Title: Experiment 1: Chi- square analysis Objective:

1. Calculate X 2 to determine whether a data set approximates a theoretically expected ratio. 2. Interpret a calculated X 2 value at an appropriate number of degrees of freedom.

Introduction: The extent an observed data set fits or differs from the predicted or expected occurrences can be evaluated by testing the goodness of fit of the data. When the data do not fit exactly, we will want to find out how much deviation can be allowed before we reject a null hypothesis. One of the simplest statistical tests to assess the goodness of fit of the null hypothesis is chi-square analysis (X 2 ), which tests the difference between observed (O) and expected (E) values. This X 2 value is then used to estimate how frequently the observed deviation can be expected to occur strictly as a result of chance, allowing us to determine whether progeny phenotype ratios fit our assumptions about their genotypes. The formula for calculating the chi-square value is: X2 = phenotype, E = the expected number in that phenotype, and

{[(O E) 2 ] / E}

where O = the observed number of individuals in a particular

= the summation of all possible values of (O-E)

the various penotypic categories

/E for

The degree of freedom (df), which is equal to n 1, where n is the number of categories (the number of phenotypes considered), will then be determined. Degrees of freedom must be taken into

account because the greater the number of categories, the more deviation is expected by chance alone. The calculated X 2 value can now be interpreted at a corresponding probability value (p), which can be obtained from X 2 table (Appendix) for (n1) degree of freedom. The p value can be thought as a percentage. For example, a p value of 0.26 indicates that were the same experiment repeated many times, 26% of the trials would be expected to exhibit chance deviation as great as or greater than that seen in the initial trial. Conversely, 74% of the repeats would show less deviation than initially observed as a result of chance. The interpretation of the p value reveals that a hypothesis is never proved or disproved absolutely. Instead, a relative standard must be set to serve as the basis for either rejecting or failing to reject the hypothesis. This standard is often a probability value of 0.05. If the calculated X 2 value is smaller than the critical value given in the table at (n1) df, then we accept the null hypothesis and conclude that the difference between observed and expected results is not significant, and vice versa. Material: Non-biological materials: container of equal quantities of coloured and white beads, petri dishes, two equal-value coins and a calculator. Method: Activity 1: 1. One petri dish-full random sample of beads is removed from the beaker. 2. The beads of the different colours is segregated and counted. 3. Data is recorded in Table 1.1 and the expected numbers based on the size of the sample and the known ratio of coloured to white beads in the entire population is calculated. Table 1.1 is completed and X 2 is calculated.

Activity 2: 1. Two equal-value coins together are tossed 30 times 2. Data is recorded in Table 1.2 and then the expected numbers are calculated. 3. Table 1.2 is completed and X 2 is calculated. Activity 3: 1. One tablespoon-full random sample of beads is removed from the beaker. 2. The beads of the different colours are segregated and counted. 3. Data is recorded in Table 1.1 and the expected numbers based on the size of the sample and the known ratio of coloured to white beads in the entire population is calculated. Table 1.3 is completed and X 2 is calculated.

Activity 4: The following are the approximate frequencies of the various ABO blood groups in a hypothetical population: 41% A, 9% B, 3% AB, and 47% O. The number of students in the class who have blood group A, B, AB and O is recorded in Table 1.4, and the class data is determined whether represents a satisfactory sample of the hypothetical population. Table 1.4 is completed and X 2 is calculated Activity 5: 1. One spatula-full random sample of beads is removed from the container.

2. The beads of the different colours are segregated and counted 3. Data is recorded in Table 1.5 and the expected numbers is calculated based on the size of the sample and the known ratio of the beads in the entire population. Table 1.5 is completed and X 2 is calculated. Results: Activity 1 Classes Observed Expected Deviation (O-E) 0 0 (O-E)2 0 0 X2 (O-E)2/E 0 0 =0

(Phenotype) (O) (E) Coloured 43 43 White 43 43 Total 86 Degree of freedom = n- 1 = 2- 1 = 1 P value = 0.05 Critical value = 3.84

H 0 : There is no great difference between the expected and observed value H 1 : There is great difference between the observed and expected value Since the calculated X 2 value is less than the critical value, the null hypothesis is accepted.

Activity 2 Classes

Observed

Expected

Deviation (O-E) 3.5 4 0.5

(O-E)2 12.25 16 0.25

(O-E)2/E 1.633 1.067 0.033 X 2 =2.733

(Phenotype) (O) (E) Heads on 4 7.5 both coins Head on one, 19 15 tails on the other coin Tails on both 7 7.5 coins Total 30 Degree of freedom = n- 1 = 3- 1 = 2

P value = 0.05 Critical value = 5.99 H 0 : There is no great difference between the expected and observed value H 1 : There is great difference between the observed and expected value Since the calculated X 2 value is less than the critical value, the null hypothesis is accepted. Activity 3 Classes

Observed

Expected

Deviation (O-E) 0.25 0.25

(O-E)2 0.0625 0.0625

(O-E)2/E 0.0009 0.0009 2 X =1.0018

(Phenotype) (O) (E) Coloured 68 68.25 White 23 22.75 Total Degree of freedom = n- 1 = 2- 1 = 1 P value = 0.05 Critical value = 3.84

H 0 : There is no great difference between the expected and observed value H 1 : There is great difference between the observed and expected value Since the calculated X 2 value is less than the critical value, the null hypothesis is accepted.

Activity 4 Classes Observed Expected Deviation (O-E) 4.7 5.3 0.7 0.2 (O-E)2 22.1 28.1 0.49 0.04 (O-E)2/E 2.065 12.217 1.633 0.003 2 X =15.918 (Phenotype) (O) (E) A 6 10.7 B 7 2.3 AB 1 0.3 O 12 12.2 Total 26 Degree of freedom = n- 1 = 4 -1 = 3 P value = 0.05 Critical value = 7.82 H 0 : There is no great difference between the expected and observed value H 1 : There is great difference between the observed and expected value

Since the calculated X 2 value is more than the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected. Activity 5 Classes Observed Expected Deviation (O-E) 7.7 2.2 7.2 2.7 (O-E)2 59.2 4.8 51.8 7.29 (O-E)2/E 0.361 0.088 0.946 0.398 2 X =1.793 (Phenotype) (O) (E) Red 172 164.3 Blue 57 54.8 Yellow 42 54.8 White 21 18.3 Total 292 Degree of freedom = n- 1 = 4 -1 = 3 P value = 0.05 Critical value = 7.82 H 0 : There is no great difference between the expected and observed value H 1 : There is great difference between the observed and expected value Since the calculated X 2 value is less than the critical value, the null hypothesis is accepted. Discussion: In this experiment, we are required to determine whether a data set approximates a theoretically expected ratio. In order to determine this, Chi square value method has been used. In activity 1, we are required to count the 2 colours beads. The calculated chi square value is 0. By using the p-value which is equal to 0.05 and degree of freedom which equals to 1, the critical value has been found from the table. The critical value is 3.84. Since the chi square value calculated is less than the critical value, the null hypothesis is accepted. In activity 2, we are required to toss the coins and count the number of times the different combinations appear. The calculated chi square value is 2.733. By using the p-value which is equal to 0.05 and degree of freedom which equals to 2, the critical value has been found from the table. The critical value is 5.99. Since the chi

square value calculated is less than the critical value, the null hypothesis is accepted. In activity 3, we are required to count 1 table spoon full of the beads that has been prepared. The calculated chi square value is 1.002. By using the p-value which is equal to 0.05 and degree of freedom which equals to 1, the critical value has been found from the table. The critical value is 3.84. Since the chi square value calculated is less than the critical value, the null hypothesis is accepted. In activity 4, we are required to count the amount of people with each blood group. The calculated chi square value is 15.918. By using the p-value which is equal to 0.05 and degree of freedom which equals to 3, the critical value has been found from the table. The critical value is 7.82. Since the chi square value calculated is more than the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected. In activity 5, we are required to count 1 spatula of four colours beads. The calculated chi square value is 1.793. By using the pvalue which is equal to 0.05 and degree of freedom which equals to 3, the critical value has been found from the table. The critical value is 7.82. Since the chi square value calculated is less than the critical value, the null hypothesis is accepted. Conclusion: For activity 1, 2, 3 and 5, the null hypothesis can be accepted as the chi square value is less than critical value only activity 4, null hypothesis is rejected as the chi square value calculated is more than critical value