Uncertainties of measurement

For every precise measurement we need to know with what accuracy we have obtained our result. Uncertainty of measurement does not only depend on accuracy of used instruments, but also on the selected experimental method and on random influences that can not be anticipated. According to evaluation of uncertainties we evaluate uncertainty of type A and B (and combined uncertainty type C). More detailed information on this subject can be found in [1].

Example 1 By a repeated measuring of voltage of an AA battery we obtained the following results. The experiments were all done under the same conditions with an analog voltmeter with resolution 0,05 V. Also error caused by imprecise reading from the scale, imperfect illumination and non vertical placement of the instrument will be considered. Its magnitude is estimated to 0,1V. Calculate uncertainty type A, uncertainty type B (consider a rectangular probability distribution) and combined uncertainty type C with 95 percent confidence level.

Uncertainty of type A Uncertainty of type A is calculated by a statistical analysis of measured values. Therefore we have to do more independent experiments with the same precision.
Tab. 1 - measured and calculated values i 1 2 3 4 V (V) 1,49 1,53 1,49 1,50 5 1,49 6 1,56 7 1,55 8 1,50 9 1,49 10 1,58 15,18 10,56

(x x )
i

0,78

0,14

0,78

0,32

0,78

1,76

1,02

0,32

0,78

3,84

(mV) As our number of measurement is i = 10, we consider this as sufficient number of measurements and we take directly the estimated standard deviation of arithmetic mean as our final uncertainty type A. If the number of experiments would be lower that 10, we would have to extend our interval. arithmetic mean
n

x=

x
i =1

15,18 = 1,518 V 10

(1)

estimated standard deviation of arithmetic mean = uncertainty type A

u A = sx =

sx = n

(x x )
n i =1 i

n(n 1)

= 0,01 V

(2)

Uncertainty of type B The uncertainty of type B is used for non-statistical processing of measured data. There are several possibilities of calculations. a) It can based on rational judgments from the properties of measuring instruments, experience from previous measurements, data obtained in calibration certificates, data sheets, reference manuals, etc. In this case we directly estimate the sizes of individual uncertainties and then with the law of propagation of uncertainty calculate total uncertainty type B. b) In some cases uncertainty type B can be directly found in manufactured data and calibration certificates. Then standard uncertainty type B uB is calculated from the given extended uncertainty U and given coefficient kr.
uB = U kr
(3)

c) If it is possible to estimate only the interval where the measured value "has to be" with certainty "almost 100 %" then standard uncertainty type B uB can be calculated from the estimation of type of probability distribution function (normal, rectangular, triangular etc.) and from known deviations from the mean value.
uB = k
(4)

Where k is the coefficient describing the selected probability distribution. Some examples of those coefficients for selected probability distributions are in Tab. 5. In our case it is know from manufacturer data that the instrument resolution is 0,05 V. This is the deviation from the mean value and it is "almost 100 %" certain that the value is in this interval. Is a rectangular probability distribution of error is assumed, uncertainty type B can be calculated resolution 0,05 (5) u B1 = = = 0,014 V 2 3 2 3
For uncertainty of reading from the instrument we assume also a rectangular probability distribution reading error 0,1 (6) uB 2 = = = 0,028 V 2 3 2 3 Total uncertainty type B is
2 2 u B = u B1 + u B 2 = 0,014 2 + 0,0282 = 0,032 V

(7)

Standard combined uncertainty type C is

2 2 uC = u A + u B = 0,012 + 0,032 2 = 0,034 V

(8)

With regard to the probability distribution function the standard combined uncertainty type C covers approximately 60 % of all possible readings. To extend the uncertainty interval to a higher probability the extended standard uncertainty (probability of result in the given interval of 95 percent) U = k uC = 2 0,066 = 0,132 V The result will be written in form: arithmetic mean extended standard uncertainty (level of confidence) = = 1,518 0,132 V (P = 95 %)
(9)

Analog measuring instrument: Example 2 The analog instrument available has range 300 V and accuracy class T = 1. The measured voltage is 60 V. One part on the instrument scale represents 2,5 V. How big is the absolute and relative error? How big is uncertainty of measurement? For calculations consider only uncertainty caused by instrument properties, neglect uncertainty caused by reading from the scale (operator error). T - accuracy class - maximal relative error calculated over the whole range of instrument, normally it is: (10) 5; 2,5 (2); 1; 0,5; 0,2; 0,1 (%)
Absolute error
max = T. range = 1% . 300 = 0,01 . 300 = 3 V (10)

Relative error absolute error 3 (11) 100[%] = 100 = 5 % measured value 60 Note. Relative error is 5 % and this is significantly higher that it would be directly obvious from the accuracy class. The reason for this is that we measure on the lower part of the scale, a far way away from the maximal range. The relative error is getting smaller as we approach the end of the scale. For this reason, with a analog instrument always try to measure with a maximal deflection of the needle (match the measured value to selected instrument range).

Uncertainty is a quantitative description in what interval we can expect the measured value with a certain degree of confidence (probability). In this case as we are not using a statistical approach but as we are using measuring instrument properties, it will be uncertainty type B. If we consider that the probability of deviation of the measured value from the correct value is the same in the whole interval, we will use rectangular probability distribution of error. The resolution of instrument is given by the instruments smallest part on the scale
resolution of instrument 2,5 (12) = = 0,72 V 2 3 2 3 The uncertainty of measurement cased by reading from the scale by the human operator is neglected in this case. Our final uncertainty is therefore directly 0,72 V. However in a more precise experiment the uncertainty of measurement cased by reading from the scale has to be considered too as it would be also a significant source of uncertainty. An experienced operator is able to read with a resolution of approximately 1/3 of part on the scale from an analog instrument. An inexperienced operator is considered to be able to read with resolution approximately 1/2 of part on the scale. uB =

The uncertainty of reading would therefore be

1 1 resolution of instrument 2,5 ur = 3 =3 = 0,24 V 2 3 2 3

(13)

It can be seen that the uncertainty caused by a human operator reading from the scale of an analog instrument is smaller that the uncertainty caused by the instrument its self, but for precise measurement it cannot be neglected as it is quite large.

Accuracy for a digital instrument is given by:

1. accuracy of the analog to digital converter, e.g. 0,1 % (given by the number of bits of the converter) 2. error caused by the number of least significant digits of the device, i.e. 2 digits

All this parameters have to be found in the instrument manual. Also information about accuracy calculation has to be found. In any case it is uncertainty type B. Some manufacturers give the accuracy as
( x % of reading + n digits)

while others give accuracy as

( x % of range + n digits) For example, a digital multimeter Axio MET AX-18B states in the manual the accuracy of DC voltage measurement with Tab. 2
Tab. 2 - manufacturer data for VDC accuracy of Axio MET AX-18B multimeter Range: Resolution Accuracy 600 mV 6V 60 V 600 V 1000 V 0,1 mV 1 mV 10 mV 100 mV 1V ( 1,0 % of reading + 10 digits) ( 0,5 % of reading + 8 digits) ( 0,8 % of reading + 5 digits)

Example 3 A digital voltmeter has on range 60 V defined resolution 10 mV and accuracy (0,8% of reading + 5 digits). The measured value is 55,3 V. Calculate accuracy and uncertainty of measurement (type B)!
Accuracy (resolution) (0,8% of reading + 5 digits) = (0,008 . 55,3 + 5 . 0,01) = 0,49 V Accuracy expresses the interval where the measured value is with a certainty of 100 %. As we expect the usage of an instrument in a good condition, well calibrated and maintained, this is a valid assumption. Also we will consider the probability distribution of error to be rectangular (same probability of error in the whole interval) Under those assumptions uncertainty of measurement can be calculated uB = resolution 0,49 = = 0,14 V 2 3 2 3
(14)

Laboratory task
A temperature sensor is connected according to the schematic diagram on Fig. 1. The temperature sensor is a thermistor type B57164K [2] with nominal resistance for 25 C R25 = 2200 10 %. The thermistor resistance dependence on temperature is non linear and is given by characteristic No. 1013 in Appendix. The connection is powered by a 9V regulated switching power supply type RQT666K [3]. The used operational TS27L2CN [4].
Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram of temperature sensor

amplifier

is

type

The measured output voltage U2 (proportional to temperature) is measured with a voltmeter type MT-1232 [5] on range 400 mV DC. Used resistors (nominal values: R1 = 270 k, R3 = 1,2 k, R4 = 1,2 k) are all precise metal film resistors with accuracy 0,1%.

Tasks
a) By repeating the experiment 9 times calculate arithmetic mean and uncertainty of measurement type A for output voltage U2.
Important note: Remember, you have to really repeat the whole experiment, it means to turn off and on the power supply. Use the switch on the fixture for this. It is not sufficient to just read 9 following values from the voltmeter.

b) calculate uncertainty of measurement type B by considering the following uncertainty sources (for this part consider the temperature in the lab to be exactly 20 C):
- uncertainty caused by power supply voltage variations - uncertainty caused by limited precision of thermistor and resistors - uncertainty of voltage U1 caused by uncertainty of power supply voltage and R1 and R2 tolerances - uncertainty of voltage U2 caused by operational amplifier (by considering it as ideal amplifier) and R3 and R4 tolerances - uncertainty caused by properties of the used voltmeter

c) calculate extended standard uncertainty for probability of result 95 percent d) evaluate what other sources of uncertainty could be added to the calculations for a more precise result

Solution
a) uncertainty type A Uncertainty type A is obtained by repeating the experiment and by statistical evaluation.
Tab. 3 - measured and calculated values
i U2 (mV)
i

(x x )

1 339,1

2 340,2

3 340,0

4 340,1

5 339,3

6 339,2

7 338,9

8 338,7

9 339,5

3055

(mV)

0,119

0,571

0,309

0,430

0,021

0,060

0,296

0,554

0,003

2,362

arithmetic mean
n

x=

x
i =1

3055 = 339,4 mV 9

(15)

estimated standard deviation of arithmetic mean = uncertainty type A u A = sx = sx = n

(x
n i =1

n(n 1)

2,362 = 0,18 mV 9(9 1)

(16)

As the experiment was repeated only 9 times, the interval for uncertainty type A has to be extended => corrected uncertainty type A needs to be calculated. In other words if the experiment is repeated only 3 times the result is much less sure than it is if the experiment is repeated 10 times.
Tab. 4 - measured and calculated values i 9 (number of measurements) k 1,2 (correction coefficient) 8 1,2 7 1,3 6 1,3 5 1,4 4 1,7 3 2,3 2 7,0

corrected uncertainty type A is u AK = k u A = 1,2 0,18 = 0,216 mV

(17)

b) uncertainty type B - uncertainty caused by power supply voltage variations = uB1

From manufacturer specifications on Fig. 4 it can see that the output voltage should be 9,15 V 0,15 V when the power supply is unloaded. This assumption can be made as the circuit current is very small, it was measured to be approximately 120 A. If interval of the used value is known then standard uncertainty is found from u B1 = k

(18)

where is the semi-range (or half-width) between the upper and lower limits and k is a divisor dependent on the shape of the probability distribution function of our variable (rectangular, normal, U-Shape etc.). Its values are shown in Tab. 5
Tab. 5 - divisors for various probability distribution functions

probability distribution function divisor k

rectangular 3

normal for 2 2

(Gaussian) U-Shape 2

triangular 6

If we consider a normal (Gaussian) probability distribution of power supply output voltage, the uncertainty caused by power supply voltage variations will be u B1 =

0,15 = 0,075 V = 75 mV 2

(19)

- uncertainty of voltage U1 caused by uncertainty of power supply voltage and R1 and R2 tolerances = uB2
To calculate uncertainty of voltage U1 we have to first analyze the circuit. The circuit is composed from of two independent parts (if we consider the operational amplifier as ideal). Part 1 is a voltage divider composed of resistor R1 and temperature sensor R2. Output voltage of this divider is U 1 = f (U 0, R1, R 2) (20) From circuit analysis it is known R2 U1 = U 0 (22) R 2 + R1
Fig. 2 - Circuit analysis

- uncertainty caused by power supply voltage variations uB1 Uncertainty caused by power supply voltage variations uB1 was calculated earlier as u B1 = 75 mV - uncertainty caused by resistance R1 tolerance uR1 To calculate uncertainty of resistance R1, uR1, available manufacturer data is used, R1 = 270 k 0,1 % => R1 = R1 0,1% / 100 = 0,27 k . If we assume a normal (Gaussian) distribution of resistance for 2 then
u R1 = R1 0,27 k = = 135 k 2
(23)

- uncertainty caused by resistance R2 tolerance uR2 As it is required to perform the calculations for temperature 20C, first the nominal resistance value for this temperature has to be found. Manufacturer data on Fig. 3 will be used. In this figure, RT/R25 is the ratio of resistance between resistance for given temperature (RT) and nominal resistance for 25C (R25). For 20C resistance RT it is found
RT / R25 = 1,2403 => RT = 1,2403 . R25 = 2729

Uncertainty of resistance R2, uR2, R2 = 2729 10 % => R 2 = R 2 10% / 100 = 272,9 . If we assume a normal (Gaussian) distribution of resistance for 2 then uR 2 = R 2 272,9 = = 136 k 2
(24)

- uncertainty of divider output voltage U1 = uB2 The uncertainty of divider output voltage U1 will be given by uncertainties of all variables in equation (22), i.e. by uncertainty of U0, R1 and R2.
In a general case, to calculate the uncertainty of a variable given as a function f of input variables x1, x2, ..., xn it is necessary to calculate a square root of sum of squares of partial derivatives from function f by all variables x1, x2, ..., xn multiplied by uncertainty of nominal values of variables u x1 N , u x2 N ,..., u xnN This is called law of propagation of uncertainty

f f f uB = x u x1 N + x u x2 N + K + x u xnN 1 2 n

(25)

Note 1.: Uncertainties of measurement always add together. If one uncertainty is much larger and others are small, the large will be dominant and no improvement in the smaller uncertainties in the whole measuring chain will improve much the combined uncertainty. It will be the weakest link in the whole chain. In other words, the most significant part of total uncertainty will be caused by the largest uncertainty. Note 2.: Law of propagation of uncertainty in equation (25) is in this form valid only if the variables x1, x2, ..., xn are not correlated. If individual variables are correlated, covariance have to be calculated and the law takes a more general form
uB =

Ai2u 2 (xi ) + 2 Ai Aj u (xi , x j )

m i =1 i = 2 j <i

m m 1

(26)

where u(xi,xj) are covariance coefficients between variables xi and xj and Ai are sensitivities

Ai =

f ( X 1 , X 2 ,K, X m ) X i X = x ,K, X
1 1

(27)
m = xm

As not correlated variables are assumed, in our case U 1 = f (U 0, R1, R 2) , the uncertainty is U 1 U 1 U 1 = u B1 + u R1 + uR2 U 0 R1 R 2
2 2 2

uB2

(28)

U1 =

R2 U 0 R 2 + R1

(29)

U 1 R2 2729 = = = 0,01 U 0 R 2 + R1 2729 + 270000

(30)

U 1 R2 U 0 2729 9,15 2 = R 2 U 0 (R 2 + R1) ( 1) 1 = = = 0,34 10 6 (31) 2 2 R1 (R 2 + R1) (2729 + 270000) U 1 U0 R2 U 0 9,15 2729 9,15 = = = 33,3 10 6 2 2 R 2 R 2 + R1 (R 2 + R1) 2729 + 270000 (2729 + 270000 )
(32)

uB2 = U1 =

(0,01 0,075)2 + ( 0,34 10 6 135)2 + (33,3 10 6 136 )2

R2 2729 U 0 = 9,15 = 91,6 mV R 2 + R1 2729 + 270000

= 4,6 mV

(33)

(34)

- uncertainty caused by resistance R3 and R4 tolerance uR3 and uR4

Given R3 and R4 nominal values and tolerances are the same, R3 = R4 = 1200 0,1 %, R 3 = R3 0,1% / 100 = 1,2 R 4 = R 4 0,1% / 100 = 1,2 If we assume a normal (Gaussian) distribution of resistance for 2 then uR3 = uR4 = R 3 1,2 = = 0,6 k 2 R 4 1,2 = = 0,6 k 2
(37) (35) (36)

(38)

- uncertainty of voltage U2 caused by operational amplifier (by considering it as ideal amplifier) and R3 and R4 tolerances = uB3 Part 2 in Fig. 2 represents a non inverting amplifier and output voltage U2 is calculated as
R3 U2 = + 1 U 1 R4
(39)

U 2 R3 1200 = + 1 = +1 = 2 U 1 R 4 1200 U 2 U 1 0,0916 = = = 76,3 10 6 1200 R3 R 4 U 2 U 1 R3 0,0916 1200 = = = 76,3 10 6 2 2 R 4 1200 (R 4 )

(40)

(41)

(42)

uB3

U 2 U 2 U 2 = uB2 + u R3 + uR4 U 1 R3 R 4
2 2

(43)

u B3 =

(2 4,6 10 ) + (76,3 10
3 2

0,6 + 76,3 10 6 0,6

) (
2

= 46,7 mV

(44) (45)

R3 1200 U2 = + 1 U 1 = + 1 91,6 = 183,2 mV R4 1200

- accuracy and uncertainty caused by used voltmeter = uB4 In the manufacturer manual on Fig. 5 in can be found that it is accuracy is calculated as percentage from reading. From manufacture data on Fig. 6 accuracy is calculated as
Accuracy (0,5% + 4 digits) = (0,005 . 0,1832 + 4 . 100.10-6) = 1,32 mV Assuming rectangular probability distribution uncertainty can be calculated as accuracy 1,32 uB4 = = = 0,76 mV 3 3

(46)

- extended standard uncertainty combined standard uncertainty - type C

2 2 2 uC = u AK + u B 3 + u B 4 = 0,216 2 + 46,7 2 + 0,76 2 = 46,7 mV

(47)

extended standard uncertainty (probability of result in the given interval of 95 percent)

U = k uC = 2 0,0467 = 0,0934 V = 93,4 mV
(48)

The result will be written in form: arithmetic mean extended standard uncertainty = 339,4 93,4 mV

Appendix

Fig. 3 - Thermistor resistance - temperature dependence

Fig. 4 - Power supply specifications

Fig. 5 - Accuracy specifications

Fig. 6 - MT-1232 multimeter accuracy for DC voltage

References
[1] Bell S.: A Beginner's Guide to Uncertainty of Measurement, online (19.12.2010) on http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/gcos/documents/gruanmanuals/UK_NPL/mgpg11.pdf [2] NTC thermistors for temperature measurement, online (26.1.2011) on http://www.epcos.com/inf/50/db/ntc_09/LeadedDisks__B57164__K164.pdf [3] NTC thermistors for temperature measurement, online (26.1.2011) on http://www.gme.cz/_dokumentace/dokumenty/751/751-518/dsh.751-518.1.pdf [4] TS27L2C,I,M, online (26.1.2011) on http://www.st.com/internet/com/TECHNICAL_RESOURCES/TECHNICAL_LITERATURE /DATASHEET/CD00000880.pdf [5]MT-1232 online (26.1.2011) on http://www.prokits.com.tw/pkjpg/pic7/MT-1232.pdf [6] Taylor B. N., Kuyatt Ch. E.: Guidelines for Evaluating and Expressing the Uncertainty of NIST Measurement Results, online (26.1.2011) on http://www.nist.gov/pml/pubs/tn1297/index.cfm [7] Appendix V. Uncertainties and Error Propagation, online (26.1.2011) on http://physicslabs.phys.cwru.edu/MECH/Manual/Appendix_V_Error%20Prop.pdf