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Chapter 10: Material and Fabrication Selection

The Purpose of this chapter
Provide the design engineer with a working knowledge of some of the major forms and types of material
available, what they offer, and how they are specified.
1-Factors Contributing
to Corrosion
- Corrosion is defined as the destruction or deterioration of a material because of reaction with its
environment.
- Corrosion of metals applies to chemical or electrochemical attach, while for plastics and other nonmetallic
it is physiochemical process (swelling, crazing, cracking,..).
- Eight forms of Corrosion: (Galvanic, Crevice, Pitting, Intergranular, Selective Leaching, Erosion, Stress,
Hydrogen).
- Galvanic Corrosion: is an electrochemical process in which one metal corrodes when in electrical contact with a
diIIerent type oI metal and both metals are immersed in an electrolyte. The electrolyte provides a means Ior ion
migration whereby metallic ions can move Irom the anode to the cathode , See Table 10-1,
- it can be prevented by insulating the metals from each other.
The Corrosion rate is affected by
1-pH, Metals such as aluminum and zinc dissolved rapidly in either acidic or basic solution while noble
metals are not affected by pH.
2- Temperature; it increases with rising temperature.
3- the velocity of corrosive solution; it increases with increasing of corrosive solution relative to the
metallic surface.
Combating corrosion
- It is necessary for the design engineer to make material selection decisions that economically fulfill the process
requirements.
- Minimizing of the corrosion process is achieved by :
1-change in the operating environment;
(remove of oxygen in boiler feed, Temperature, pH, moisture).
2- The use of inhibitors as additives.
Example: add chromate, phosphate, and silicates to an aqueous solution to prevent iron or steel
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3-Cathodic or anodic protection
It used in the protection of underground pipes tanks from external soil corrosion and in water systems to
protect water storage tanks and offshore structure.
4-Substitution of less corrosive materials.
2- Properties of Materials
Materials is divided into two general classification:
1- Metal (Pure metals, Metallic alloys), 2-Non-Metals.
1- Metals
The American Iron and Institute (AISI) has set up a series of standard for steel products. (see Table 10-2).
Table 10.2 must be used carefully; Example AISI 1020 does not refer to all 0.20 carbon steel. AISI 1020 is a
part of the numerical designation system defining the chemical composition of certain standard steels
used primarily in bar, wire, and some tubular products.
Ferrous Metals and Alloys
1- Steel:
- Carbon steel is the most commonly used in chemical industries despite its limited corrosion limits.
-It used in most organic chemicals and neutral or basic aqueous solution at moderate temperature.
-Because its availability, low cost, and ease of fabrication, Carbon steel is used even in situations with
corrosion rate of 0.13 and 0.5 mm/year.
-Low-alloy steels contain one or more alloying components to improve the mechanical and corrosion-
resistance properties; Example: Nickel increases toughness and improves low-temperature properties and
corrosion resistance. ..etc.
2-Stainless Steel:
- There are more than 70 standard types of stainless steel and many special alloys.
- they are produced in the Wrought Form (AISI types) and as cast alloys; Alloys Casting Institute (ACT).
- In AISI, they are three groups of stainless alloys: Martensitic, Ferritic, and austenitic. For more details See
Table 10-3,
- Martensitic alloys contain 12% to 20% chromium with controlled amounts of carbon and other alloys
(relative poor corrosion resistance).
- Ferritic stainless steels contain 15% to 30% chromium with around 0.1% carbon (relative medium
corrosion resistance).
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- Austenitic stainless steels contain 16% to26% chromium and 6% to 22% nickle, while carbon content lower
that 0.08%, (most corrosion resistance).
- Table 10-4 Presents characteristics and typical applications of various types of stainless steel while Table
10-5 indicates resistance of stainless steel to oxidation in air.
NonFerrous Metals and Alloys
1-Nickel and its Alloys
- Nickel exhibits high corrosion resistance to most alkalies.
- Nickel-clad steel is used for equipment in the production of caustic soda and alkalies.
- Monel, an alloy of nickel containing 67% nickel and 30% copper, is used in food industries.
- Inconel, an alloy of nickel containing 77% nickel and 15% chromium. The chromium will increase alloy
resistance to oxidizing condition.
- 2- Aluminum and its Alloys
- The lightness and relative ease of fabrication of aluminum and its alloys are factoring favoring the use of
these materials.
- Aluminum alloys (Al-clad) generally have a lower corrosion resistant than the pure metal.
- 3-Copper and its alloys
- Copper is resistance to atmospheric moisture or oxygen because a protective coating composed of copper
oxide is formed on the surface.
- Since the oxide is soluble in most acids, Copper is not suitable for construction when it contacts any acid in
the presence of Oxygen or oxidizing agent.
- Copper exhibits good corrosion resistance to strong alkalies and most organic solvents.
- Copper alloys, such as brass, bronze, admiralty, and Muntz, can exhibit better corrosion resistance than
pure one.
- 4- Lead and Alloys
- Pure lead has low creep fatigue resistance, but its physical properties are improved by the addition of small
amount of silver, copper, antimony, or tellurium.
- Lead shows good resistance to sulfuric and phosphoric acids, but it susceptible to attack by either acetic or
nitric acid.
- 5- Tantalum
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- The physical properties of Tantalum are similar to those of mild steel, with the exception that its melting
point (2996 C) is much higher.
- The metal attacked by hydrofluoric acid, hot concentrated alkalies, and material contain free sulfur
trioxide.
- It is resistance to all other acid.
5- Titanium
- Because of its strength, medium weight, and strong corrosion resistance in oxidizing, titanium can be used
in a construction material and seawater applications, and it is good resistance to nitric acid, and hot
chloride solutions.
- Disadvantages of forming and welding are limits for its general use.
- 6- Zirconium
- Zirconium resists all chlorides expect ferric and cupric.
- Zirconium Alloys are severely damaged when exposed to sulfuric acid at concentrations above 70%.
- Inorganic Nonmetals
- 1- Glassed and Glassed steel
- Glass has excellent resistance and is subject to attack only by hydrofluoric acid and hot alkaline solutions.
- A disadvantage is its brittleness and damaged by thermal shock.
- Glass steel combines the corrosion resistance of glass with the working strength of steel
- Nucerite is a ceramic-metal composite made in a manner similar to glass steel and resists corrosive
hydrogen chloride gas, chlorine or sulfuric dioxide at 650 C.
- 2- Stoneware and Porcelain
- Material of Stoneware and Porcelain are about as resistance to acid and chemical as glass, but with
advantage of great strength. A main disadvantage is its susceptibility to damage by thermal shock.
- 3-Brick and Cement Material
- Brick-lined construction can be used for many severely corrosive conditions, where alloys would fail. Acid-
proof refractories can be used up to 900 C.
- A number of cement material are used with brick. Standard are phenolic and furane (C4H4O) resign,
polyester, sulfur, slicate, and epoxy-based materials,
- carbon-filled polyester and furanes are good against nonoxidizing acids,salts,and solvents.
- Silica-filled resins should not be used against hydrofluoric or fluorosilicate acids.
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- Organic Non metals
- In comparison to metallic materials, the use of organic nonmetallic is limited to relatively moderate T & P.
- 1- Plastics
- Plastic are less resistance to mechanical abuse , and have high expansion rates, low strengths, and only fair
resistance to solvents.
- They are lightweight, good thermal and electrical insulators, easy to fabricate and install , have excellent
resistance to weak mineral acids , and have low friction factor.
- Plastic Types
- Tetrafluoroethylene, TFE (Teflon) is one of the most available chemical resistance plastic in the industries .
It is unaffected by all alkalies and acids except fluorine and chlorine gas.
- Cholortrifluoroethylene or CTFE (Kel-F) possesses excellent corrosion resistance to almost all acids and
alkalies.
- FEP, a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and cholortrifluoroethylene, has similar properties of TFE except
that it is not recommended for continuous exposures at T>200 C.
- Polyvinylidene fluride, or PVF2 (Kynar) has excellent resistance to alkalies and acids up to 300 C
- Perfluoroalkoxy (PFA) can tolerate temperature up to 300 C while exhibiting the general properties and
chemical resistance of FEP.
- Polyethene is the lowest-cost plastic available. Its mechanically properties are generally poor above 50 C.
- Acrylonitrite butadiene styrene (ABS) polymers have good resistance to nonoxidizing and week acids and
week alkaline solutions but are not satisfactory with oxidizing acids, aromatics, or chlorinated
hydrocarbons.
- Chlorinated polyether can be used continuously up to 125 C. Chemical resistance is between that Polyvinyl
chloride and that of the fluorocarbons.
- Hydrochloric, hydrofluric, and phosphoric acids can be handled all concentration up to 105 C.
- Polyamide polymers are resistance to aliphatic, aromatic, chlorinated or fluorinated hydrocarbons, acidic
and basic systems, but are degraded by high temperature causing exposures.
- 2- Rubber and Elastomers
- Natural and synthesis rubbers are used in linings or as structural components for equipment in the
chemical industries.
- Natural rubber is resistance to dilute mineral acids, alkalies, and salts; but oxidizing media, oils, benzene,
and ketones will attack it.
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3- Carbon and Graphite
- Impervious graphite is completely inert to all but the most severe oxidizing conditions. One limitation of
these materials is low tensile strength.
4- wood
- This material of construction is readily dehydrated by concentration solutions and consequently shrinks badly
when subject to the action of solutions.
- Low- and High Temperature Materials
- See tables 10-6 and 10-7 on pages 455 &456
- Gasket Material
- Metallic and nonmetallic gasket of many different forms and composition.
- The choice of gasket depends on the corrosive action of the material that may contact the gasket, the
location of the gasket, and the type of gasket construction. See Table 10-8.
Tabulated data for selection material, Tables 10-8 & 10-9.
Selection of Materials
- A brief plan for studying materials:
1. Preliminary selection- experience, manufacture's data ,literature, availability, safety aspects.
2. Laboratory testing reevaluation of apparently suitable materials under process conditions.
3. Interpretation of laboratory results and other data.
4- Economic comparison of apparently suitable materials.
5- Final selection.
- Economic Involved in Selection
- Any cost estimation should include the following items:
1-Total equipment or material costs.
2-Installation cost
3-Maintenance costs
4-Service life
5-Replacement cost
6-Downtime costs
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7-Cost of inhibitors
8-Depreciation
9-Time value of money
10-Inflation,,,,,-----seeTable 10-10 as alternative investment comparison.
Fabrication of Equipment
-Many of the design and fabrication details for equipment are governed by various code, such as ASME (American
society of Mechanical Engineers) code.
Methods of Fabrications
1. Layout of materials:
-Flat pieces of the metal or other nonstructural material are market to indicate where cutting and forming are
required.
2. Cutting:
Different Methods used for cutting:
- Shearing: it is the cheapest method and it is satisfactory for thin sheets.
- Burning: it is often used for cutting metals.
- Sawing: it can be used to cut metals that are in the form of flat sheet. It is expensive and is used only when the
3. Forming: the cutting material is formed by different methods; rolling, bending, pressing, bumping, or spinning on
a die. When the shaping operation are finished, the different parts are assembled and fitting for fasting.
4. Fastening: Riveting can be used for fastening, but electrical welding is far more common and gives superior
results. In some cases, fastening can be accomplished by screw threads, packing, gaskets.
5. Testing: All welded joints can be tested for concealed imperfections by X-rays examination. Hydrostatic tests can
be conducted to locate leaks.
6. Heat treating: It is necessary to heat-treat the equipment to remove forming and welding stresses, restore
corrosion resistance properties to heat-affect material, and prevent stress corrosion conditions.
7. Finishing: the finishing operation involves preparing the equipment for final shipment by sandblasting, polishing
and painting.