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M.D. Bryant Mechanical Engineering The University of Texas at Austin Austin, Texas 78712-1063
Dedicated to the late Dr. Ralph Ashley Burton, who introduced me to Electrical Contacts.
Roadmap
Introduction Define electrical contacts Review: Contact principles Review: Electrical concepts Electrical contact physics Selected problem areas Connectors Sliding contacts/brushes Switches and relays
lines of current
conductor 1
conductor 2
lines of current
conductor 1
conductor 2
Contact Principles
HERTZIAN THEORY
p(x, y) = po a2 - x2 - y2
P p(x,y) Zf (x, y) 2a P
3P po = 2 a2 3P(k1+k2)R1R2 a= 4(R1+R2)
1 3
1- i2 ki = E i = 1 3
92P2(k1+k2)2(R1+R2) 16R1R2
p
A
P
Load P > elastic limit plastic deformations
Bodies in contact
Contact pressures p(x, y) approximately uniform Hardness pressure (indentation hardness) P p A H 3 x Yield stress
P p(x,y)
2
P
2a P
Spheres Increasing normal load P 0 P < Pe ; = 1+2 = P Pe ; = 1+2 > Elastic (Hertzian) contact model 1 92P2(k1+k2)2(R1+R2) 3 16R1R2
92Pe2(k1+k2)2(R1+R2) 16R1R2
1 3
Electrical Concepts
Electric field: force per charge [N C1 = V m-1] Voltage: energy per charge [volt V = J C-1] Current: charges in motion [ampere A = C s-1] requires charge [coulomb C] carriers Electrons: eHoles: p+ Conduction mechanisms Free electrons e- in metals Barrier gap/work function potential gap e- jumps gap if sufficient kinetic energy V < gap suggests no current Tunnel effect: distribution of energies over population of charge carriers, some have enough kinetic to jump
kinetic energy distribution
gap V distance
electrode 1
gap
electrode 2
Current density: [A m-2] Impedance: Z = V/I, resistance to current flow Z=R+jX Resistance: R = l/A [ohm = V A-1] Resistivity: [m] Area: A [m2] Length:
[m]
Constriction Resistance
r 2a
r + dr
Lines of current constrict near contact Water draining from bathtub: constriction impedes flow Generates resistance R = dr/A(r) = /(2 r2 ) dr /2 (1/a 1/r ) : bulk resistivity of body; a: contact radius Neglects volume r < a Actual Constriction Resistance: Rc = /2a Contact radius a via mechanical contact
Surface Films
body 1 film body 2 Thin films: nm to m Thickness dependent resistivity: f = f(s) Film formed via contaminant diffusion & corrosion Mechanical Effects of film negligible Film Resistance Rf = f/A ds Tunnel effect can dominate f & Rf
Appalachian Mountains
South America
Andes Mountains
Brazil Highlands
14
Analogous to bodies in contact Rough surfaces Small, discrete contact areas (a-spots) parallel circuits & micro-constrictions Pores in contact allows easy contaminant diffusion
a-spot
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Contact Impedance
Zc = Rc1 + jLc1 + 1/( Rm1 ) + 1/ ( 1/Rf + jC) + Rc2 + jLc2 + 1/( Rm1 ) Rc = Rc1 + 1/( Rm1 ) + Rf + Rc2 + 1/( Rm1 )
lines of current
16
Joule Heating
Contact resistance dissipates power: P = i2 Rc Heat sources Field equations 1 Electrical: J = [ (T) V] = 0 (Laplace) e T Thermal: [k(T) ]+ q = Cp(T) t (Fourier) 1 q = qe = J E = e V V
2 2.0 2 1750 1.6 z/a 1 z/a 1.2 0.8 0.4 0 0 1 x/a 2 0 0 1 x/a 2 1500 1000 1 2000 2000 1500
Equipotential contours and isotherms for electrical heating of carbon graphite with a cold contact boundary with a = 1 mm. Applied voltage: 2 V.
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Polarization Effects
DC voltage Bodies become anode and cathode Affects Chemistry Material behavior Arcing Examples Cathode brush wear > anode brush wear Graphite sticks to cathode Selective film formation on anode/cathode Affects contact resistance Anode/cathode arc erosion different
18
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Arcing
Existing contact with current flow Contact break interrupts circuit Circuit inductance L opposes current change via induced voltage VL = L di/dt Analogy: mass induces inertial force FI = m dv/dt Charge carriers needed for current to jump gap Air molecules ionize under voltage VL = VL(t) Plasma formed: fourth state of matter Arc = Current through ionized column
closed contact
Destructive: melts, welds & erodes electrodes Material transfer: anode - cathode Segregation & recrystallization Surface roughening
20
Photo: C. H. Leung & A. Lee, 1993, Silver Tin Oxide Contact Erosion in Automotive Relays, Proc. 39th IEEE Holm Conference, pp. 61-67
21
Chart: Z. Chen & K. Sawa, 1994, Polarity Effect of Unsymmetrical Material Combination on the Arc Erosion and Contact Resistance Behaviour, Proc. 40th IEEE Holm Conference, pp. 79-88.
Always present in switches, relays, plugs, etc. Often: arc travels along cathode, stationery on anode _
22
23
Connectors
Function, design, & purpose: permanent but quick connections/disconnects 5-40 year stable life Connector classes power connectors: power lines & junction boxes automotive electronic connectors: low power & compact Telephones electronics computers
24
Photo: J. J Schindler, R.T. Axon & R.S. Timsit, 1995, Mechanical and Electrical Contact Properties of Wedge Connectors, Proc. 41st IEEE Holm Conference, pp. 1-9.
25
Electronic Connectors
Low power: contamination problems dust pollutants corrosive agents fretting corrosion IBM, late 1980s: connector problems cause 50% of all computer failures
Pictures: Molex website (www.molex.com)
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Fretting Corrosion
100
Stable
Drastic Increase
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
100
102
104
106
Elevated & fluctuating contact resistance Elevated resistance: digital high low, computer failure Fluctuations noise to signals
27
Fretting Mechanism
Aex p osed(m )
hm 1 to 100 nm virgin asperities mth cycle: motions expose a-spots corrosive layers form
Micro-motions @ contact Stray vibrations Thermal expansions via temperature variation Normal & tangential motions Surfaces exposed: corrode Surface wear: corrosion & metal Buildup of fretting debris Surfaces separated, resistance changes
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Connector Insertion Force: Springs relaxation Healing mechanisms: breaking/penetrating films Contact force: fractures Wipe: fractures & displaces Fritting: Joule heat from small filaments through film softens/melts metal; plastic deformations brings electrodes closer & breaks film. Lubricants: reduces wear & seals off corrosive agents Platings: Corrosion ion migration barriers Au, Pt, Ni, Cu
pores plating
Connector Issues
base metal
s
Micro-connectors Accelerated testing & aging: Mixed gases & vibrations simulate Batelle & IBM tests
29
Brushes
DC & AC motors Slip rings
30
Carbon Brushes
Carbon Brush
Commutator
Operation Carbon graphite electrically conductive Sliding: graphite film deposits on metal Humidity water layer on graphite Self lubricating Problems Excessive Wear Hot-spotting/thermal mounding Brush dusting/low humidity lubrication Carbon graphite: water lubrication mechanism Arcing across commutator bars
31
Hot-Spotting/Thermal Mounding
slider
countersurface
contact between rough surfaces discrete spots (islands) of contact between surfaces
slider
expanded disconnecte d
expanded
countersurface
sliding commences, @ higher sliding speeds friction & electrical heats @ contact spots spots expand & grow some spots separate loads transferred to still-connected spots
32
slider
expanded disconnecte d
expanded
disconnecte d
countersurface
loads transferred to still-connected spots more intense conditions process continues until slider runs on few spots spots fragile, break off large wear particles extreme wear
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Research Issues
Attain very high current densities (> MA/cm2 ) Low wear Low friction Reasonable temperatures Possible Geometries Solid brushes Fiber brushes Liquid metals No contact resistance Conductive lubricant Poisonous: no leakage! NaK Eutectics Materials selection: conductive & low friction metal graphites: silver, copper other materials?
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References
Ragnar Holm, Electric Contacts Handbook, 3rd ed., Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1958. International Conference on Electric Contacts, every other year, 1960-present. Proceedings of the (IEEE) Holm Conference on Electric Contacts, annually, 1954-present. IEEE Transactions on Components, Hybrids, & Manufacturing Technology