APh-9a APh 9 Solid State Electronics

Axel Scherer (Sloan Annex 203) Kent Potter Kate Finigan

Moores law

450,000,000,000,000,000 transistors produced worldwide

Gordon Moore predicted in 1965 that the chip producers would put more components onto a chip to save money. The density of components on a chip are doubled do bled every two years or faster.

The Advantages of Printing

Printing f t P i ti features enables bl efficient replication and alignment, resulting in more complex systems

Technological advances have evolved printing to the nanoscale

The light source can also be an excimer (fluoride) laser (ArF or KrF)

This lens may contain many (100) elements

U-V photolithography relies mainly on 5:1 or 10:1 steppers like this one. For research applications with odd shaped samples, contact aligners are sometimes used

Throughput = 20 wafers/hour

The Electronics Revolution

Integrated Circuit Transistor

Vacuum tube

Early Electronics

Complementary MOS (or CMOS) provides the basis of modern Silicon electronics

Moores law Printing of Devices drives Moores Law

450,000,000,000,000,000 transistors produced worldwide

Gordon Moore predicted in 1965 that the chip producers would put more components onto a chip to save money. The density of components on a chip are doubled do bled every two years or faster.

Where have we come from?

As the drain voltage is increased, the inversion voltage is reduced

Concept of mask transfer for fabrication f IC f b i i

Quartz plate

Chromium pattern to block light

The wafer is coated with photosensitive resist, h ii i exposed and then developed and rinsed p

Process sequence of a typical lithographic process

Oxidizing Lithography Etching Diffusion Metallization Diode fabrication sequence in a lithographic process

Ion implantation: A more accurate ( (and expensive) doping technique p ) p g q

Gas may be ionized in a plasma

We can measure the ion current and determine the total t t l number of implanted b fi l t d dopants

Ion implantation profile as a function of depth. The projected range (Rp) depends on the energy and mass of the ions and is the midpoint of a Gaussian distribution. Ion dose x =depth p

Number of atoms at any depth x p

50 kV 100 kV 150 kV 200 kV

Projected range

Straggle (distribuu tion half width)

Several consecutive implants with different energies can be used to obtain a desired profile shape.

Vacuum of 1mTorr to 1 Torr

(760 Torr=1 atm) T 1 t )

Could be mechanically pumped or diffusion pumped depending on the vacuum required

Freons are ideal for Si and SiO2 etching since SiF4 is a gas
With photoresist p mask

Sometimes the wafer is heated to increase the etch rate

Reactive ion etching or Plasma etching process

Metallization

Oxidizing Lithography Etching Diffusion Metallization Diode fabrication sequence in a lithographic process

The light source can also be an excimer (fluoride) laser (ArF or KrF)

This lens may contain many (100) elements

U-V photolithography relies mainly on 5:1 or 10:1 steppers like this one. For research applications with odd shaped samples, contact aligners are sometimes used

Throughput = 20 wafers/hour

Ion implantation: A more accurate ( (and expensive) doping technique p ) p g q

Gas may be ionized in a plasma

We can measure the ion current and determine the total t t l number of implanted b fi l t d dopants

Ion implantation profile as a function of depth. The projected range (Rp) depends on the energy and mass of the ions and is the midpoint of a Gaussian distribution. Ion dose x =depth p

Number of atoms at any depth x p

50 kV 100 kV 150 kV 200 kV

Projected range

Straggle (distribuu tion half width)

Several consecutive implants with different energies can be used to obtain a desired profile shape.

Vacuum of 1mTorr to 1 Torr

(760 Torr=1 atm) T 1 t )

Could be mechanically pumped or diffusion pumped depending on the vacuum required

Freons are ideal for Si and SiO2 etching since SiF4 is a gas
With photoresist p mask

Sometimes the wafer is heated to increase the etch rate

Reactive ion etching or Plasma etching process

Moores Law Drivers

Moore and moore devices per chip

Maximize value at constant Real estate price of approximately $5/cm2 Penalty (speed and power) for moving information (or molecules) from chip to chip

MEMS and CMOS Photonics

Silicon is the material which can b fabricated with the be f b i d ih h highest accuracy in large quantities If mechanical or optical h i l i l components can be designed around commercial CMOS processes, processes nanophotonics can be immediately manufactured

Monolithic Integration of Optics and Electronics

RF amplifier 8

1x2 optical switch Optical devices and transistors are constructed side-byside monolithically in the silicon

The Fluidics (R)evolution

Cancer marker Soft micro- screening chip valve Valve

Fluidics from Antiquity

Microfluidic chip: -now at a complexity of 1971 electronics

Use this to convert from conductivity to resistivity

Use this to convert between resistance and resistivity

Faraday
Michael Faraday One of the most prominent scientists of the 19th century, Michael Faraday made significant contributions to both physics and chemistry He discovered chemistry. the phenomenon known as electromagnetic induction by observing that a current flows in a wire that is moved through a magnetic field. His discovery of electromagnetic induction contributed to the development of Maxwells equations, and led to the invention of the electric generator. Faradays earlier work in chemistry included articulating the laws of electrolysis and the discovery of benzene.

Volta
Count Alessandro Volta Made a count by Napoleon in honor of his work in the field of electricity, Alessandro Volta is best known for creating the first electric battery, called the voltaic pile. A physics professor and a lifelong experimenter, he experimenter made many other contributions to science, such as inventing the electrophorus, a device that p produced static charges. Volta was honored for his work by having the unit of electric potential, the volt, named after him. him

Ampere
Ampre, Andr Marie (1775-1836), French scientist, known for his important contributions to the study of electrodynamics. Ampre, the son of a Lyon city official, was born in Polmieux-au-Mont-d'Or, near Lyon. The ampere, the unit of electric current, is named after him. His electrodynamic theory and his views on the relationship of electricity and magnetism were published in his Recueil d'observations lectrodynamiques (Collection of Observations on Electrodynamics, 1822) and in his Thorie des phnomnes lectrodynamiques (Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, 1826). Ampre invented the astatic needle, which made possible the modern astatic galvanometer (see Electric Meters). He was the first to show that two parallel conductors ca y g cu e s ave g carrying currents traveling in the same direction attract each other and, e sa e d ec o a ac eac o e a d, if traveling in opposite directions, repel each other.

Most important p equation for conductivity

The resistance is limited by the mobility, and therefore very er temperature dependent in metals

Note that this equation is q for degrees C

Also note that compounds have typically higher resistances i than their elements

Why is the crystallographic arrangement important? g p

Si

Al

The number of electrons able to conduct depends on the energy band diagram, and whether there i th is an energy bandgap between valence and conduction bands.

A modified periodic table

Group III

Group IV Group V Group VI

Missing a bunch of elements

In a semiconductor, the number of carriers available depend on the temperature t t (thermal activation) and therefore the resistance is again very sensitive to temperature

Elemental Semiconductors: Group IV elements with diamond cubic crystal structure

= qn

Note: Graphite is much more conducting than diamond

Some of the compound semiconductors

= qn

The Diamond Cubic Structure: Almost all semiconductors have this atomic arrangement

In 3D, this 3D structure has roughly the same distance between atoms in all directions

A modified periodic table

Group III

Group IV Group V Group VI

Missing a bunch of elements

Elemental Semiconductors: Group IV elements with diamond cubic structure

Compound Semiconductors: III-V III V semiconductors i d t II-VI semiconductors Bandgap engineering

Where have we come from?

Where are we going? Density of DRAM devices as a function of time: Minimum Feature Sizes are also plotted on the right scale i ht l

Crystal Growth: Basic Technology Required for Semiconductor Fabrication

Large single crystals of Silicon with almost L i l l f Sili ih l no defects are needed for VLSI

This was in 1985

Notice that the first bipolar t bi l transistor was it made in Germanium, not Silicon, because it was easier to purify at the time

Some very common cubic crystal structures y y We would call this the unit cell: It contains only on atom in this case

Purifying silicon for the semiconductor industry

Impurity I it levels in the silicon

Technique for making large crystals: Pulling from a melt

8 inches

20 cm (almost 10 inch) wafers are now becoming standard. After growth, these are cut with a diamond saw, polished and cleaned before use