Different religions: ISLAM:

Religion: ISLAM Prophet: MUHAMMAD BIN ABDULLAH Reveled book: quran Caliphs regime: 1. Hazrat abubakar sadeeq 2. Hazrat umar 3. Hazrat usman-i- ghani 4. Hazrat ali Five pillar: 1. Kalma 2. Salath 3. Zakat 4. Soom 5. Hajj Belief: 1. Belief on allah 2. Belief on angels 3. Belief on all religious books

4. Belief on messengers 5. Belief on dooms day

SIKHISM:
Founder: Religious book: Sikh festivals: 1. Gurpurabs 2. Baisakhi 3. Bandi Chhor Divas or Diwali 4. Hola Mohalla Five evils: 1.Kam (Lust) 2. Krodh (Rage) 3. Lobh (Greed) 4. Moh (Attachment) 5. Ahankar (Ego) five ks: 1. Kesh: (uncut hairs) 2. Kanga: (a wooden comb) 3. Kara: (an iron bracelet) 4. Kachera: ( a specific kind of cotton underwear) 5. Kirpan: ( a strapped curved sword) Five virtues: 1. Sat: (virtue of truthful living) 2. Santokh: (freedom "from ambition, envy, greed and jealousy) GURU nanak dev GURU GRANTH

Religious place: golden tempale

3. Daya:( considering another's difficulty or sorrow as one's own and helping) 4. Nimrata: ("humility", "benevolence" or "humbleness", is the fourth virtue) 5. Pyar: (Pyar requires Sikhs to be filled with the love of God)

Christianity:
Prophet: hazrat esa ibne mareem (maseeh)(jesus) Reveled book: BIBLE ( ANGEEL) Demography: Death and resurrection of Jesus: Three schools of thoughts: 1. Catholic 2. Orthodox 3. Protestants Hinuism:

History of religious categories

An 1883 map of the world divided into colors representing "Christians, Buddhists, Hindoos, Mohammedans, Fetichists".

In world cultures, there have traditionally been many different groupings of religious belief. InIndian culture, different religious philosophies were traditionally respected as academic differences in pursuit of the same truth. InIslam, the Qur'an mentions three different categories: Muslims, the People of the Book, and idol worshipers. Initially, Christians had a simple dichotomy of world beliefs: Christian civility versus foreign heresy or barbarity. In the 18th century, "heresy" was clarified to mean Judaism and Islam; along with outrightpaganism, this created a fourfold classification which spawned such works asJohn Toland's Nazarenus, or Jewish, Gentile, and Mahometan Christianity, which represented the three Abrahamic traditions as different "nations" or sects within religion itself, the true monotheism. Daniel Defoe described the original definition as follows: "Religion is properly the Worship given to God, but 'tis also applied to the Worship of Idols and false Deities." At the turn of the 19th century, in between 1780 and 1810, the language dramatically changed: instead of "religion" being synonymous with spirituality, authors began using the plural, "religions", to refer to both Christianity and other forms of worship. Therefore, Hannah Adams's early encyclopedia, for example, had its name changed fromAn Alphabetical Compendium of the Various Sects... to A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations.[2] In 1838, the four-way division of Christianity, Judaism, "Mahommedanism" and Paganism was multiplied considerably by Josiah Conder's Analytical and Comparative View of All Religions Now Extant among Mankind. Conder's work still adheres to the four-way classification, but in his eye for detail he puts together much historical work to create something resembling our modern Western image: he includes Druze, Yezidis, Mandeans, and Elamites under a list of possibly monotheistic groups, and under the final category, of "polytheism and pantheism", he

lists Zoroastrianism, "Vedas, Puranas, Tantras, Reformed sects" of India as well as "Brahminical idolatry", Buddhism, Jainism,Sikhism, Lamaism, "religion of China and Japan", and "illiterate superstitions".[3] Even through the late 19th century, it was common for Christians to view these "pagan" sects as dead traditions which preceded Christianity, "the final, complete word of God". This in no way reflected the reality of religious experience: Christians supposed these traditions to have maintained themselves in an unchanging state since whenever they were "invented", but actually all traditions survived in the words and deeds of people, some of whom could make radical new inventions without needing to create a new sect. The biggest problem in this approach was the existence of Islam, a religion which had been "founded" after Christianity, and which had been experienced by Christians as intellectual and material prosperity. By the 19th century, however, it was possible to dismiss Islam as a revelation of "the letter, which killeth", given to savage desert nomads.[4] The modern meaning of the phrase "world religion", putting non-Christians at the same, living level as Christians, began with the 1893 Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago, Illinois. This event was sharply criticized by European Orientalists up until the 1960s as "unscientific", because it allowed religious leaders to speak for themselves instead of bowing to the superior knowledge of the Western academic. As a result its approach to world religions was not taken seriously in the scholarly world for some time. Nevertheless, the Parliament spurred the creation of a dozen privately funded lectures with the intent of informing people of the diversity of religious experience: these lectures funded researchers such as William James, D.T. Suzuki, and Alan Watts, who greatly influenced the public conception of world religions.[5] In the latter half of the 20th century, the category of "world religion" fell into serious question, especially for drawing parallels between vastly different cultures, and thereby creating an arbitrary separation between the religious and the secular.[6] Even history professors have now taken note of these complications and advise against teaching "world religions" in schools.[7] Refernece wikipedia

Religion: ISLAM Prophet: MUHAMMAD BIN ABDULLAH Caliphs regime: 5. Hazrat abubakar sadeeq 6. Hazrat umar 7. Hazrat usman-i- ghani 8. Hazrat ali Five pillar: 6. Kalma 7. Salath 8. Zakat 9. Soom 10. Belief: 6. Belief on allah 7. Belief on angels 8. Belief on all religious books Hajj

9. Belief on messengers 10. 11. Belief on dooms day Belief on life after death

Islam

Islam Arabic:

al-islm IPA: [slm] (

listen)

[note 2]

) is the monotheistic religionarticulated

by the Quran, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Arabic: Allh), and by the teachings and normative example (called theSunnah and composed of Hadith) of Muhammad, considered by them to be the last prophet of God. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim. Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable and thepurpose of existence is to worship God.[1][2] Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed at many times and places before, including through Abraham, Moses and Jesus, whom they consider prophets .[3] Muslims maintain that previous messages and revelations have been partially changed or corrupted over time,[4] but consider the Qur'an to be both the unaltered and the final revelation of God.[5] Religious concepts and practices include the five pillars of Islam, which are basic concepts and obligatory acts of worship, and following Islamic law, which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, providing guidance on multifarious topics from banking and welfare, towarfare and the environment.[6][7] Most Muslims belong to one of two denominations; with 80-90% being Sunni and 10-20% being Shia.[8][9][10] About 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia, the largest Muslim country,[11] 25% inSouth Asia,[11] 20% in the Middle East,[12] 2% in Central Asia, 4% in the remaining South East Asian countries, and 15% in Sub-saharan Africa.[13] Sizable communities are also found in Chinaand Russia, and parts of Europe. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world (see Islam by country). With about 1.41-1.57 billion Muslims, comprising about 21-23% of the world's population,[13][14] Islam is the second-largest religion and one of the fastest-growing religions in the world.[15][16]

Etymology and meaning

Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, completion and bonding/joining.[17] In a religious

context it means "voluntary submission to God".[18][19] Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participleof the same verb of which Islm is the infinitive. Believers demonstrate submission to God byworshipping God and following his commands, and rejecting polytheism. The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Qur'an. In some verses (ayat), there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal conviction: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."[20] Other verses connect islm and dn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."[21] Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to Godmore than just a verbal affirmation of faith.[22] Another technical meaning in Islamic thought is as one part of a triad ofislam, imn (faith), and ihsn (excellence) where it represents acts of worship (`ibdah) and Islamic law (sharia).[23]

Islam's most fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawhd (Arabic: described in chapter 112 of the Qur'an as:
[24]

). God is

"Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the

Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him." (112:1-4) Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism, but accept Jesus as a prophet. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God. God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahmn, meaning "The Compassionate" and AlRahm, meaning "The Merciful" (SeeNames of God in Islam).[25] Muslims believe that creation of everything in the universe is brought into being by Gods sheer command Be and so it is.[8][26] and that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[2][27] He is viewed as a personal God who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls Him.[8][28] There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God who states We are nearer to him than (his)jugular vein[29] Allh is the term with no plural or gender used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning the one God, while ilh (Arabic: ) is the term used for a deity or a god in general.[30] Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanr" in Turkish or "Khod" in Persian.

Angels

Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (Arabic: malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malakh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess free will, and worship God in total obedience.[31] Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wingstwo, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases..."[32]

Revelations
Main articles: Islamic holy books and Qur'an See also: History of the Qur'an

The first sura in a Qur'anicmanuscript by Hattat Aziz Efendi

The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil(Gospels), had become distortedeither in interpretation, in text, or both.[4] The Qur'an (literally, Reading or Recitation) is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal Word of God and is widely regarded as the finest piece of literature work in the Arabic language.[33][34][35] Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel(Jibrl). On many occasions between 610 and his death on June 8, 632.[36] The Qur'an was reportedly written down by Muhammad's

companions (sahabah) while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time ofAbu Bakr, the first caliph, and was standardized under the administration of Uthman, the third caliph. The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 yt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[37] The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".[38] Muslim jurists consult the hadith, or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[39] When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.[40]

Prophets
Hadith collections

[show]Sunni [show]Shi'a [show]Ibadi [show]Mu'tazili

This box: view talk edit

Main article: Prophets of Islam Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Arabic:

nab ) as those humans chosen by God to be

his messengers. According to the Qur'an [41] the descendants of Abraham and Imran were chosen by God to bring the "Will of God" to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam submission to the Will of God. The Qur'an mentions the names of numerous figures consideredprophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses andJesus, among others.[42] Muslims believe that God finally sentMuhammad (Seal of the Prophets) to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an. Six of these collections, compiled in the 3rd century AH (9th century CE), came to be regarded as especially authoritative by the largest group in Islm, the Sunnites. Another large group, the Shah, has its own adth contained in four canonical collections.[8]

Resurrection and judgment

Main article: Qiyama Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Yawm al-Qiymah (Arabic: ) is also crucial for

Muslims. They believe the time of Qiymah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials andtribulations preceding and during the Qiymah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[43] On Yawm al-Qiymah, Muslims believe all mankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds. The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief (Arabic: Kufr), and dishonesty; however, the Qur'an makes it clear God will forgive the sins of those who repent if He so wills.[44] Good deeds, such as charity and prayer, will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims viewheaven as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. Mystical

traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[45] Yawm al-Qiymah is also identified in the Qur'an as Yawm ad-Dn (Arabic: Religion";
[46]

), "Day of ), "The

as-sah (Arabic:

), "the Last Hour";

[47]

and al-Qriah (Arabic:

Clatterer."[48]

Predestination
Main article: Predestination in Islam In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qad wa'lqadar), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'..."[49] For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfz, the "Preserved Tablet".[50]

Five pillars
Main article: Five Pillars of Islam The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, "pillars of religion") are five basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the shahadah (creed), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving (zakah), (4) fasting during Ramadan and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime. The Shia and Sunni sects both agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts.[51]

Testimony
Main article: Shahadah The Shahadah,[52] which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under oath with the specific statement: "'ahadu 'al-l ilha ill-llhu wa 'ahadu 'anna muammadan raslu-llh", or "I testify there are no gods other than God alone and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must

repeat theshahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.[53]

Prayer
Main article: Salah See also: Mosque

Muslims praying

Ritual prayers, called alh or alt (Arabic: ,) must be performed five times a day. Salah is intended to focus the mind onGod, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Qur'an.[54] A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid jmi`).[55] Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.[56]

Fasting
Main article: Sawm Further information: Sawm of Ramadan Fasting, (Arabic: awm), from food and drink (among other things) must be performed from

dawn to dusk during the month of Ramadhan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for

their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.[57]

Alms-giving
Main articles: Zakat and Sadaqah "Zakt" (Arabic:

zakh "alms") is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who

can afford it to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving (adaqah).[58]

The Kaaba during Hajj

Pilgrimage
Main article: Hajj The pilgrimage, called the ajj (Arabic:

a) during theIslamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the

city of Mecca. Everyable-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the black stone if possible, walking or running seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina.[59]

Law and jurisprudence

Main articles: Sharia and Fiqh
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Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh)

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Islamic studies

vde

The Sharia (literally "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship, which most Muslim groups adhere to. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".[60] Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance,marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting,charity, and prayer. However,

these prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies. Islamic scholars (known asulema) have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.[61] Over the years there have been changing views onIslamic law but many such as Zahiri and Jariri[clarification needed] have since died out.[62][63] Fiqh, or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-Rislah.[64]

Jurists
Main articles: Ulama, Sheikh, and Imam

Ottoman miniature painters

There are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam, but "jurist" generally refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields ofIslamic studies. In a broader sense, the term ulema is used to describe the body of Muslim clergy who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences, such as a mufti,qadi, faqih, or muhaddith. Some Muslims include under this term the village mullahs, imams, and maulviswho have attained only the lowest rungs on the ladder of Islamic scholarship; other Muslims would say that clerics must meet higher standards to be considered ulema. Some Muslims practise ijtihad whereby they do not accept the authority of clergy.[65]

Etiquette and diet

Main articles: Adab (behavior) and Islamic dietary laws Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam.Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.[66]

Family life
See also: Women in Islam

Many Muslim women do not show their hair in public.

The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of inheritance is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. With some exceptions, the woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.[67] Marriage in Islam is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the

presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[68] A man may have up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may have only one husband. In most Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as talaq, which the husband initiates by pronouncing the word "divorce".[69] Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as veiling and seclusion (purdah). Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as polygamy in Islam, with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Certain Islamist groups like the Taliban have sought to continue traditional law as applied to women.[70]

Government
Main articles: Political aspects of Islam, Islamic state, Islam and secularism, and Caliphate Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; thescholars function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control.[citation needed] As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. Turkey has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatrk in 1923. In contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Khomeini.[71]

Military
Main articles: Jihad and Islamic military jurisprudence Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God) and is considered the "Sixth Pillar of Islam" by a minority of Sunni Muslim authorities.[72] Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object ofdisapprobation." Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one's own self (such as sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined. [73] Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect.[74][75] Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.[76] Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.[77] Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the defense or expansion of the Ummah. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is

debated, both within the Islamic community and without, with some claiming that it only serves to protect the Ummah, with no aspiration of offensive conflict, whereas others have argued that the goal of Jihad is global conquest. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims or hamper proselytizing efforts.[78][79] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the Islamic norms of justice.[80] Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (fard kifaya): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (imam), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[79] For most Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by adivinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's[81] occultation in 868 AD.[82]

History
Main articles: Muslim history and Spread of Islam

Muhammad (610632)
Main article: Muhammad See also: Early social changes under Islam

Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Saudi Arabia, is the 2

nd

most sacredMosque in Islam.

Muhammad (c. 570 June 8, 632) was a trader later becoming a religious, political, and military leader. However, Muslims do not view Muhammad as the creator of Islam, but instead regard him as the last messenger of God, through which the Qur'an was revealed. Muslims view Muhammad as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last in a series of prophets.[83] For the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, Muhammad started receiving revelations that he believed to be from God. The content of these

revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his companions.[84] During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 12 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad established his political and religious authority. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the Battle of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the Battle of Uhud in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement, or death, and the Jewish enclave of Khaybar was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.[85] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.[86]

Rise of the caliphate and civil war (632750)

Further information: Succession to Muhammad, Muslim conquests, and Battle of Karbala With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's companion and close friend. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (orEastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[87]

The Muslim Caliphate, 750 CE

His death in 634 resulted in the succession ofUmar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn alAffan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as al-khulaf' ar-rshidn ("Rightly Guided

Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply intoPersian and Byzantine territories.[88] When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated byKharijites in 661. Following this, Mu'awiyah, who was governor of Levant, seized power and began theUmayyad dynasty.[89] These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known asSunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a.[90] After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the Maghrib and Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula, former VisigothicHispania) and the Narbonnese Gaul) in the west as well as expand Muslim territory into Sindh and the fringes of Central Asia.[91] The Umayyad aristocracy viewed Islam as a religion for Arabs only;[92] the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.[93]

"Golden Age" (7501258)

Main article: Islamic Golden Age

The Great Mosque of Kairouan, established in 670 in Kairouan, Tunisia, represents one of the best architectural examples of Islamic civilization.
[94]

Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "Islamic Golden Age", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.[95] Expansion of the Muslim world continued by both conquest and peaceful proselytism even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan West Africa, Central Asia, Volga Bulgariaand the Malay archipelago.[96] Many Muslims went toChina to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the Song Dynasty.[97] The major hadith collections were compiled. The Ja'fari jurisprudence was formed from the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq while the four modern Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi,Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Ab anfa, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i respectively. Al-Shafi'i codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.[98] Abbasid Caliphs such as Mamun al Rashid and Al-Mu'tasim made themutazilite philosophy, a school of speculative theology called kalam, an official creed and imposed it upon Muslims to follow. Imam Hanbal and other traditionalists refused mutazilite doctrines and condemned their idea of the creation of the Quran. In inquisitions, particularly under Caliph Al-Mu'tasim, Imam Hanbal was tortured and sent to a dark Baghdad prison cell for nearly thirty months.[99] The other branch of kalam was the Ash'ari school founded by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari. Philosophers Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.[100] The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among medievalecclesiastical Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the antichrist and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman.[101] Some devout Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-Basriwould inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism.[102] Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi ordera community of spiritual teachers and students.[103] Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir completed the most commonly cited

commentaries on the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari in the 9th century and the Tafsir ibn Kathir in the 14th century, respectively. Government regulation was executed by inspectors called the muhtasib.[104] Public hospitalsestablished during this time (called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word[105] and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors of medicine.[106][107] The Guinness Book of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 CE.[108] The origins of thedoctorate is argued to date back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in madrasahs which taught law.[109] The first establishments for taking care of the mentally ill were also created in the Muslim world.[110] During this time, standards of experimental andquantification techniques were introduced to the scientific process to distinguish between competing theories as well as the tradition of citation.[111][112] Ibn Al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "worlds first true scientist."[113] In literature, the poet Rumi wrote some of the finest Persian poetry and is still the best selling poet in America.[114][115]Legal institutions introduced by Islamic law include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf).[116][117]

Decentralization

The interior of the Great Mosque of Crdoba, one of the finest examples ofUmmayad architecture in Spain.

From the Berber Revolt (739/740-743) emerged some of the first Muslim states outside the Caliphate. In 836, Caliph Al-Mu'tasim moved the capital of the Caliphate from Baghdadto the new city of Samarra, which would remain the capital until 892 when it was returned to Baghdad by al-Mu'tamid. By 1055 the Seljuq Turks had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph's titular authority.[118] The Mongol Empire finally put an end to the Abbassid dynasty, killing its last Caliph at theBattle of Baghdad in 1258.

Formidable, independent powers moved into new areas. The alliance of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars, known as the Crusades, aimed at capturing the Holy Land, though initially successful, was reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as Saladin, who recaptured Jerusalemin 1187.[119] In South Asia, the Ghaznavids conquered the Afghan-Persian region and a large part of the Indian subcontinent in the 10th century. In Europe, the Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.[120] In the 13th and 14th centuries theOttoman Empire established itself after a string of conquests that included the Balkans, parts ofGreece and the capture of Constantinople[121] and launched a European campaign which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529.[122] Under Ottoman rule, many people in the Balkans became Muslim. While cultural styles used to radiate from Baghdad in the 9th century, the Mongol destruction of Baghdad led Egypt to become the Arab heartland while Central Asia went its own way and was experiencing another golden age. Iran made more ties with India, whose rulers chose the Persian language and Persian poetry rose to new heights while Arabic poetry was in state of decline. The Muslims in China who were descended from earlier immigration began to assimilate by speakingChinese dialects and by adopting Chinese names and culture while mosque architecture began to follow traditional Chinese architecture.[123]

The Taj Mahal was built by Muslim rulers of the Mughal Empirein Agra, India.

In the early 16th century, the Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there.

Political decline and revival movements

The Muslim world was generally in political decline, especially relative to the non-Islamic European powers. Large areas of Islamic Central Asia and northeastern Iran were seriously depopulated,[124]as every city or town that resisted the Mongols was subject to

destruction. The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century.[125][126] This decline was evident culturally; while Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf founded a great observatory in Istanbul and the magnificent Jai Singh Observatory was built in the 18th century, there was not a single Muslim country with a major observatory by the twentieth century.[127] The Reconquista was launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia finally succeeded in 1492 and Muslim Italian possessions were lost to the Normans. By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the last Mughal dynasty,[128] and overthrew the Muslimruled Kingdom of Mysore. TheOttoman era came to a close at the end of World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.[129][130] During the 18th century a Salafi movement led by the preacher Ibn Abd al-Wahhab took hold in Saudi Arabia. Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.[131] In the 19th century, the Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.

Modern times
Further information: Iranian revolution and Islamic revival Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia to theCaribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[132] Additionally, the resulting urbanization and increase in trade in Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith. As a result, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa likely doubled between 1869 and 1914.[133]Muslim immigrants, many as guest workers, began arriving, largely from former colonies, into non-Muslim Western European nations in the 1960s and 1970s.

The Sultan Ahmet Mosque in Istanbul,Turkey.

New Muslim intellectuals are beginning to arise, and are increasingly separating perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions.[134] Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".[135] Women's issues receive a significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam because the family structure remains central to Muslim identity.[136] Also of issue is theassimilation of Muslim communities and Islamophobia in host countries.[137] Andrew Rippin states that while Muslims believe that Islam stands for both men and women, the social reality suggests otherwise.[136] Christopher Hitchens states that Islam is "dogmatic," and "the fact remains that Islam's core claim to be unimprovable and final is at once absurd." Such claims have been challenged by many Muslim scholars and writers including Fazlur Rahman Malik,[138] Syed Ameer Ali,[139] Ahmed Deedat,[140] Yusuf Estes and Tariq Ramadan. Islamist groups such as Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan and the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt advocate Islam as a comprehensive political solution, often in spite of being banned in secular states such as in pre-2011 Egypt. In countries like Iran, revolutionary movement replaced secular regime with an Islamic state. In Turkey, the Islamist Justice and Development Party has democratically been in power for about a decade, while Islamist parties are expected to do well in elections following the Arab spring.[141] Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani, who advocated for Pan-Islamic unity, along with his acolyteMuhammad Abduh have been credited as forerunners of the Islamic revival.[142] The Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC, now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation), consisting of Muslim countries, was formally established in September 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque inJerusalem.[143] Piety appears to be deepening among Muslims worldwide.[144][145] Orthodox groups are sometimes well funded and are growing at the expense of traditional groups.[146] In some places, this is fueled by a dissatisfaction with the secular governments.[147] The prevalence of the Islamic veil is growing increasingly common[148] and the percentage of Muslims favoring Sharia laws has increased.[149] With religious guidance increasingly available electronically, Muslims are able to access views that are strict enough for them rather than rely state clerics who are often seen as stooges.[145] Some Muslim organizations began using the media to promote the message of Islam. The first Islamic satellite network hosting a 24-hour service worldwide was MTA International, established by the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community in 1994. Zakir Naik, head of the Islamic Research Foundation, established another 24-hour Islamic international TV channel (Peace TV) in 2006.[150]

Denominations
Main article: Islamic schools and branches

Distribution of Islamic schools and branches in areas where large Muslim population are found

Movements in Islam

Sunni
Main article: Sunni Islam Sunni Muslims are the largest group in Islam, comprising the vast bulk (80-90%[8][10][151]) of the world's 1.5 billion Muslims, hence the titleAhl as-Sunnah wal-Jamah (people of the tradition[16] and union). In Arabic language,as-Sunnah literally means "tradition" or "path". The Qur'an and the Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in hadith are the primary foundations of Sunni doctrine. According to Sunni Islam, the "normative" example of

Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.[152]Two major hadith collections are Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis believe that a caliph should be chosen by the whole community.[151][153] There are four recognised madh'habs (schools of thought): Hanafi,Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable.[154] The Salafi (also known as Ahl al-Hadith, or Wahhabi by its adversaries) is a ultraorthodox Islamic movement which takes the first generation of Muslims as exemplary models.[155]

Shia
Main article: Shia Islam The Shi'a constitute 1020% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.[10][13] They believe in the political and religious leadership of Imams from the progeny of Ali ibn Abi Talib, who Shia's believe was the true successor after Muhammad. They believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To most Shias, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation. Shias regard Ali as the prophet's true successor and believe that a caliph is appointed by divine will.[156] Although the Shi'as share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over validity of specific collections of hadith, with Shias preferring hadiths attributed to the Ahl al-Bayt. Shia Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers (inaariyya). Although the Shi'as share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith. The Twelver Shi'a follow a legal tradition calledJa'fari jurisprudence.[157] Other smaller groups include the Ismaili and Zaidi, who differ from Twelvers in both their line of successors and theological beliefs.[158] Other smaller branches include the Alawitesand Alevi. Branches of Shia Islam which deviate from mainstream Shia doctrine are described by orthodox Shias as Ghulat.

Sufism

Main article: Sufism

Sufi whirling dervishes inIstanbul, Turkey

Sufism is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[159] Sufism and Islamic law are usually considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by the Salafi sect for what they see as an unjustified religious innovation.[citation needed] Many Sufi orders, or tariqas, can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a, but others classify themselves simply as 'Sufi'.[160][161]

Minor denominations

Ahmadiyya is an Messianic movement founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad that began in India in the late 19th century and is practiced by millions of people around the world.[162] The Berghouata were a late first millennium Berber sect who followed a syncretic religion inspired by Islam (perhaps influenced by Judaism)[163] with elements of Sunni, Shi'a and Kharijite Islam, mixed with astrological and heathen traditions.

The Kharijites are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites is Ibadism. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. The Imamate is an important topic in Ibadi legal literature, which stipulates that the leader should be chosen solely on the basis of his knowledge and piety, and is to be deposed if he acts unjustly. Most Ibadi Muslims live in Oman, with a number of diasporic communities inNorthern Africa.[164][165]

The Quranists are Muslims who generally reject the Hadith and/or the Sunnah. Yazdnism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced toKurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century.

Demographics

Main articles: Muslim world and Ummah See also: List of countries by Muslim population

Muslim population by percentage worldwide

A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232 countries and territories reported that 23% of the global population or 1.57 billion people are Muslims. Of those, an estimated 8090% are Sunni and 1020% areShi'a,[8][9][10] with a small minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 50 countries are Muslim-majority,[166] and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide.[167]Between 1900 and 1970 the global Muslim community grew from 200 million to 551 million;[168] between 1970 and 2009 Muslim population increased more than three times to 1.57 billion. The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa.[169] Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live inAsia, with over 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.[170][171] In theMiddle East, non-Arab countries such as Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; inAfrica, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities.[172] Most estimates indicate that the People's Republic of China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[173][174][175][176] However, data provided by the San Diego State University's International Population Center to U.S. News & World Report suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims.[177] Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many Europeancountries,[178] and is slowly catching up to that status in the Americas, with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States.[13][179]

Culture

The Blue Mosque inAfghanistan

Main article: Islamic culture

Architecture
Main article: Islamic architecture Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the mosque (four-iwan and hypostyle).[180] Through the edifices, the effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has Roman-Byzantineelements, as seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan which contains marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[181] in the Alhambra palace atGranada, or in the Great Mosque of Cordoba.

Art
Main article: Islamic art Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by Muslim populations.[182] It includes fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.

The Islamic calendar is based on the lunar cycle.

Calendar
Main article: Islamic calendar The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar with days lasting from sunset to sunset.[183] Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha ( ) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.[184] ) on