Ernest Nagel

R. James R. Newman
R. Douglas R. Hofstadter

1931
<>

1951
J.(J.
Robert Oppenheimer)

1958

R. Douglas R.

Hofstadter

R.
.R.
Gdel,
Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid

1931 . Kurt Gdel

1931 . Kurt Gdel


R. Douglas R.
Hofstadter

. (Bertrand Russell)

R.
R.

3.1415926535897932384626433832795028841971693993751
05820974944....

1, -3, 5, -7, 9, -11, 13, -15, 17, -19, .....

1

1 - 1/3 + 1/5 - 1/7 + 1/9 - 1/11 + 1/13 - 1/15 + 1/17

- 1/19 +.....

11/31/51/71/9

2/31

1 - 1/3 + 1/5 - 1/7 + 1/9 - 1/11 + 1/13 - 1/15 + 1/17

- 1/19 + ....= /4

235

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47,
53,59....

[]
4

2, 2, 4, 2, 4, 2, 4, 6, 2, 6, 4,
2, 4, 6, 6, ....?
810

n
n n log nlog n
e
n e

1900
Jacques
HadamardCharles-Jean de la Vall
5

e Poussin

nnn/logn[]
6

1931
25

1931

1958

1959


141516

1930-1931
10

20072

11

R.

1959 8

1972
Howard DeLong
(A Profile of Mathematical Logic)
1959

1972

Gdel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal

Golden Braid

1906

Alfred North
Whitehead 1910 1913
Principia Mathematica

1996
4

2+2=5; 0/0=43,

Douglas
LenatAMAM

AM
AM

AM

0 1

10

11

1931

25 1938

1952

Alfred North WhiteheadBertrand Russell

0123

GaussBolyai
LobachevskyRiemann

 David
Hilbert 1899

10
2357
K L

10

1.

K L

2.

L
K

3.

K L

4.

L K

5.

L K

K L
K L

11

 1 K L K
L

A A' AA'

12

13

14

15

 K L

16

Georg Cantor
4

N
N N
4

17

 N
N
N
N
N N
N N

18

19

20

2+3=5

2 + 3 = 5

21

x=x
0=0
00

0 = 0x = x0
x

0 0 X

22

X
0 = 00 0

x = 5

x = 5

23

id
ego

24

0 = 0~0 = 0

7 ~

25

 64
32

26

27

1.

2.

x 1
y
y = 2

3.

x + 1

y x y
x

4.

y x
28

 y
z z x 2357x
z x
5.

6.

7.

5
ppp
5

p
y

29

Molire Monsieur

Jourdain 9

1787 Immanuel Kant

10 1847
George Boole

6 7
2
9
1669
10
5 3 5 3

30

g p

b p

gb

g p=0
bp=0

gb = 0

g p

b p
b p = 0
p

31

1910

1
01
2
2
Gottlob Frege

1 + 1 = 2

32

transfinite

33

34

1931

35

 11

p q
r

S
~ (S )
S1 S 2 (S1 ) (S 2 ) (S1 ) (S 2 )

(S1 ) (S 2 ) p ~ ( p )
( p ) (q ) ((q ) (r )) ( p ) ( p ) (~ (q ))
(( p ) (q )) ( p )
(~ (q ))

11

36

 12

p p
q p q q p q
p ( p q ) ( p q )
p

13
Modus Ponens S1 S1 S 2
S2

p ~ p

( p ~ p ) ( p p ) ( p p )

12

~ ( p )

~ p ( p ) (q ) p q

13
( p q ) (~ q ~ p ) r

p pr q
(r ( p r )) (~ q ~ r ) q
(r ( p r )) (~ ( p r ) ~ r )

37

1 ( p p) p

p p p

2 p ( p q)

p p q

3 ( p q ) (q p )

p q q p

4 ( p q ) ((r p ) (r q ))

r p r

38

(( p q ) ((r s ) t )) ((u ((r s ) t )) (( p u ) (s t )))

S
~ S
p (~ p q ) p p
q

S
~ S S
p
39

 q 14 q
q

S ~ S

1
25
2

14

p , S (~ S q ) S

~ S q ~ S
q
40

41

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( p p ) p
pp

42

15

15

12

34
5p q6
78

43

16

16

44

1931

45

46


17

Jules Richard 1905

17

47

1
2

18 1
17
17 17

15 15
15
17
xx

18

monosyllabicpolysyllabicpolysyllabic
polysyllabicpolysyllabic
48


n
n
n n n

n n
n

19
19

1931

49

50

3
51

 3a Pappus ABC I
ABC II
AB ABBC BCCA CA RST
III
3b ABC I
ABC II
AB ABBC BCCA CA R

ST III
3a
3b
b a b
ab
a

52

53

A
PM

20

21

20

PM
21

1931
54

 12 1 12
22 ~

=0
+

xx = s0 x
x 0

22

55

10

11

12

2
PM
PM PM

PM

0
+
~

PM
56

 PM
0 + 0 = 00 + s0 =
s0s0 + s0 = ss0
0=
+
~0 = s0~~0 = 0~ss0 + ss0 = sss0
PM ~

PM 1931
VPM

PM 23
PM
23

17 7 21
PMPM
57

PM
2

PM x
yzss0
x + ypqr
PQR

1
12 2
12 3
12

13

17

s0

19

y
58

 12

13 2

0=0

17 2

xx = sy

19 2

p q

12

13 3

x = sy

17 3

~x = ss0 y

19 3

xx = y + sz

12

PM x x =
sy x x y
y

8413981357179

13

13

17

59

2 8 3 4 5 13 7 9 11 8 13 13 17 5 19 7 23 17 29 9

24

24

PM

pq
(p q)

pq
(p q)
1s02ss03sss0
2 = 3PM
(ss0 = sss0)
60

 xx = sy
xx = s0

PM
0
y 25
m
n

2 3

kk = 2m
3n
PM

25

PM

61


26

12
2
12
27
12

26

100 100 12

12
100
22 52 3
100
100 100

27

62

243,000,000

64 243 15,625

26 35 56

PM 243,000,000 A
E

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63

37 53

37 53

~0 = 0

64


21

56

75

116

38

139 a

a 2 1
2 a
2 2

PM
PM x y
z y z x
PM zy = x

zssssss0 = z
ss0

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ss0

s
a
24 z
65

a z 2 z a z 2

PM
PM

x y

PM
PM ~0 = 0

PM
PM

PM
PM

66

 x z PM

x z

k = 2 m 3 n
n
k n
demx, z
x z
dem
x z
PM demonstration
dem
PM PM

dem dem PM

demx,
z x z
PM

67

Demx, zD

dem2, 5 2
5 2
5
Demss0, sssss0PM
28

dem x, z Dem ssssss0,

ssssss0PM
sxsz
PM Demx, z
PM
PM
28

PM
2 + 2 5
(ss0 + ss0 = sssss0)
PM
PM
(ss0 + ss0 = sssss0)
pr(x)x
pr(9) PM
PM pr(x) ( y) ( z) (x = ssy
ssz) PM
P,Prx
PM Pr(sssssssss0) ( y) ( z)
(sssssssss0 = ssy ssz)
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68

 PM
PM ~Dem
ssssss0, ssssss0
sPM

xx = sy m
y 17 m
17 y
xx = ssssss0m + 1s
PM x m
m

mm 17
m
17 29
29

( x) (x = sy)
m 28 34 513 79 118 1313 175 197 2317 299my

69

subx, 17, x
x

xyx
30
( x) (x = ssssss0)(m + 1)s
84139813577777769
7 m + 128 34 513 79
118 1313 175 197 237 297 317 Pm+109P m+10m + 10

r m r
17 y m
17 17
m 17 r r m

r m 17
30

10X

00ss0 + sss0 sub

xxy

70

subPM
31
Subx, 17, x

sub
243,000,000, 17, 243,000,000
32 Sub243,000,000, 17, 243,000,000
PM
PM

ss0 + ss0
PM 33
31

subz = sub (x, 17, x)

33

32

x 17

y sub(x, 17, x) sub(243,000,000, 17,

243,000,000) 243,000,000 ssssss0( 243,000,000 s)
y 4 , 243,000,000 0 =
0y0 = 0y
0 = 0y
sub(243,000,000, 17, 243,000,000)
243,000,000
33

Sub(x, 17, x)s0 = sss0( x) (x = sy)

Dem(x, z)PMs0 = sss0

Dem (x, z)

( x) (x = sy)Sub(x, 17, x)
xSub(x, 17, x)
ss0 sssss0
71

1PMG
PMG 34

G
nn
Gg
G
g
2G
G
nn
PM
PMGG
PMPM
G 35

34

PMPM
35

PM
XX
72

3 G
28
G

4 G
PM PM
PM
PM
PM G

G G
G
G

5 PM
APM
A G PM A
PM PM

PM
73

PM

PM

iDemx, z PM
x z

xDemx, z
x z
z

PM
74


~ xDemx, z PM
z
z

~ xDemx, Suby, 17, y

PM
Suby, 17, y
yy
17 y
36 1
suby, 17, y

36

Sub(y, 17, y)PM

33
yy
Sub(y, 17, y)y + sss0
y[yy
yy
ysub(y, 17, y)y
32y
Sub(y, 17, y)]
75

1 PM

n
n n
n17
sssssssssssssssss01y

xDemx, Subn, 17, n

1
subn, 17, n

G
GPMgg
g = subn, 17, n 37
subn, 17, nn
37

PMsub(n, 17, n)s

Sub(n, 17, n)Ssub(n, 17, n)

25Sub(n, 17,
n)PMss0sssss0
76

n 17
yG
nn
ysubn, 17, n
G
G PM
g
G PM G
PM G PM

iiGPM

38
G
xDemx, Subn, 17, nPM
GG
GG
~G 39
38

PMn
nPM
n
g = sub(n, 17, n)
xdem(x, y)
PMPM
39

J. Barkley Rosser 1936

77


PM
GPM
G 40
iii
PM
GG
PMGPM
P C
( x) P(x)P(0)P(s0)P(ss0)0
P1 P2 P C
C
C ,
( x) P(x) C
~( x) P(x)C
( x) P(x)P(0)P(s0)P(ss0)
P
( x) P(x)P( x)
P(x)P
C

40

GGG

PMG
Gkdem(x, z)
xkzGdem(x, z)dem(k, sub(n,17, n))
dem(x, z)PM
Dem(ssssss0, Sub(ssssss0, ssssss0, ssssss0))PM
skn17nDem(k, Sub(n, 17, n))
PMP(k)kP
( x) P(x)P( x) Dem(x, Sub(n, 17, n))
GGG
PMGPM
G PM

78


PM G
G G
~G

G
G G PM G
G subn,
17, ndem x G
G
PM G PM
G G

iv

GPM
79

PMPM
PM 41
PM
G

demx,
z
PM
PM

41

iiiGG

GGGPM
PMPM
GG

80

PM
PM

PM PM
PM
y x
dem y
x demx, y
PM

y xDemx, y

A
y
x PM
A PM
81

PM
XX
PM X
GG PM
PM
G G

PM
PM

y~ xDemx, y

~ xDemx, Subn,

17, n

PM

A PM
A G
G PM G
PM
A PM
A PM
82

 PM
PM
A PM
PM
PM
PM

PM
PM
42
PM
1936 Gerhard
Gentzen 43

PM

42

43

PM

Georg Cantor

PM

83

84

44

realism

45
44

45

85

(Kurt Gdel ,Russells

Mathematical Logic,in The Philosophy of Bertrand Russell (ed.. Paul A. Schilpp, Evanston and
Chicago, 1944), p. 137).
86

87

7 1899
Giuseppe Peano

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

30 8

34
5 6
pqr

p qp q
88


p qp q

[q

r]

p r[ q r
p q r]

S 1
S 2
y
py qx
r

[y

x
y
89

x ]

Modus Ponens
S1 S1 S 2
S 2

and p
qp q~not
p~p

90

x
yz
2
x x 2 x
x
x

xx 2

x x x
x
x

xx

91

Prxx
Grx, zx z
x
x x
zx zx

Prx

z[Prz

~x = z

Grx, z]

x
z z z x x z

Prx

z[Prz

Grz, x]

x zz
92

 z x

x[Prx

zPrz

Grz, x]

x x
zz z x

p q p q
Prxp zPr
z Grz, xq

Prx

z[Prz

Prx

z[Prz

Grz, x]

Grz, x]

93

Prx

z[Prz

Grz, x]

x
x S 2 x
S1 x

4243

94

K1
K2

S1 S 2 S1 S 2 K2
K2 K1

II S1 S 2 S1 K1 S 2 K2
K2 K 1
III S1 S 2 S1 S 2 K1
K1 K2
IV ~S S K 1 K2
K 1

95


K 1 ,

K1

K1

K1

K2

K2

K1

I
II

K 1

96

K1

K1

K1

K1

K1

K2

K1

K1

K2

K1

K1

K1

K2

K2

K2

K1

I
II

K 1

S1 S1 S 2
S 2 S 2
S 2 K2
S1
K 1 S 2 K2
97

 S1 S 2
K 2 S1 S 2

S 2

K 1 K2

98

Gdels Proof
Ernest Nagel
RJames R. Newman 1956
6
1
1958

/2004.12
1

70 2001
R.
Douglas R. Hofstadter

2005

Susan Haack

A B

Ernest Nagel

(19011985

1923
1925
3

1930
1946
1956 1966 1967 1970
1940 1946
1939 1956 1956
1959

1961
The Structure
of Science

R. James R. Newman

19071966

1948

R. Douglas R.

Hofstadter1945

1961
4

1965
1975

Gdel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid

1980
,
1996

1
1988.
2

1993.
5

3
1996.
4
1996.
5 M.
1997.
6
2000.
7
2002.
8

2002.
9

/
2005.
10

2005.
11 2007.
12 Solomon Feferman, et al., editors, Kurt Gdel,
Collected Works. Vol. I. Publications 19291936,
Oxford University Press, New York, 1986.
13 Solomon Feferman, et al., editors, Kurt Gdel,
Collected Works. Vol. II. Publications 19381974,
6

Oxford University Press, New York, 1990.

14 Solomon Feferman, et al., editors, Kurt Gdel,
Collected Works. Vol. III. Unpublished essays and
lectures, Oxford University Press, New York,
1995.
15 Solomon Feferman, et al., editors, Kurt Gdel,
Collected Works. Vol. IV. Correspondence AG,
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003.
16 Solomon Feferman, et al., editors, Kurt Gdel,
Collected Works. Vol. V. Correspondence HZ,
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003.
17John W. Dawson , Logical Dilemmas: The Life and
Work of Kurt Gdel , A. K. Peters Ltd., Wellesley,
Mass., 1997.
18 Hao Wang (), A Logical Journey: From Gdel to
Philosophy, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.,1996.
19 Torkel Franzn , Gdels Theorem: An Incomplete
Guide to Its Use and Abuse , A. K. Peters Ltd.,
Wellesley, Mass., 2005.
20 Rebecca Goldstein , Incompleteness: The Proof and
Paradox of Kurt Gdel (Great Discoveries), W. W.
Norton, New York, 2006.
7

21 Gregory J. Chaitin , Thinking about Gdel and

Turing , World Scientific, 2007.