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Acommmodationspacecanbefilledwithsedimentsorwater.Thedistancebetweenthesediment/water interfaceandtheseasurfaceisknownaswaterdepth.Theaccommodationspacenotfilledwithwater isfilledwithsediment.Theratesofchangeoftectonicsubsidence,eustaticsealevel,sediment thicknessandwaterdeptharelinkedtooneanotherthroughtheaccommodationspaceequation: T+E=S+W whereTistherateoftectonicsubsidence,Eistherateofeustaticsealevelrise,Sistherateof sedimentation,andWistherateofwaterdepthincrease(ordeepening).Thesefourvariablesare definedsuchthatpositivevaluescorrespondtotectonicsubsidenceandeustaticsealevelrise(factors thatincreaseaccommodationspace)andsedimentaccumulationandwaterdepthincrease(factorsthat reflectfillingofaccommodationspace).Reversingthesignsofthesevariablesaccommodatestectonic uplift,eustaticsealevelfall,erosion,andshallowingofwaterdepth,respectively. Theaccommodationspaceequationrepresentsasimplevolumebalance,withthetermsontheleft controllingtheamountofspacethatcanbeoccupiedbysedimentsorwaterandthetermsontheright describinghowmuchwaterorsedimentfillstheaccommodationspace.Aswritten,theequationisan approximation.Inreality,sedimentthicknessandwaterdepthmustbecorrectedforcompactionof sedimentsandfortheisostaticeffectsofnewlydepositedsediment. Throughsectionmeasurement,changesinsedimentthicknesscanbeknown,andthroughfacies analysis,changesinwaterdepthcanbeknownorapproximated.However,withoutoutside information,theratesofeustaticsealevelchangeandtectonicsubsidencecannotbeisolated,norcan theireffectsbedistinguishedfromoneanotherforasingleoutcrop.Inotherwords,thereisnounique solutiontothisequationbecauseithastwounknowns.Thus,itisimpossibleinmostcasestoascribe waterdepthorsedimentationchangestoeustasyortectonicswithouthavingregionalcontroloroutside information.Backstrippingisamethodofanalysisthatiterativelysolvestheaccommodationspaceto measurechangesinrelativesealevelthroughtime.Althoughaspointedoutearlierthatnounique solutionexistsforthisequation,solvingitforrelativesealevelcanprovideusefulinsightsintoeustasy andtectonics.Thesedatamaythenbeusedtodatethetimingofriftingandorogeny,toconstrain estimatesoflithosphericthickness,ortounderstandglobalCO2cyclesandglobalpatternsof sedimentation.
CausesofEustaticSeaLevelChange
Changesineustaticsealevelarisefromeitherchangesinthevolumeofoceanbasinsorchangesinthe volumeofwaterwithinthosebasins.Thevolumeofoceanbasinsiscontrolledprimarilybytherateof seafloorspreadingandsecondarilybysedimentationinoceanbasins.Becausehotandyoungoceanic lithosphereisrelativelybuoyant,itfloatshigherontheasthenosphereanddisplacesoceanicwaters upwardsandontocontinents.Olderandcolderoceaniclithosphereisdenser,floatsloweronthe asthenosphere,andallowsoceanicwaterstostaywithinoceanbasins.Longterm(102k.y.105k.y.) changesintheglobalrateofseafloorspreadingcanchangetheglobalaverageageanddensityof oceaniclithosphere,resultingintenstoacouplehundredmetersofeustaticchange.Fillingofocean basinswithsedimentsderivedfromcontinentalweatheringisarelativelyslowandminorwayof changingoceanbasinvolumesandiscapableofmeterstotensofmetersofeustaticchangeovertensto hundredsofmillionsofyears. Thethreemostimportantcontrolsonthevolumeofseawaterareglaciation,oceantemperature,andthe volumeofgroundwater.Continentalandmountainglaciationisperhapsthemostefficientandrapid meansofstoringandreleasingoceanwater.DuetoArchimede'sprinciple,icecapsoverpolaroceans donotaffecteustaticsealevel,sofrozenseawatermustbeplacedonalandmasstolowereustaticsea level.Continentalglaciationiscapableofdrivinghighamplitude(10100m)andhighfrequency(1 100k.y.)eustaticchanges.Becausewaterexpandsattemperatureshigherandlowerthan4degreesC, andbecausethedepthsoftheoceansaveragearound5km,smallchangesinthetemperatureof seawatercanleadtosignificantchangesinoceanwatervolume.Changesinwatertemperaturecan driveafewmetersofeustaticchangeovershorttimescales(0.110k.y.).Oceanwateriscontinuously beingrecycledthroughcontinentsasgroundwaterandsurfacewater,suchasriversandlakes.Over relativelyshorttimescales(0.1100k.y.),changesintheamountofwatersequesteredonthe continentscancauseuptoafewmetersofeustaticchange.
CausesofTectonicSubsidence
Tectonicsubsidenceisalsocalleddrivingsubsidenceandisdistinguishedfromtheisostaticeffectsof sedimentandwaterloads.Tectonicsubsidence,asitsnameimplies,isdrivenbytectonicforcesthat affecthowcontinentallithospherefloatsontheasthenosphere.Threemainmechanismsthataffectthis
isostaticbalanceandthereforedrivetectonicsubsidenceincludestretching,cooling,andloading. Stretchingofcontinentallithosphereinmostsituationsresultsinthereplacementofrelativelylight continentallithospherewithdenserasthenosphere.Theresultingstretchedandthinnedlithosphere sinks,causingtectonicsubsidence.Stretchingoccursinseveraltypesofsedimentarybasinsincluding rifts,aulacogens,backarcbasins,andcratonicbasins. Coolingcommonlygoeshandinhandwithstretching.Duringstretching,continentallithosphereis heated,becomeslessdense,andtendstoupliftfromitsdecreaseddensity(theneteffectinastretched andheatedbasinmayresulteitherinupliftorinsubsidence).Ascontinentallithospherecools,it becomesdenserandsubsides.Coolingsubsidencedecreasesexponentiallywithtimeyetcancausea significantamountofsubsidencehundredsofmillionsofyearsfollowinginitialcooling.Cooling subsidenceisespeciallyimportantonpassivemarginsandincratonicbasins. Tectonicloadingcanalsoproducesubsidence.Theadditionalweightoftectonicloadssuchas accretionarywedgesorfoldandthrustbeltscausescontinentallithospheretosink,leadingtotectonic subsidence.Becausethelithosphererespondsflexurally,thesubsidenceoccursnotonlyimmediately underneaththeload,butinbroadregionsurroundingtheload.Tectonicloadingisparticularly importantinorogenicregionssuchasforelandbasins.