1

Chapter two
Elasticity relations and energy / variational principles

2.1 Stress and strain in a point
Stress and strain in a point are defined by second order symmetric tensors.
The strain tensor is expressed as:


|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
z yz xz
yz y xy
xz xy x
zz yz xz
yz yy xy
xz xy xx
ij
c c c
c c c
c c c
c c c
c c c
c c c
c (2.1)

In index notation, the strain tensor is expressed as
ij
c with i,j = 1,2,3
Coordinates x
i
with i = 1, 2, 3 axes (x,y,z) are replaced by (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
ii
c is a normal strain and
ij
c ( j i = ) is a shear strain
The tensor is symmetric and therefore has six different components only.

Physical and tensorial shear strain
From Figure 2.1, we see that physical shear strain is the double of the tensorial shear
strain.














Fig.2.1 : Physical and tensor shear strain

The expression of the strain tensor may then be written as:


|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
z yz xz
yz y xy
xz xy x
z yz xz
yz y xy
xz xy x
ij
c
c
c
c c c
c c c
c c c
c
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
(2.2)

ij ij
c 2 = and
ij ij
c
2
1
= (2.3)
ji
c

x
j
x
i
ij
c

2
The stress tensor is expressed as:


|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
z yz xz
yz y xy
xz xy x
zz yz xz
yz yy xy
xz xy xx
ij
o t t
t o t
t t o
o o o
o o o
o o o
o (2.4)
The tensor is symmetric with six different components. o is a normal stress whereas t
is a shear stress.

2.2 Strain-displacement relations
In three dimensions, there are three displacement components noted u, v and w or in
indicial notation
i
u where the index i takes the value 1, 2 and 3. The strain components
are obtained by differentiation of the displacements. Under the small deformation
assumption, they are given by:


x
u
x
c
c
= c
y
v
y
c
c
= c
z
w
z
c
c
= c (2.5a)

x
v
y
u
xy
c
c
+
c
c
=
y
w
z
v
yz
c
c
+
c
c
=
z
u
x
w
zx
c
c
+
c
c
= (2.5b)

2.3 Equilibrium relations
The equilibrium is expressed in three directions as the total forces resulting from the
stresses and body forces F
V
0 = +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
V
x
xz
xy
x
F
z y x
t
t
o
(2.6a)

0 = +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
V
y
yz y xy
F
z y x
t o t
(2.6b)

0 = +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
V
z
z
yz
xz
F
z y x
o
t
t
(2.6c)

2.4 Matrix form of elastic stress-strain relations
The elastic relations can be expressed in matrix form. The stress and strain vectors have
six components each.
| | | |
T
zx yz xy z y x
t t t o o o o = (2.7)

| | | |
T
zx yz xy z y x
c c c c = (2.8)

The general elastic relation (generalized Hookes law) linking the stresses and strains is:

| | | || | c o D = (2.9)

3
where [D] is the elastic constitutive matrix.
The inverse relation is:
| | | | | | o c
1
= D (2.10)

For an isotropic material the three dimensional expressions are:

| |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+
=
2
2 1
0 0 0 0 0
0
2
2 1
0 0 0 0
0 0
2
2 1
0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
) 2 1 )( 1 (
v
v
v
v v v
v v v
v v v
v v
E
D (2.11)

| |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+
+
+



=

) 1 ( 2 0 0 0 0 0
0 ) 1 ( 2 0 0 0 0
0 0 ) 1 ( 2 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
1
1
v
v
v
v v
v v
v v
E
D (2.12)

E is the modulus of elasticity and v is Poissons ratio
2.5 Reduced forms of elastic relations
It is usually always recommended (and often possible) to reduce the problem dimension
as the three dimensional form is very complex to solve.

2.5.1 One dimensional elasticity
There is only one component for displacement, stress and strain:
The elastic relations are:
x x
Ec o = otherwise [D] = E and | |
E
D
1
1
=

(2.13a)
The strain-displacement relation is :
dx
du
x
= c (2.13b)
The equilibrium equation (2.6a) becomes: 0
2
2
= +
c
c
= +
c
c
V
x
V
x
x
F
x
u
E F
x
o

4
The volume force may be expressed as the distributed axial force q divided by the section
area A. The previous equilibrium becomes then:
0
2
2
= +
c
c
q
x
u
EA (2.14)
A concentrated axial force N
x
imposed at any point j may be expressed as follows:

dx
du
EA A N
j
xj x
= = o (2.15)
2.5.2 Two-dimensional elasticity - Plane strain problem
A state of plane strain is usually met in 3D structures loaded in one plane only as is the
case for tunnels and dams (Fig.2.2). The strains in the z-direction are assumed to be equal
to zero. It is then possible to analyze a unit-width strip. The strain and stress tensors are
then expressed as follows:


|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0 0 0
0 2 /
0 2 /
) (
y xy
xy x
c
c
c
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
z
y xy
xy x
o
o t
t o
o
0 0
0
0
) ( (2.16)

















Fig.2.2: State of plane strain
The stress along z-axis is deduced from the general equation (2.9) and is given by:

) (
) 2 1 )( 1 (
y x z
E
c c
v v
v
o +
+
= (2.17)

x
y
z

1
c
x

xy
c
y
1
5
It is therefore possible to reduce the problem dimension and keep two displacement
components and three components for strains and stresses. The corresponding vectors
are:

| | | |
T
v u u , = | | | |
T
xy y x
c c c = | | | |
T
xy y x
t o o o = (2.18)

The elastic matrix is obtained from the 3D form (2.11) by suppressing rows and columns
3, 5 and 6.

| |
(
(
(
(

+
=
2
2 1
0 0
0 1
0 1
) 2 1 )( 1 (
v
v v
v v
v v
E
D (2.19)
The inverse matrix is:
| |
(
(
(

+
=

2 0 0
0 1
0 1
1
1
v v
v v
v
E
D (2.20)

2.5.3 Two-dimensional elasticity - Plane stress problem
A state of plane stress is found in the case of thin structures loaded in their plane
(Fig.2.3). The strains in z-direction are assumed to be equal to zero.









Fig.2.3: Plane stress state
The stress and strain vectors are:
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0 0 0
0
0
) (
y xy
xy x
o t
t o
o
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
z
y xy
xy x
c
c
c
c
0 0
0
2
1
0
2
1
) ( (2.21)

The strain component in z-direction
z
c is deduced from (2.10):
x
y
z
o
x
t
xy
o
y
6
) (
y x z
E
o o
v
c + = (2.22)
Again the same components as in (2.18) can be used.

2.5.4 Axisymmetric strains
This is the case of 3D structures with a vertical axis of symmetric revolution (geometric
and loading symmetry with respect to z-axis) as in the cylindrical tank of Figure 2.4. Use
of cylindrical coordinates ) , , ( z r u is very appropriate in order to benefit from the
axisymmetry. The behavior is independent of the angle u and the problem is therefore
reduced to two dimensions with two displacement components (u in r-axis, and v along
z-axis instead of w). The elementary volume is expressed as follows :

dz dr r dV t 2 = (2.23)

The strain and stress vectors have four components and are given by:

| | | |
T
rz z r
c c c c
u
= | | | |
T
rz z r
t o o o o
u
= (2.24)

The strain components are linked to the displacements u and v by (2.5) replacing w by v.

r
u
r
c
c
= c
z
v
z
c
c
= c
r
u
=
u
c
z
u
r
v
rz
c
c
+
c
c
= (2.25)













Fig.2.4: Axisymmetric problem

The elastic matrix id deduced from the 3D form (2.11) and is given by:

r
z
u
c
u
c
r
c
z

rz
7
| |
(
(
(
(
(

+
=
2
2 1
0 0 0
0 1
0 1
0 1
) 2 1 )( 1 (
v
v v v
v v v
v v v
v v
E
D (2.26)

The inverse matrix is:

| |
(
(
(
(

+



=

) 1 ( 2 0 0 0
0 1
0 1
0 1
1
1
v
v v
v v
v v
E
D (2.27)

2.5.5 Unified treatment
Observing the elastic matrix for axisymmetric problems, it can be noted that by
reordering the terms, it is possible to retrieve a 3x3 sub-matrix identical to the plane strain
problem. It is also possible to include plane stress cases by appropriate corrections of
material parameters E andv . The new expressions of strain and stress vectors for
axisymmetric problems are:


| | | |
T
rz z r u
c c c c = | | | |
T
rz z r u
o t o o o = (2.28)

The unified elastic matrix is:

| |
(
(
(
(
(

+
=
* * *
*
* * *
* * *
* *
*
1 0
0 2 / ) 2 1 ( 0 0
0 1
0 1
) 2 1 )( 1 (
v v v
v
v v v
v v v
v v
E
D (2.29)
In plane stress or plane strain cases the matrix | | D is 3x3. For axisymmetric problems, it
is 4x4.

The material parameters are:

Plane strain and axisymmetry : v v = =
* *
E E (2.30)

Plane stress:

v
v
v
+
=
1
*
| |
2 *
2
*
) ( 1
) 1 (
) 2 1 (
v
v
v
=
+
+
= E
E
E (2.31)
The inverse matrix cannot be unified (the matrix order is variable).

8
Axisymmetry: | |
(
(
(
(
(

+


=

1 0
0 ) 1 ( 2 0 0
0 1
0 1
1
* *
*
* *
* *
*
1
v v
v
v v
v v
E
D (2.32a)
Plane stress or plane strain:
| |
(
(
(
(

+
=

2 0 0
0 1
0 1
1
* *
* *
*
*
1
v v
v v
v
E
D (2.32b)


2.6 Beam bending
A beam is a member where one dimension (length) is much greater than the other two
dimensions (section width and thickness).
Assuming x-axis as the longitudinal axis, bending in x-y plane causes a deflection in y-
direction noted v. The resulting relations are:
Integration of the elastic stress strain relations across the section depth, leads to the
following equations

EI
M
dx
v d
=
2
2
otherwise
2
2
dx
v d
EI M = (2.33)
This is the elastic constitutive relation of form (2.9) with:
| | M = o | | EI D = | |
2
2
dx
v d
= c (2.34)
Integration of the equilibrium relations leads to:
w
dx
v d
EI =
4
4
and
3
3
dx
v d
EI
dx
dM
V = = (2.35)
w is the distributed load and V is the shear force.

2.7 Energy principles and theorems
Elastic behavior is characterized by reversibility (Figure 2.5), not by linearity. Elastic
reversibility means that the stresses are derived from a function U called elastic potential
(strain energy per volume unit). Strains are derived from another function U
*
called
complementary elastic potential. U

ij
ij
c
o
c
c
=
U
and
ij
ij
o
c
c
c
=
*
U
(2.36)
9










a/ Nonlinear elasticity b/ Linear elasticity
Fig.2.5 : Reversible elastic behavior

Assuming small deformations, the preceding relations may be re-expressed using total
differentiation as follows:

ij ij
d d c o = U
ij ij
d d o c =
*
U (2.37)

thus:
ij ij ij ij
d d d o c c o + = + ) (
*
U U and
ij ij
c o = +
*
U U (2.38)

In linear elasticity, we obtain Clapeyron relation:


ij ij
c o
2
1
= =
*
U U (2.39)

Substitution of the stresses and strains by their general expressions leads to:

}
+ + + + + =
V
xz xz yz yz xy xy z z y y x x
dV ) (
2
1
t t t c o c o c o U (2.40a)
In matrix form the strain energy function is expressed as follows:
| | | || |
}
=
V
T
dV D c c
2
1
U (2.40b)

2.7.1 Principle of energy conservation
This principle means that the variation of the work done by the external loads, is
transformed (and thus equal) to the variation of the internal strain energy.
W U o o = (2.41)
where the work W done by the body forces, surface forces and concentrated forces is
expressed as follows:
| | | | | | | | | | | |
}

}
+ + =
S V
W
k
T
k s
T
S v T
F U dS F U dV F U (2.42)
o
ij
o
ij
c
ij
c
ij
dU dU
U
U
dU
*

dU
*

10
2.7.2 Principle of minimum potential energy
(2.41) may be rewritten as follows: 0 W) - U = ( o
The expression W) - U ( is called potential energy and is noted H
W) - U ( = H and 0 = H o (2.43)
Combining (2.40b) and (2.42), the expression of the potential energy is:

| | | || | | | | | | | | | | | | |
}

} }
= H
S V
-
k
T
k s
T
S v T
V
T
F U dS F U dV F U dV D c c
2
1
(2.44)
The complementary potential energy is obtained in a similar fashion.

2.7.3 Strong form and weak form
Structural analysis and solid mechanics may be formulated by two distinct approaches:
Differential (strong) form where the behavior is described by differential equations such
as the equilibrium relations (2.6)
Integral / variational (weak) form where the behavior is expressed in terms of
minimizing a functional (such as potential energy), which has an integral form as
described by expressions (2.43) and (2.44).

2.8 Variational formulation of equilibrium (passing from weak form to strong form)
It is shown through a simple example that the variational principle of stationary potential
energy generates differential equations of equilibrium.

Example 2.1:
Simple bar subjected to a distributed axial force q over its span and to a concentrated
axial force P at the right-hand end (x = L). The left-hand end (x = 0) is fixed.



Strain and stress vectors as well as the constitutive matrix are reduced to scalars:
| | ' u
dx
du
x
= = = c c | | ' Eu E
x x
= = = c o o | | E D =
Boundary conditions are: 0 ) 0 ( = u (E2.1)
and at x = L: P A
x
= o thus P L EAu = ) ( ' (E2.2)
The first condition is cinematic (on displacement) and is also called essential (on the
main variable). The second is static (on force) reflecting the axial force value at the free
end and is also called natural (on derivative of variable).
P
q
11

Weak form: The potential energy given as the difference between strain energy and
external work is:
| | ) (
2
1
L u P dV F u dV E
V
x
+ = H
} }
c c (E2.3)
Elementary volume and body force may be expressed for the bar as follows:
dx A dV = and
A
q
F
V
= (E.2.4)
where A is the bar cross-section area.
Substitution of the strain and elementary volume gives the new expression for potential
energy:
) ( ) ' (
2
0 0
2
L Pu dx u q dx u
EA
L L
= H
} }
(E2.5)
Stationarity of potential energy gives:
0 ) ( ' '
0 0
= = H
} }
L u P dx u q dx u u EA
L L
o o o o (E2.6)
This is a variational problem of order m = 1 requiring continuity of the displacement
function that is continuity
0
C . m is the highest differentiation order appearing in the
expression.

Strong form: The 1D problem has one differential equilibrium equation:
0 = +
c
c
V
x
x
F
x
o

But
A
q
F
V
x
= and ' u E
dx
du
E E
x x
= = = c o
Therefore 0 ' ' = +
A
q
u E or 0 ' ' = +q EAu (E2.7)

It is a differential problem of order 2m = 2.

Passing from weak form to strong form:
Recall equation of stationary potential energy (E2.6):
0 ) ( ' '
0 0
= = H
} }
L u P dx u q dx u u EA
L L
o o o o
Integration of the first term by parts and noting that ) ( ) ( u d du o o = gives:
| 0 ) ( ' "
0
0
0
= +
} }
L u P dx u q u EAu dx u u EA
L
L
L
o o o o (E2.8)
The fixed end means that 0 ) 0 ( = u o
Thus: ( ) 0 ) ( ) ( ' ) " (
0
= + +
}
L u P L EAu dx u q EAu
L
o o (E2.9)
Which gives two differential equations of order 2m = 2 :
0 " = +q EAu for L x s s 0 (E2.10)
P EAu = ' for L x = (E2.11)
12
The first relation (E2.10) is the differential equation of equilibrium (E2.7) and the second
(E2.11) is the natural boundary condition (E2.2).
Passing from the weak variational form of order m, after m integrations by parts,
generates the differential strong form of order 2m as well as the natural boundary
conditions.
13
2.9 Approximation methods:
2.9.1 Introduction
Response of a structure with continuous properties (stiffness, mass) and complex
boundary conditions is expressed in terms of partial differential equations. The 3D
problem is governed by fifteen differential equations (six stress-strain constitutive
relations, six compatibility relations and three equilibrium equations) with fifteen
unknowns (three displacements and six components for each of the stress and strain
vectors). The analytical solution is therefore often out of reach. Approximation
techniques constitute therefore the only analysis tool. The approximation may concern
directly the differential equations (weighted residual methods, Galerkin technique) or
concern the functional of the variational principle (if it exists) of the problem (Rayleigh-
Ritz method). In structural analysis, the functional used is either potential energy,
complementary potential energy or the generalized energy. Approximation functions
must satisfy all boundary conditions in the Galerkin method whereas in the Rayleigh-Ritz
technique, only essential boundary conditions need to be satisfied as the natural
conditions are automatically verified.
These approximation functions are then forced to satisfy equilibrium equations by other
conditions which increase the structure potential energy thus giving an approximate
energy greater than the exact value. The approximate structure is therefore stiffer than the
real one in a global sense and not necessarily in each point. Approximate methods lead
then to an upper limit of potential energy. Other techniques (such as that of Trefftz) using
functions satisfying equilibrium which are then forced to verify boundary conditions lead
to a lower limit of potential energy.

Let k be the order of the differential system. If the variational principle exists and is of
order m, the differential problem obtained after m integrations by parts is of an even order
k = 2m. The differential problem variables and boundary conditions are defined as
follows :

u : Dependent variables such as point displacements
x : Independent variables such as point coordinates
f : Function of x (which may be constant or zero)
b
i
: Known constant values in point i

Assume the following differential system of order k to be solved:

f u
k
= ] [ L over domain O (2.45)

with the following boundary conditions:
i i
b u = ] [ B over boundary I (2.46)
L and B are differential operators which are symmetric in structural analysis (Betti-
Maxwell theorem) and positive definite (quadratic functional) :

14
} }
O O
O = O d u v d v u
k k
] [ ] [ L L and 0 ] [ > O
}
O
d u u
k
L

For the previous bar example, the operators L and B are :

2
2
2
dx
d
EA = L
dx
d
EA = B q f = N L x b = = ) (
1


1 = m 2 2 = = m k Problem of continuity
0 1
C C
m
=

The associated functional (if it exists) is H.
The variational principle is : 0 = H o

An approximate solution is given by:

=
=
n
i
i i
g a u
1
(2.47)
Therefore
j
j
a
u
g
c
c
=
i
g are known linearly independent functions and
i
a are the unknown parameters.
Polynomial or trigonometric functions may be used for
i
g . They must satisfy all
differentiation and continuity conditions as well as boundary conditions. Unknown
parameters
i
a can be determined using Galerkin method (weighted residual method) by
dealing directly with the differential problem, or using Rayleigh-Ritz method through the
functional of the variational principle. Differentiation conditions are more severe in the
former method because of the higher order of the differential problem.

2.9.2 Weighted residual methods
These methods act directly on the differential problem (2.45) using approximate solutions
(2.47). Non satisfaction of differential equations and boundary conditions generates two
residuals (one on domain O and the other on boundary I ) given by:

(

= = =
O
i
i i k k k k
g a f u f u u L L L L R ] [ ] [ ] [ i = 1 to n (2.48)

|
|
.
|

\
|
(

= =
I
j i
i i j j
j
j
j
j
g a b u u B B B R ] [ ] [ (2.49)

Summation over index j is carried out on all boundary conditions.
Weighted residual methods aim at eliminating an averaged (weigthed) integral form of
the two residuals:
0 = I + O
} }
I
I
O
O
d d
j j
R w R w (2.50)

j
w is the weighting function which in the popular Galerkin technique is equal to the
function
i
g itself.
15

j
j j
a
u
g
c
c
= = w (2.51)

Equation j is therefore: 0 = I + O
} }
I
I
O
O
d g d g
j j
R R (2.52)

Example 2.2 : Solve using Galerkin method:
x y 6 "= over the domain 1 0 : s s O x
with boundary conditions: 0 ) 1 ( ) 0 ( = = y y
Consider the following approximate function with one parameter :
) 1 (
1
= x x a y thus ) 1 (
1
= x x g and
1
2 " a y =

Differentiation and boundary conditions are satisfied.
I
R residual is therefore equal to zero. The second residual is:


1
2 6 " " a x y y = =
O
R

The following weighted residual must be eliminated :

0 ) 1 ( ) 2 6 (
1
0
1
=
}
dx x x a x giving after integration
2
3
1
= a

The approximate solution is then : ) 1 (
2
3
= x x y
It gives in the domain center (x = 0.5) the same value as the exact solution which is :
x x y =
3

Values in other points are however different.

Example 2.3
2D Poisson equation of torsion stress in a rectangular section 2ax2b :
|
| |
| G f
y x
2
2
2
2
2
2
= =
c
c
+
c
c
= V

This equation represents in fact the compatibility relation in terms of torsion stress
function | . G is the shear modulus and | is the angle of twist per unit length.

Domain O corresponds to the rectangular section:
a x a s s b y b s s

Boundary conditions reflect zero stress on the boundary:
0 = | for a x = b y =



x
y
-a a
-b
b
16
Let us consider an approximate solution with one parameter
1
o and satisfying
differentiation conditions:
( )( )
2 2 2 2
1
b y a x =o |

Boundary conditions are verified. Thus: 0 =
I
R

( ) ( ) | |
2 2 2 2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2 b y a x
y x
+ =
c
c
+
c
c
= V o
| |
|
( ) ( ) | |
2 2 2 2
1
2 b y a x f + =
O
o R

The integral of the residual weighted by the function itself gives:

| | ( ) 0 ) )( ( ) ( ) ( 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
= +
} }

b
b
a
a
dy dx b y a x b y a x f o

Integration leads to:
0 ) (
45
128
9
16
2 2 3 3
1
3 3
= + + b a b a b fa o
Thus:
) ( 4
5
) ( 8
5
2 2 2 2
1
b a
G
b a
f
+
=
+

=
|
o

Galerkin approximate solution is then:

) )( (
) ( 4
5
2 2 2 2
2 2
b y a x
b a
G

+
=
|
|

Torsion stress is obtained by differentiation of function | and is maximum on the
boundary in the middle of the greatest side.

Thus if a b > : ) 0 , (
max
= =
c
c
= y a x
x
|
t

After substitution, we find:
) ( 2
5
2 2
2
max
b a
ab G
+
=
|
t

For a square section (a = b), we have:

a G
a G
|
|
t 25 . 1
4
5
max
= =

Analytical solution given by Timoshenko and Goodier is:

a G
Tim
| t 35 . 1
max
=

Galerkin approximate solution is 7.4% smaller.
17
2.9.3 Rayleigh-Ritz method
This method concerns the approximation of a function u(x) characterized by a variational
principle of a stationary functional H. In structural analysis using displacement model,
the functional is the potential energy which must be minimum at equilibrium.
The n algebraic equations are obtained by expressing H in terms of parameters
i
a and by
equating to zero its derivative with respect to each of the parameters :

0 =
c
H c
i
a
(i = 1 to n) (2.53)

In structural analysis, Galerkin and Rayleigh-Ritz methods yield the same result.

Example 2.4: Euler-Bernoulli beam on two supports under uniform load.



v is the vertical deflection.
Potential energy is:
} }
= H
L L
dx v q dx v
EI
0 0
2
) " (
2


Boundary conditions are: 0 ) ( ) 0 ( = = L v v
Consider a half-sine curve satisfying the boundary conditions as the approximate
solution:

L
x
a v
t
sin
1
= thus
L
x
g
t
sin
1
=

After substitution, we find:
} }
|
.
|

\
|
= H
L L
dx
L
x
qa dx
L
x
L
a
EI
0
1
0
2
4
4
2
1
sin sin
2
t t t

After integration, we obtain :
t
t L
q a
L
EI a
1
3
4
2
1
2
4
= H

Stationarity gives : 0
1
=
c
H c
a
Thus :
5
4
1
4
t EI
qL
a =
Approximate deflection and moment are :

L
x
EI
qL
v
t
t
sin
4
5
4
=
L
x qL
v EI M
t
t
sin
4
"
3
2
= =

Exact solutions are: ( ) xL x L
EI
x L qx
v +

=
2 2
24
) (
( ) x L qx M =
2
1

q
18
The following table compares approximate and exact solutions over half the beam span.

x = 0 x = L/8 x = L/4 x = 3L/8 x = L/2
v v /
1 0.98938 0.99626 1.00180 1.00386
M M /
1 0.90274 0.97303 1.01706 1.03205

We observe that approximate solutions are close to exact values and that precision is
better for the deflection because we used a displacement model. The approximate
structure is stiffer than the exact one only in a global sense and not in every point. A
polynomial function of fourth degree would have given the exact solution.

Example 2.5: Bar under axial force P.



Boundary conditions are: 0 ) 0 ( = u and P L EAu = ) ( '
The first boundary condition is cinematic on the restrained displacement and the second
is static on the force at the right end.
The potential energy is:
) ( ) ' (
2
0
2
L Pu dx u
EA
L
= H
}


We consider the following linear approximate solution (satisfying the cinematic boundary
condition which is essential):

x a u
1
= Thus
1
' a u =

Substituting, we obtain:
L Pa dx a
EA
L
1
0
2
1
2
= H
}

After integration, we find:
1
2
1
2
PLa a
EAL
= H

The Ritz equation is: 0
1
1
= =
c
H c
PL EALa
a

We obtain the exact solution (satisfying the natural boundary condition):

EA
P
a =
1
and x
EA
P
u =


P
19
Example 2.6: Bar of the preceding example with a distributed axial force over the length.
Boundary conditions are: 0 ) 0 ( = u and P L EAu = ) ( '




Potential energy is: ) ( ) ' (
2
0 0
2
L Pu dx u q dx u
EA
L L
= H
} }


The previous linear solution can be used but the presence of the distributed force means
that the displacement variation is not linear.
We consider a second degree function satisfying the essential boundary condition:

2
2 1
x a x a u + = Thus x a a u
2 1
2 ' + =

After substitution, we obtain:

( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 1
0
2
2 1
0
2
2 1
2
2
L a L a P dx x a x a q dx x a a
EA
L L
+ + + = H
} }


After integration, we find:

( ) L a a PL
L a a
qL L a a L a a
EAL
2 1
2 1 2
2 1
2 2
2
2
1
3 2
2
3
4
2
+ |
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
+ + = H

The two Ritz equations are:

0
2
) (
2
2 1
1
= + =
c
H c
PL
qL
L a a EAL
a

0
3 3
4
2
3
2 1
2
2
= |
.
|

\
|
+ =
c
H c
PL
qL
L a a EAL
a


We obtain the exact solution satisfying the natural boundary condition.

EA
P qL
a
+
=
1
and
EA
q
a
2
2

=

Example 2.7: Solve using Rayleigh-Ritz method the Poisson equation of torsion stresses
in a rectangular section (problem solved before with Galerkin method).

|
| |
| G f
y x
2
2
2
2
2
2
= =
c
c
+
c
c
= V

| represents the torsion stress function. G is the shear modulus and | is the angle of
twist per unit length. Domain O corresponds to the rectangular section :

a x a s s and b y b s s
P
q
20
The boundary conditions correspond to zero stresses on the section boundary:

0 = | for a x = or b y =

We consider the same approximate function used in the Galerkin method:

( )( )
2 2 2 2
1
b y a x =o |

The problem variable being a stress function, we therefore must consider the principle of
minimum complementary potential energy.
The expression of the complementary potential energy for a beam of length L is :

} }

(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
= H
b
b
a
a
dy dx G
y x G
L
||
| |
4
2
2
2
*


Substituting with the approximate function, we obtain :

| |
} }

+ = H
b
b
a
a
dy dx b y x a x y
G
L
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
1 *
) ( ) (
2o

| |
} }


b
b
a
a
dy dx b y a x L ) )( ( 2
2 2 2 2
1
|o

Integrating, we find : | | | o o G b a b a
G
L
5 ) ( 2
45
32
2 2
1
3 3
1
*
+ = H

Stationarity of the complementary potential energy gives :
| | 0 5 ) ( 4
45
32
2 2
1
3 3
1
*
= + =
c
H c
| o
o
G b a b a
G
L


thus :
) ( 4
5
2 2
1
b a
G
+
=
|
o

We find the same result as with Galerkin method.

2.9.4 Concluding remarks
The Rayleigh-Ritz technique applied to the entire structure goes back to the end of the
19th century. It was only in early fifties in the 20th century (in the computer era) that the
method regained interest when it was found that its application could be extended to very
complex structures subdivided in many sub-domains (finite elements).
The variational method of Rayleigh-Ritz produces the same results as the weighted
residual method of Galerkin in structural analysis problems. It is therefore much
preferable to use Rayleigh-Ritz method because first it deals with a lower order
variational problem and on the other hand the natural boundary conditions are implicitly
satisfied.