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Macfarlane Burnets work in the middle of the twentieth century contributed to a better understanding of the immune response and

the effectiveness of immunization programs:

Identify the components of the immune response: Antibodies, T cells, B cells


THIRD LINE DEFENCE:

AQUIRED/SPECIFIC IMMUNITY. NOT present at birth it is gained through exposure to infection. Specific immune response acts only against specific microbes or substances -only acts against certain antigens. Has MEMORY: cells can recognize antigens from previous infections -> act faster and more efficiently in the second exposure.

ANTIBODIES: Proteins (IMMUNOGLOBULINS) produced by B cells in response to a specific antigen. Bind to specific antigens -> form antigen-antibody complex -> activates production of series of proteins. -> bacteria ingested + destroyed + histamine released -> inflammatory changes. Each antigen - stimulates production of its own particular antibody.

An antibody can react with the antigen and can either: 1) Inactivate the pathogen by neutralization 2) Cause agglutination 3) Cause precipitation that destroys the activity of the pathogen 4) Activate the complement system that releases histamines.

T CELLS: Lymphocytes which form in the bone marrow and mature and develop in the thymus gland. T-Cell Thymus gland Remain inactive in the blood and lymph until contact with an antigen. Antigen binds to T cell -> activates T cell to multiply (make clones). Control the cell-mediated response; various types of T cells destroy the antigen/foreign cell. Others stimulate activity of B lymphocytes + macrophages. Some clones remain in the body as memory cells. a) Do not produce antibodies. When the antigen enters body -> T cells secrete substances that either: Directly destroy the antigen

b) Stimulate the activity of phagocytes.

Four Main types of T cells + their roles: 1) Helper T cells: Secrete chemicals called interleukins - regulate cytotoxic T cell + B cell functions. 2) Cytotoxic T cells: Attack and destroy cells that bear a foreign antigen. Kill cancer cells, virus-infected cells or other intracellular pathogens. 3) Memory T cells: Produced during time of infection, but remain dormant + survive years after antigen is gone. Recognise the antigen rapidly if it reappears in a second exposure -> provide quick + enhanced response symptoms disappear faster/arent experienced 4) Suppressor T cells: Stop production of Killer T cells + B cells.

a)

B CELLS: Special kind of lymphocyte produced in the bone marrow. B-Cell Bone marrow Control the Humoral (blood) response; B cells present in blood + lymph - activated by presence of antigens. Activated B cells clone themselves + the differentiate into specialised: Plasma B cells: Produce the antibodies. After the infection is gone, eventually die off.

b) Memory B cells: Formed in small numbers in the original infection, but do not die off. Stay behind to recognise the antigen if it appears again, hence having memory. Work mainly in the blood + interstitial fluids.

T CELLS TARGET Bacteria Protozoa Parasitic worms Transplanted tissue Cancer cells

B CELLS TARGET Bacteria Toxins Viruses

Describe and explain the immune response in the human body in terms of:

Interaction between B and T lymphocytes. The mechanisms that allow interaction between B and T lymphocytes.

INTERACTION BETWEEN B AND T LYMPHOCYTES: When an antigen enters the body - ingested + processed by a macrophage. The macrophage displays fragments of the antigen on its outer membrane -> recognised by helper T cells and B cells. Different cells able to collaborate: - so close to each other - regulated by cytokines -> proteins by T cells + macro signal others to initiate imm response) Eg. tells B cell transform -> plasma cell Helper T cells secrete chemicals called interleukins - stimulate production of cytotoxic T cells + B cells.

THE MECHANISMS THAT ALLOW INTERACTION BETWEEN B AND T LYMPHOCYTES: The T lymphocytes that help B lymphocytes are called helper T cells. If a B cell has an antigen on its surface, there is a risk that a T cell will recognise the antigen and attack it together with the B cell. This does not happen because T cells are able to recognise self molecules that are on the surface of B cells. Every person has their own particular self molecules, so there are millions of different B cells.

Outline the way in which vaccinations prevent infection:


Vaccination or immunization: - Process of making people resistant to infection caused by a pathogen. - Involves giving injection/oral dose of vaccine -> produces immunity actively or passively.

Vaccines: - Preparations from weakened or dead infective micro-organisms - Injected into body - intention of provoking immunity

Active immunization: involves injection of an antigen in the form of a vaccine. -> Stimulates production of antibodies + T and B memory cells specific to that antigen, many of which remain in the body for long time long-term protection Eg. Used to protect against measles, tuberculosis, polio etc.

Passive immunity: involves injection of antibodies produced by another org in response to infection by a particular pathogen. + By-passes the whole immune response to provide immediate protection. + gives protection from diseases the body has never been infected by.

- No memory cells produced - provides short term protection - risk stimulating reactions against other foreign blood proteins that might be present in vaccine.

Evaluate the effectiveness of vaccination programs in preventing the spread + occurrence of once common diseases: small pox, diphtheria, polio

Vaccination has been referred to as one of the most successful public health programs used to prevent disease

*Mass immunization programs* (especially by WHO) -> 1974 Expanded Program on Immunisation (EPI) - increased % world infants immunized against 6 target diseases - prevent occurrence + spread of disease throughout population = prevented 3 million deaths/yr

The Principle of herd immunity If majority of population immunized against a disease

Low chance of infected individual coming in contact with unprotected/unimmunized person

Transmission of disease effectively reduced/stopped

Refusal/Neglection of vaccinations Despite success there are chances of resurgence of disease due to refusal/neglection of vaccination by a no. people Eg. increased cases of whooping cough Reasons: -> low incidence in pop -> people become complacent, thinking wont contract disease + never exp seriousness -> feel risks of side effects are too great

SMALLPOX:

Cause and Symptoms: Cause: smallpox virus Enters through throat + lungs -> undergoes 12-day incubation Symptoms: obvious vesicles on the skin, headaches, backaches and fever

History: First appeared in Asia or Africa around 10000 BC Spread by explorers, traders and crusades Responsible for 1 in 10 of all deaths in Europe in the 19 Century Reached Australia in 1789, with early European settlers -> devastating effect on Aboriginal communities
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Vaccination Programs: First smallpox vaccination - inoculating people with cowpox 1967, Was used by the WHO on a global scale WHO - routinely immunised people - provided supplementary vaccinations - carefully supervised areas w potential for infections = 1980 WHO announced the world free of smallpox

Evaluation of Effectiveness: Since the vaccination programs -> resulted in the complete eradication of the disease from the planet = it can be said that the programs were extremely effective.

DIPHTHERIA:

Causes and Symptoms: Cause: Bacterial infection spread through - air into respiratory surfaces - close physical contact Symptoms: throat infections -> breathing difficulties -> death

History: 100 years ago, 50% infected would die Large epidemics in Europe after WWII Recent outbreaks in Algeria and China

Vaccination Programs: 1923, a vaccine was released 1974, WHO began to expand its immunisation program globally (EPI) = 1990 worldwide immunity rate was 80%

Evaluation of Effectiveness: The vaccination program reduced the spread of the disease from cyclic academics -> occasional breakouts of low density Even though the rate of immunity is high, the disease is still present in developing countries and has not yet been eradicated

POLIO:

Causes and Symptoms: Cause: attack by polio viruses on the motor neurones of spinal chord + brain Symptoms: high fever, back pains, muscle spasms, paralysis

History: Existed in Ancient Egypt -> killed thousands in 19 Century Rate of polio began to fall in 20 Century
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Vaccination Programs: 1955, vaccination first introduced 1960s, oral form of the vaccine introduced -> disease brought under control 1988, WHO began immunisation campaign = 1990 number of cases dropped by 80%

Evaluation of Effectiveness: Despite widespread success in polio control, there are still small breakouts in around 70 countries. Polio infection rates have been successfully controlled & reduced by 80%

The Deliberate Suppression of the immune response in organ transplant patients


marker molecules on donor organ act as antigens that identify the organ as foreign material Activates immune response: Cytotoxic T cells move to transplanted organ to attack and destroy the foreign potentially harmful cells Rejection of transplanted organ (fatal side effects) To reduce severity of immune response: Tissue Typing - tissue of donor + recipient matched as closely as possible - high no. of matching marker molecules -> fewer foreign molecules (antigens) -> less violent immune response Immunosuppressant drugs (anti-rejection) - suppress the immune system -> lower risk of rejection - Eg. Cyclosporin Reduces activity of T cells (principle attacking cells) + whole immune system not suppressed can still act to defend body against other disease-causing organisms -- results in a not as effective immune system since normal interactions between B + T cells dont occur, greater risk of suffering from many more infections - need to be taken for life/long-term (large -> small doses, as imm resp lessens over time)

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