Professional Documents
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Power different from work or energy Proper use of units critical Both supply and demand sides important
Units
Fundamental ones include mass, length, time leading to F has units of m L/t2 and Wk = F d and P = Wk/t Eg. 1 N = kg m/s2 and 1 lbf = 32.2 lbm ft/s2 J = N m ; W = J/s, J = coul-V, MW = 106 W kWh = 3412 Btu etc.
Thermodynamics
Deals with energy and its conversion Four fundamental laws with First dealing with conservation of energy and Second dealing with concept that energy has quality in addition to quantity Efficiency sometimes defined as work out divided by heat in.
Thermodynamics basics
Zeroth Law
A B C
If A and B and B and C are in thermal equil, then A and C are in thermal equil. [ie. At same T]
R Johnson/UAF/CEM/ME 2005
KE and PE
KE = [1/2]mv2 ; PE = mgh
So, m = 1 kg, v = 100 m/s, h = 100 m, KE = 0.5[104] kg[m2/s2 ] via J = N-m = 5000 J
and N = kg m /s2
Heat Capacity
Can use to calc amt of heat xferred via q = h = c T where c = heat capacity c ~ 4.2 kJ/kg/K = 1 Btu/lbm/F for water cp ~ 1 kJ/kg/K for air [note subscript now]
via c = 3 x 108 m /s
Energy amounts
BMR ~ 70 W ~ 240 Btu/hr Home htg in Fbks ~ 30 K Btu/hr in winter Home electrical use ~ 1000 kWh/mo ~ 3.4 MBtu or rate of ~ 1.4 kW or ~ 5 K Btu/hr US energy use ~ 100 Q/yr with Q = 1015 Btu 11 kW/cap RJ 4.08
Relative masses
Mass of Water for 1000 Btu PE (780 ft) mode KE (224 ft/s) Thermal (1 deg F) Melting (144 Btu/lbm) Evap(1000 Btu/lbm) 0 1 2 3 4
Properties
h = const CP T liq saturated s or v Water: Crit Pt at P = 22 MPa, T = 374 oC SH P = const.
RJ UAF
Sat. steam
Conservation of Energy
First
E = Q - W
[for system]
Q W
eg. Q = 100 kJ W = 60 kJ E = 40 kJ
E
mi me
For a cycle E = 0 so Qnet = W which leads to W = Q H - QL 2nd Law says all of QH cant be converted into W or < 100 %
Carnot Cycle
qh
2
w = area of enclosure
qL s
For heat engine [brown ], heat added qh = area under 2-3 and heat rejected qL = area under 1-4. Via 1st Law, w = qh - qL and = w/qh since = [what one wants]/[what one pays for]. C = 1 TL/Th since , qL/qh = TL /Th . For heat pump or refrig. [blue ], work is added as the working fluid goes from 4 to 3 and heat flows out from 3 to 2 with heat coming in from 1 to 4. From 1st law, energy in = energy out so w + qL = qh .COPHP = qh/w. For Carnot cycle, COPHP = Th /[Th - TL ]. COPref = TL /[Th - TL ].
T v
eg. Let SH steam at P1 = 5 MPa and 900 oC cool at const v = 0.1076 m3 /kg to 450 oC STs u1 = 3841 kJ/kg STs P2 = 3 MPa and u2 = 3020 kJ/kg
So Q/
m = - 821 kJ/kg
Heat Transfer
Three modes are conduction, convection, and radiation. 1st two require presence of a physical medium Latter is how suns energy reaches earth Conduction relates to R value [thermal resistance] Convection relates to wind chill
Conductive Heat Xfer qdot = -k [dT/dx] is Fouriers Law k < 0.1 W/m/K for good insulators dT/dx is Temperature gradient
qdot
Convective
qdot = h T with h 25 to 200 W/m2 /K for gases and 100 to 20K for liquids in forced convection u Ta Tb h as u
Radiation
qdot = T4 with = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2/K4 Sun emits as black body at T = 5762 K so qdot = 56.7 MW/m2 cf. T = 300 K qdot = 460 W/m2
W e
Throttling
h i = he
Eg. Steam at 4 MPa and 700 C exits valve at 0.5 MPa h = 3906 kJ/kg so Te = 691 oC via T = 600 + [(3906 3702)/(3926 3702)] 100 With [ ] = 0.91
T P s
Steam Properties
Cengel & Boles
Boiler
T Now take sat liq at 4 MPa entering boiler and heat to 800 C s i
Heating of Liquid
Q = m cp [T2 - T1 ]
Above true whether P const or not as heating occurs For water, cp = c = 1 Btu/lbm/ oF = 4.2 kJ/kg/ K
US Solar Insolation
http://www.eren.doe.gov/erec/factsheets/solrwatr.pdf
NREL photo
$ 375 K cost and annual savings of $ 67 K 100 panels heat 800 gph
http://www.solaraccess.com/news/story?storyid=5271
100
liters/day
80
60
40
20
10
month of year
PV panel
Heat Engines
Receive heat at high T and reject to low T
QL QH W
= W/ QH
~ 30 %
RJ UAF
Applications
Diesel electric generators, gas turbines power plants
http://www.gensetcentral.com/pdf/js170uc.pdf
RJ UAF
Example - DEG
6 gph fuel
138 K Btu/gal
Wel QL
QH = 818 K Btu/hr = 242 kW and = 33 % Wel = 81 kW with rest of output as heat flux
up exhaust and rejected to jacket water and ambient
[ 13.5 kWh/gal ]
RJ UAF
Second Law
Processes only proceed in certain drcts:
Clausius: Can't build cyclic device whose sole effect is heat xfer from cold to hotter body.
Quality of Energy
Environmental Impacts
> 1272 grams of fossil fuel and chemicals used to produce a 32-bit DRAM memory chip [mass of 2 grams] Another 400 grams of fossil fuel required to produce electricity to operate it over its lifetime. This doesnt even account for ultimate disposal cf ratio of 2:1 for automobile
Environmental Science & Technology / January 1, 2003
Consider 676 W/m2 incident solar rad with collector = 0.9 and = 0.1 [selective absorber] qdotnet-rad = Gsolar - [Ts4 - Tsky4 ]
Ts = 320 K and Tsky = 260 K qdotnet-rad = 575 W/m2 If instead, = = 0.9, qdotnet-rad = 307
Ex 12.5 C & B Ht xfer