from each member to the one opposite it without any interaction.

By summing forces along the y-direction one will get F2=F4, and by summing forces along the Y-direction one will get F1=F3.

Redundant members: Sometimes a structure contains one or more redundant members. These members must be removed from the truss, otherwise one will have an insufficient number of equations to solve for the unknown member forces. Slender members are not very useful in compression since they buckle and, as a result, lose their load carrying capability. For example, in the following truss one of the two members AC or BD is redundant. To solve the problem, we remove member BD which will go into compression as a result of the applied loading (i.e., the diagonal AC will have to increase in length and the diagonal BD will have to decease in length for the structure to bend to the right). If we did not remove this member we would have 9 unknowns (five member loads and four support reactions) and only 8 equations (two for each joint).

Mechanisms: Sometimes there is too much freedom in a structure. For example, the following structure cannot carry any load since it will collapse under the load.

Curved members: Remember that the two forces acting on a two-force-member are along the line connecting the two points on which the loads are applied.

Mehrdad Negahban and the University of Nebraska, 1996-2006. All rights reserved Copy and distribute freely for personal use only Department of Engineering Mechanics, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588-0526

CH. 5 TRUSSES BASIC PRINCIPLES Typical depth-to-span ratios range from 1:10 to 1:20 - Flat trusses require less overall depth than pitched trusses Spans: 40 - 200 Spacing: 10 to 40 on center

- Residential & light commercial: trussed rafters of 2x4 or 2x6 @ 24oc - Open web steel joists: 2 to 3 Roof loads transferred from decking to purlins attached to truss @ panel points - If concentrated loads between panel points or uniform loads applied to top chords, member must be designed for axial loading as well as for bending Like beams - Compression in top chord & tension in bottom chords - Forces in a parallel chord truss increase towards center - Bowstring truss, chord forces constant b/c depth varies from min @ supports to max @ center Truss members designed as columns if in compression If in tension the net area must be determined (actual area bolt holes) If concentrated loads or uniform loads on any chord member between panel points, member must resist bending stresses Regardless of material, trusses need to be designed so they are concentric: member is symmetric on both sides of centroid axis in the plane of the truss - Steel trusses with double angles back-to-back with 3/8 or 1/2 gusset plate with tee sections or wide flange With light loads, bars or rods can be used for tension members Wood trusses: web members between double top and bottom chords or with all members in same plane connected with gusset plate Centroidal axes of intersecting members must meet at a point to avoid eccentric loading - Steel composes of angles: standard to have gage lines rather than centroidal axes meet - Gage line: standard dim from corner edge of an angle to centerline of bolt holes & depends on size of angle TRUSS ANALYSIS

 First: determine loads in various members - General guidelines for truss analysis - Sum of vertical forces at any point equals zero - Sum of horizontal forces at any point equals zero - Sum of moments about any point equals zero - Forces acting upward or to the right are considered positive (+) - Forces acting downward or to the left are considered negative (-) - All forces should be indicated. If direction is unknown when beginning the analysis show the force in tension, acting away from the joint or cut section. If calculation of force is negative, this indicates direction is reversed.- For analysis, trusses are assumed to have pivoting or rolling supports to avoid other stresses at these points - x component of a force (horizontal) is equal to the force times cosine of the angle the force vector makes with the x-axis Fx = F cos a - y component of a force (vertical) is equal to the force times the cosine of the angle the force vector makes with the y-axis Fy = F cos b - X-Y axis can be tilted to any convenient angle if required by the problem There are three methods to determine the forces in truss members - Method of joints: useful in determining the forces in all members or when only the forces in the members near the supports needs to be calculated - Method of section: when only necessary to find the forces in a few members, particularly ones that are not at or near the supports

- Graphic method: complex trusses and avoids calculations inherent in analytic solutions but not as accurate

Method of Joints Each joint is considered separately as a free body diagram which the equations of equilibrium are applied Starting from one support the force in each member is determined joint by joint until all calculated Example 5.1: find forces in the members using the method of joints

- First: find reactions. Since loads are symmetric, - Note: if loads not symmetric, reactions could be found by taking moments about one reaction and setting the moments equal to zero RA = RF = 1/2(17000) = 8500lbf- Second: start with joint A at reaction RA and draw joint as free body diagram

- Direction of reaction is known (upward) and types of forces in the top and bottom chord can be assumed to be in compression and tension respectively show force FAB toward the joint and force FAD away from the joint - Calculate the angle between members AB and AD tan = 10/15 tan = 33.7 the compliment of this angle is 56.3 - Notice: the reaction force is positive b/c acting upward and y-component of FAB is negative since acting downward & force FAD has no vertical component

- Solve for FAB: FAB = 8500/cos56.3 FAB = 15,320 lbf (compression) - Since positive, the assumption that force AB is in compression is correct - Solve for FAd .the force in member AD is found in similar way knowing sum of horizontal forces equals zero FAd = FAB cos33.7 = 0 FAd = 12,746 lbf (tension) - Third: consider joint B

- Since direction of force in member BD is not clear, assume tension (arrow away from joint) - Actually since the 5000 lbf load is acting down, there must be a force acting upward to counteract so member BD would have to be in compression. For purposes of illustration however assume it is in tension - Tilt X-Y axes so the X-axis aligns with top chord of truss - Angles between X-Y and forces can be determined with trigonometry - With axes tilted force FBC has no vertical component so force FBD can be found easily -5000 cos33.7 - FBD cos22.6 both forces are acting downward both negative values FAB = -4506 lbf- The negative number indicates the assumption that BD was in tension is incorrect it is in compression

- Find forces in BC knowing that the summation of forces in the X-axis equals zero 15,320 5,000 cos56.3 - FBC 4,506 cos67.4 = 0 FBC = 10,814 lbf (compression) - Finally: draw joint C as a free body diagram

- Sum of the forces in the y-direction is zero so: 10,814 cos56.3 - 7000 + 10,814 cos56.3 - FCD = 0 FCD = 5000 lbf (tension) Method of Sections Portions of truss is cut through three members, one of which is the member under analysis Cut section is drawn as free body diagram and force in members is found by taking moments about various points knowing that M = 0 Example 5.2: determine the forces in members BD and BC using the method of sections - First: solve for reactions (which were determined to be 8500lbf at each reaction - Second: cut section thru two members under analysis. In this free body diagram there are five forces acting: Two known & Three unknown - To find force in member BD, take moments about point A. Selecting this point eliminates the unknowns of FBC and FAD b/c their lines of action pass thru the points so moment is zero. This leaves only FBD acting about A - Note: moments in a clockwise direction are positive and counterclockwise are negative- Third: find dimension of the moment arm of BD: a line passing through A perpendicular to BD - With simple trigonometry the lengths of AB is found to be 9.01 ft and the angle between AB and the moment arm of BD is 22.6, then: cos22.6 = h/9.01 h = 8.32ft - Then the sum of moments about A equals zero or:

(5000)(7.5) FBD(8.32) = 0 FBD = 4507lbf - Fourth: find value of FBC - To eliminate two unknowns take moments about point D. this is acceptable even though it is outside the free body diagram b/c equation of moment equilibrium holds at any point in the truss. - The moment arm from D perpendicular to BC must be found. It is the same dimension as previous moment arm calculated at 8.32ft, then the sum of moments about joint D is: (8500)(15) (5000)(7.5) FBC (8.32) = 0 FBC = 10,817 lbf - In both cases the answer was a positive number indicating that the original assumption of direction of force (compression) was correct

3 Methods for Truss Analysis

by CIVIL-GUY on APRIL 28, 2010 in CIVIL SUBJECTS

structure that is composed of a number of bars pin connected at their ends to form a stable

framework is called a truss. It is generally assumed that loads and reactions are applied to the truss only at the joints. A truss would typically be composed of triangular elements with the bars on the upper chord under compression and those along the lower chord under tension. Trusses are extensively used for

bridges, long span roofs, electric tower, and space structures. The study of truss analysis shall be used in determination of the compression and tension reactions occurred in it. Trusses are statically determinate when the entire bar forces can be determined from the equations of statics alone. Otherwise the truss is statically indeterminate. A truss may be statically (externally) determinate or indeterminate with respect to the reactions (more than 3 or 6 reactions in 2D or 3D problems respectively). The support reactions and related diagrams covered in previous post

Members subjected to forces; Tension and Compression.

For the truss analysis, it is assumed that: Bars are pin-connected. Joints are frictionless hinges. Loads are applied at the joints only. Stress in each member is constant along its length.

The objective of analyzing the trusses is to determine the reactions and member forces. The methods used for carrying out the truss analysis with the equations of equilibrium and by considering only parts of the structure through analyzing its free body diagram to solve the unknowns.

Method of Joints
The first to analyze a truss by assuming all members are in tension reaction. A tension member is when a member experiences pull forces at both ends of the bar and usually denoted as positive (+ve) sign. When a member experiencing a push force at both ends, then the bar was said to be in compression mode and designated as negative (-ve) sign. In the joints method, a virtual cut is made around a joint and the cut portion is isolated as a Free Body Diagram (FBD). Using the equilibrium equations of Fx = 0 and Fy = 0, the unknown member forces could be solve. It is assumed that all members are joined together in the form of an ideal pin, and that all forces are in tension (+ve) of reactions. An imaginary section may be completely passed around a joint in the truss. The joint has become a free body in equilibrium under the forces applied to it. The equations H = 0 and V = 0 may be applied to

the joint to determine the unknown forces in members meeting there. It is evident that no more than two unknowns can be determined at a joint with these two equations.

CCS: Figure 1: A simple truss model supported by pinned and roller support at its end. Each triangle has the same length, L and it is equilateral where degree of angle, is 60 on every angle. The support reactions, Ra and Rc can be determine by taking a point of moment either at point A or point C, whereas Ha = 0 (no other horizontal force). Here are some simple guidelines for this method of truss analysis: 1. Firstly draw the Free Body Diagram (FBD),

2. Solve the reactions of the given structure, 3. Select a joint with a minimum number of unknown (not more than 2) and analyze it with Fx = 0 and Fy = 0, 4. Proceed to the rest of the joints and again concentrating on joints that have very minimal of unknowns, 5. Check member forces at unused joints with Fx = 0 and Fy = 0, 6. Tabulate the member forces whether it is in tension (+ve) or compression (-ve) reaction.

CCS: Figure 2: The figure showing 3 selected joints, at B, C, and E. The forces in each member can be determine from any joint or point. The best way to start by selecting the easiest joint like joint C where the reaction Rc is already obtained and with only 2 unknown, forces of F CB and FCD. Both can be evaluate with Fx = 0 and Fy = 0 rules. At joint E, there are 3 unknown, forces of FEA, FEB and FED, which may lead to more complex solution compare to 2 unknown values. For checking purposes, joint B is selected to shown that the equation of Fx is equal to Fy which leads to zero value, Fx = Fy = 0. Each value of the members condition should be indicate clearly as whether it is in tension (+ve) or in compression (-ve) state. Trigonometric Functions: Taking an angle between member x and z Cos = x / z Sin = y / z Tan = y / x

Method of Sections

The section method is an effective method when the forces in all members of a truss are being able to determine. Often we need to know the force in just one member with greatest force in it, and the method of section will yield the force in that particular member without the labor of working out the rest of the forces within the truss analysis. If only a few member forces of a truss are needed, the quickest way to find these forces is by the method of sections. In this method, an imaginary cutting line called a section is drawn through a stable and determinate truss. Thus, a section subdivides the truss into two separate parts. Since the entire truss is in equilibrium, any part of it must also be in equilibrium. Either of the two parts of the truss can be considered and the three equations of equilibrium Fx = 0, Fy = 0, and M = 0 can be applied to solve for member forces.

CCS: Figure 3: Using the same model of simple truss, the details would be the same as previous figure with 2 different supports profile. Unlike the joint method, here we only interested in finding the value of forces for member BC, EC, and ED. Few simple guidelines of section truss analysis: 1. Pass a section through a maximum of 3 members of the truss, 1 of which is the desired member where it is dividing the truss into 2 completely separate parts, 2. At 1 part of the truss, take moments about the point (at a joint) where the 2 members intersect and solve for the member force, using M = 0,

3. Solve the other 2 unknowns by using the equilibrium equation for forces, using F x = 0 and Fy = 0. Note: The 3 forces cannot be concurrent, or else it cannot be solve.

CCS: Figure 4: A virtual cut is introduce through the only required members which is along member BC, EC, and ED. Firstly, the support reactions of Ra and Rd should be determine. Again a good judgment is require to solve this problem where the easiest part would be consider either on the left hand side or the right hand side. Taking moment at joint E (virtual pint) on clockwise for the whole RHS part would be much easier compare to joint C (the LHS part). Then, either joint D or C can be consider as point of moment, or else using the joint method to find the member forces for F CB, FCE, and FDE. Note: Each value of the members condition should be indicate clearly as whether it is in tension (+ve) or in compression (ve) state.

Graphical Method (Maxwells Diagram)

The method of joints could be used as the basic for a graphical analysis of trusses. The graphical analysis was developed by force polygons drawn to scale for each joint, and then the forces in each member were measured from one of these force polygons.

The number of lines which have to be drawn can be greatly reduced, however, if the various force polygons are superimposed. The resulting diagram of truss analysis is known as the Maxwells Diagram. In order to draw the Maxwell diagram directly, here are the simple guidelines: 1. Solve the reactions at the supports by solving the equations of equilibrium for the entire truss,

2. Move clockwise around the outside of the truss; draw the force polygon to scale for the entire truss, 3. Take each joint in turn (one-by-one), then draw a force polygon by treating successively joints acted upon by only two unknown forces, 4. Measure the magnitude of the force in each member from the diagram, 5. Lastly, note that work proceed from one end of the truss to another, as this use for checking of balance and connect to other end. CCS: Figure 5: A simple triangle truss with degree of angle, is 60 on every angle (a equilateral) and same members length, L on 2 types of support. Yet again, evaluating the support reaction plays an important role in solving any structural problems. For this case, the value of H b is zero as it is not influence by any horizontal forces.

CCS: Figure 6: The procedure for solving this problem could be quite tricky and requires our imaginationsort of. It starts by labeling the spaces between the forces and members with an example shown above; reaction Ra and applied force, P labeled as space 1 and continue moving clockwise around the truss. For each member, take example between space 1 and 5 would be the member AC and so forth. Note: Choose a suitable scale for drawing the Maxwell diagram.