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2.1 Harmonic-Related loss Mechanisms in Power Wiring If the transformer is not designed to carry load current
with a significant percentage of higher-order harmonics, it
Joule losses refer to the heating of the conductor due to may overheat while appearing to be operating at less than
effects of load current and include joule, magnetic, skin and its rating. There are several reasons why this phenomenon
proximity effects. For a homogeneous, cylindrical can hapipen. First, the higher-order harmonics induce
conductor with constant thermal conductivity, uniform larger voltages in the transformer winding and core, which
surface temperature and uniform current distribution, the cause thle losses due to eddy currents and hysteresis to
heat gain by joule heating is given by increase. Second, the higher-order harmonics of the loads
current cause an increase in the a.c. resistance of the
winding due to "skin effect" and "proximity effects". Third,
PJ= ke.12.Rdc.(l+ao.T) (1) the third and multiples of third harmonics will circulate in
the delta connected windings and not appear in the input
Where I i s the r.m.s. current of the conducting, Rdc is the line current to the transformer. Thus, the transformer must
J.c. resistance per unit length at O°C , and a0 is the be sized ito this circulating[l,4,16].
Transformer losses consist of no-load or core loss aod
temperature coefficient of resistance between 0 OC and load lossi~s.This can be expressed by the equation below
T I the mean temperature of the conducting section of the
conductor factor k , accounts for the increase of the P-r= Pc+ PR+ P s ~PEL i (5)
resistance due to skin and proximity effects[l,5]. Where
pT total IOSS,
The only power loss Component for the cable is 12.R,
Pc core loss or no load loss
where I could be augmented by the harmonic distortion,
and R value is determined by its dc values plus a.c. skin PR loss due to load current and d.c. resistance of the
and proximity effects. The rms. value including harmonic windings,
current, I, can be obtained from individual harmonic PELwinding eddy loss
contents. PsL stray losses in clamps, tanks, etc.,
Separating the fundamental component I1from the
harmonic component Ih, the rms current is: With nonlinear loads, the maximum loading of
transformer should be reduced to less than name plate
capacity tip to avoid overheating the transformer and to
I*=If+I; avoid causing excessive output voltage distortion.
The K-factor commonly found in power quality literature
ITHD can provide a good idea of how much extra heat will concerning transformer departing can be defined solely in
be realized when a distorted voltage is applied across a terms of ihe harmonic currents It should be noted that K-
resistive load. Likewise, it can give an indication of the factor transformers are now available, with winding and a
addition losses caused by the current flowing through a magnetic structure which is specifically designed to reduce
conductor. the heatinlg effects of harmonic load current distortion[4].
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3. REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION IN Harmonic studies should be performed on any large
NONSINUSOIDAL SITUATIONS capacitor banks installed in distribution substation. One
can not count on system losses to damp out resonance at
Ideally, the voltage supplied to customer equipment and this point OR the systems. Placing a filter at the substation
the resulting load current are perfect sine waves. However, bank will not necessarily resolve the problems on the
conditions are never ideal in practice, so these waveforms feeder unless the problem was based on resonance with a
are often distorted. The deviation from perfect sinusoids is substation capacitor bank
usually expressed in terms of harmonic distortion of the First, determine if a different size of capacitor can be
voltage and current waveforms. used. Sometimes, there are so many capacitors switched
The WR ratio of the utility distribution feeder is generally with loads that it is impossible to control the value of
low. Therefore, the accentuation of harmonics by capacitance. However, with switched capacitors and
resonance with feeder bank is usually mild. However, it automatic power factor controllers, it may be possible to
may be very noticeable when a capacitor bank is energized select a control scheme that avoids the configuration that
and can still cause equipment malfunctions. Utility gives customer problems.
distribution engineers can usually place feeder banks The primary object of a harmonic filter is to reduce the
where they wish without excessive concern about amplitude of one or more fixed frequency currents
harmonics. When problems do occur, the usual solution is or voltages.
to move the bank or change the capacitor size[l-31. The size of a filter is defined as the reactive power that
Harmonic distortion complicates the computation of the filter supplies at fundamental frequency, it is
power and power factor because many of the substantially equal to the fundamental reactive power
simplifications that power engineers use for power supplied by the capacitors. The total size of all the
frequency analysis do not apply. When both voltage and branches of a filters is determined by the the reactive
current are sinusoidal, it is feasible to resolve voltage, power requirements of the harmonic source and by how
current, or power into in-phase and quadrature much this requirement can be supplied by the a.c. network
components. Thus we can define complex apparent power A more practical criterion suggests reducing the
as, problem to an acceptable level at the point of common
coupling with other consumers, the problem being
S =P+jQ (6) expressed in terms of harmonic current, harmonic voltage,
If either the voltage or the current is nonsinusoidal, there or both. A criterion based on harmonic voltage is more
are two basic approaches to the problem of "apparent" and convenient for filter design, because it is easier to
"reactive" power. quarantine staying within a reasonable voltage limit than to
The nonsinusoidal variables can be expanded in a limit the current levels as the a.c. networks impedance
Fourier series and reactive power can be defined either by changes.
a sum of products or in terms of fundamental components Shunt capacitors., either at the customer location for
only. The research for efficient power factor compensation power factor correction, or on the utility distribution system
methods in nonsinusoidal situations has been discussed are used for vaiiation system impedance with frequency.
extensively [13,14]. These methods, based on various Capacitors do not create harmonics, but severe harmonic
decomposition of the apparent power into different distortion can sometimes be attributed to their presence.
components, aim at minimizing one or more of these
components, well-established decomposiiion have been
demonstrated to be misleading and counter productive
since the compensation of a "reactive power" component 4. DISTRIBUTION FEEDER RECONFlGURATiON FOR
could lead to the deterioration rather than the improvement LOSS REDUCTION
of the power factor.
Other decomposition based on the time-domain Radial networks have some advantages over meshed
approach, although advantageous from the instrumentation networks such as lower short circuit currents and simpler
aspect, have not led to methods of power factor switching and protecting equipment. On the other hand,
improvement other than the addition of a shunt capacitance :he radial structure provides lower overall reliability.
and/or a shunt inductance. Time domain approach was Therefore, to use the benefits of the radial s!ructure, and at
also used to develop methods of dynamic compensation of the same time to overcome the difficuliies, distribution
the power factor[l3-141. systems are planned and built as weakly meshed networks,
A non-linear foad draw a non-sinusoidal current when a but operated as radial networks.
sinusoidal voltage is applied. The distorted loads current The radial structure of distribution networks is achieved
then cause distorted bus voltages to appear throughout the by placing a number of sectionalizing switches in the
system. network used to open the loops that would otherwise exist.
Two criteria are now used to evaluate harmonic The greater the number of switches togethet with the circuit
distortion. The first is a limitation in the harmonic current breakers at the network, the greater are the network, the
that a user can transmit into the utility system. The second greater are the possibilities for reconfiguration and the
limitation recommends the maximum allowable harmonic better are the affects.
voltage distortion that is acceptable from the utility systems The early studies on the network reconfiguration were
to a user. directed to the planning stage. In planning, the main
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objective is to minimize the cost of construction. An early Compensation of reactive power, reducing harmonics and
work on network reconfiguration for loss reduction In a feeder automation are analyzed both individually and
study, an equivalent linear resistive network model is used together in order to reduce the losses. The results of these
to determine the branches to be opened. Civanlar et al [6] analysis are given in table 1.
presented a computationally attractive solution procedure In these calculations, we assume that harmonics are
for power loss reduction through network reconfiguration neglected. line resistance is constant(with no harmonic
assumption to calculate the loss reduction as a result of effect) arid no harmonic effect on reactive power.
load transfer between two feeders[6-91.
In this paper, we consider the reconfiguration problem q= 95mni2(Cu).
for loss reduction. We follow the solution amroach
proposed by Civanlar et al. However, here we ihroduce
new algorithms for loss reduction in nonsinusoidal I 150m
3\w1.........-....- 35m 55m .. 100m II
.............
situations. 1'"' -]8kV
€
d
efforts the change in losses resulting from feeder Loss(MW) loss(MW) Ioss(MW) loss(MW)
reconfiguration and criteria that may be used to eliminate only filter only a m p . comp+filt.
undesirable switching options in order to alleviate the together
dimensionally problem[6]. 1.263 1.231 0.839 0.827
The amount of loss change resolution from transferring 1.346 1.312 0.896 0.882
6,. CONCLUSIONS
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7. ACKNOWLEDGMENT [I61 R.D. Henderson, "Harmonic: The effects on Power
Quality and Transformer", IEEE Transaction on
The authors wish to thank Istanbul Technical University Ind.App., Vo1.30, No.3, MayIJune 1994
(ITU) Institute of Science and Technology for the financial I171 H. Ying-Yi, "Optimal Harmonic Power Flow". IEEE
support. Transaction on Power Delivery, V01.12, No.3, July
1997
8. REFERENCES
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