BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION STUDENTS' DISPOSITION TOWARD CRITICAL THINKING

Barbara A. Wilson

Purpose

Better informed people are more likely to participate in societal activity and a critically active workforce is needed to compete in a global economy, there has been a call to make critical thinking a national priority for education.
Useful to test the relationship of intellectual development and a disposition toward critical thinking. The research questions were the following: 1. What is their disposition toward critical thinking? 2. Is there a difference in a disposition toward critical thinking among ethnic groups (African American, Latino, and White)? 3. Is there a difference in a disposition toward critical thinking between men and women? 4. Is there a relationship between a disposition toward critical thinking and SAT scores and GPA? 5. Is there a relationship between the disposition toward critical thinking and intellectual development?

Context The population comprised 693 African American, Latino, and White freshmen students in the College of Business Administration and Economics (COBAE) of a large state university in California Student participation in this study was as follows: 13 African American females, 7 African American males, 11 Latino females, 13 Latino males, 15 White females, and 10 White males. Thus, group size for ethnicity was 20, 24, and 25 respectively.

California Critical Thinking Dispositions Inventory (CCTDI)

1. Truth-Seeking - Flexibility in considering alternatives and opinions 2. Open-Mindedness -Understanding the opinions of others 3. Analyticity - Persistence though difficulties are encountered

4. Systematicity - Diligence in seeking relevant information

5. Confidence - Confidence in ones own ability to reason 6. Inquisitiveness - Concern to become and remain generally well-informed

7. Maturity - Approaching problems, inquiry, and decision making with a sense that some problems are necessarily ill structured, some situations admit of more than one plausible option, and many times judgments must be made based on standards, contexts, and evidence that preclude certainty.

Critical thinking means making a reasoned opinion on any matter involving a judgment of its value, truth, or righteousness. " The ideal critical thinker is 1. habitually inquisitive, 2. well-in formed, trustful of reason, 3. open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, 4. honest in facing personal biases, 5. prudent in making judgments, 6. willing to reconsider, 7. clear about issues, 8. orderly in complex matters, 9. diligent in seeking relevant information, 10. reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and 11. persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject and the circumstances of inquiry permit.

Three domains Generalised skills, (a) focusing on a question, (b) analysing arguments c) making judgments, and (d) identifying assumptions Cognitive processes -there are three kinds of knowledge-declarative, procedural, and metacognitive. Intellectual (epistemological) development -beliefs about the nature of knowledge and truth.

Perrys Intellectual and Ethical Development Model 1-Dualism/Received Knowledge: There are right/wrong answers, engraved on Golden Tablets in the sky, known to Authorities. Basic Duality>>>Full Dualism: 2-Multiplicity/Subjective Knowledge: There are conflicting answers; therefore, students must trust their "inner voices", not external Authority. Early Multiplicity>>>Late Multiplicity: 3-Relativism/Procedural Knowledge: There are disciplinary reasoning methods: Connected knowledge: empathetic (why do you believe X?; what does this poem say to me?) vs. Separated knowledge: "objective analysis" (what techniques can I use to analyze this poem?) Contextual Relativism>>>Pre-Commitment": 4-Commitment/Constructed Knowledge: Integration of knowledge learned from others with personal experience and reflection. Commitment>>Challenges to Commitment>>"Post-Commitment": Learning Environment Preferences (LEP) Instrument Full Dualism: Early Multiplicity: Late Multiplicity: Contextual Relativism

Reflective Judgment Model

Assumptions about the process of knowing (view of knowledge) and how it is acquired (justification of beliefs)-espitemolgy. The seven developmental stages are

Pre-reflective Reasoning (Stages 1-3): Belief that "knowledge is gained through the word of an authority figure or through first-hand observation, rather than, for example, through the evaluation of evidence. [People who hold these assumptions] believe that what they know is absolutely correct, and that they know with complete certainty. People who hold these assumptions treat all problems as though they were well-structured" Quasi-Reflective Reasoning (Stages 4 and 5): Recognition "that knowledge-or more accurately, knowledge claims-contain elements of uncertainty, which [people who hold these assumptions] attribute to missing information or to methods of obtaining the evidence. Although they use evidence, they do not understand how evidence entails a conclusion
Reflective Reasoning (Stages 6 and 7): People who hold these assumptions accept "that knowledge claims cannot be made with certainty, but [they] are not immobilized by it; rather, [they] make judgments that are "most reasonable" and about which they are "relatively certain," based on their evaluation of available data. They believe they must actively construct their decisions, and that knowledge claims must be evaluated in relationship to the context in which they were generated to determine their validity. They also readily admit their willingness to re-evaluate the adequacy of their judgments as new data or new methodologies become available"

CIMO ?

Research Question Is there a relationship between the disposition toward critical thinking and intellectual development?

CCTDI Generalised Skills Disposition to Critical Thinking Critical Thinking

LEP

Cognitive Process

Intellectual/ epistemological Development

Reflective Judgement Maturity Gender and ethnic differences

BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION STUDENTS' DISPOSITION TOWARD CRITICAL THINKING Author(s): Barbara A. Wilson Source: The Journal of General Education, Vol. 47, No. 4 (1998), pp. 304-326 Published by: Penn State University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27797390 . Accessed: 13/04/2011 08:19
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BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION STUDENTS' DISPOSITION TOWARD CRITICAL THINKING

Barbara
Since

A. Wilson

thinking(Altbach, 1981; American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1989; Brookfield, 1987) a national priority
for education. seeks President articulated six national and governors from all 50 states In Goals 2000, Goal 6.5 education goals. Bush

in po better informed people are more likely to participate is needed to com litical activity and a critically active workforce pete in a global economy, there has been a call to make critical

to increase

ability tively, and solve problems and universities Colleges including gram goals. critical There

strate an advanced

the proportion

thinking in their mission is now a need tomeasure

of college graduates who demon to think critically, communicate effec of Education, 1990). (U.S. Department have attempted to answer the call by statements and pro the construct.

Rationale for the Study

Critical thinking means making a reasoned opinion on any matter "Moti involving a judgment of its value, truth, or righteousness. the theoretical grounds for vation theory (Lewin, 1935) provides the assumption thinking would that the disposition impel an individual to value and utilize critical to achieve mastery over criti to close the gap between what

Sanchez, & Facione, that disposition pre 1995, p. 4). Accordingly, Gainen, nurturing skills. For this reason, of critical-thinking cedes the development

cal thinking skills, being motivated is valued and what is attained" (Facione,

institutions of higher education should investigate the disposition toward critical thinking of entering freshmen so that those cogni and Peter and Noreen Facione tive skills might be cultivated. Sanchez (1994) have developed the California Critical

Carol

purpose. ThinkingDisposition Inventory(CCTDI) for that

JGE: THE Copyright JOURNAL ? OF GENERAL Vol. 47, No. 4, 1998. EDUCATION, State University, University Park, PA.

1998 The Pennsylvania

Business The CCTDI would have additional

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305

value for the prescriptive if itwere related to intellectual thinking development and methods of teaching, in theory on principles development structional activities, curriculum design, and program assessment of critical for college students (Adams & Marchesani, 1992; Goldberger, & Strait, 1981; Mentkowski, Moeser, 1983; Nelson, 1994; it would Reisetter Hart, Rickerts, & Mentkowski, 1995). Thus, be of interest to test the relationship of intellectual toward critical thinking. and a disposition development

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to measure the disposition toward critical thinking of freshmen students enrolled in the College of test the Business Administration and Economics (COBAE), test the relationship between for group differences, the and investigate the relation CCTDI and achievement variables, toward critical thinking and intellec ship between a disposition CCTDI tual development. The research questions were the following:

2. Is there a difference ing among

1. What is theirdisposition toward critical thinking?

in a disposition toward critical think ethnic groups (African American, Latino, and

in a disposition toward critical think between men and women? ing toward criti 4. Is there a relationship between a disposition cal thinking and SAT scores and GPA? 5. Is there a relationship between the disposition cal thinking and intellectual development? In the following section, topic for this research the construct

3. Is there a difference

White)?

toward criti

of critical

main

toward critical thinking, as well as an of a disposition of the theory of intellectual development that pro explanation vides the theoretical base for this research study. A review of the definition

study, will be defined.

thinking, the Next will be a

306

Wilson to the con appropriate theories, and measure the limitations will describe

ments.

The section on scope and education component of the participating students and how general it relates to critical thinking and will focus on the limitations of the instrument and the need for additional research. Sections on

present secondary sources struct of critical thinking, epistemological literature will

and summary will present findings and discussion, methodology, the research design and results of this study. Finally, the section on the implications of the study will explain the analysis and con tributions of this study to education and assessment.

Definition of Critical Thinking

Education and philosophers have offered numer psychologists ous definitions of critical thinking. For this study, the following definition from Peter Facione's research will be used: Delphi thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-in trustful of reason, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded formed, in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, The ideal critical orderly in complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant in in the selection of criteria, focused in formation, reasonable inquiry, and persistent in seeking results which are as pre and the circumstances of inquiry permit.

cise as the subject

(Facione, 1990, p. 3)
The underlying assumption thinking skills encompasses critical thinking. is that developing students' the nurturing of a disposition critical toward

Disposition Toward Critical Thinking

Each of the seven Thinking individual Disposition is defined learning Critical dispositional Inventory as one's scales is defined intellectual in the California (Facione et al.,

1995).
Inquisitiveness one's desire for

even when

the application

curiosity and of the knowl

Business edge is not readily apparent. learn more. A person lacking her learning potential.

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The

inquisitive

inquisitiveness

person is eager to may not reach his or

A person choose etc.). open (lifestyles, religion, lacking mindedness be intolerant of divergent viewpoints by catego may rizing them as right and wrong (sociocentric). is defined as being organized, Systematicity orderly, focused, and diligent in inquiry. A systematic person pursues inquiry ac to accepted methodologies in a field. A person systematicity may be distracted easily or may use evaluation to the field. works inappropriate cording

is defined as being tolerant of divergent views Open-Mindedness and sensitive to thepossibility of one's own bias. An open-minded and values the freedom to person invites pluralistic viewpoints

lacking frame

An analytical person resolves problems the component parts and their relation to the whole, by examining the potential effects of one choice over another, and considering the process. A person lacking the need to reevaluate recognizing solutions to a may have difficulty evaluating multiple analyticity to the need problem or preparing a good argument. is defined as being eager Truth-Seeking to seek the best knowl

is defined as prizing the application Analyticity of reasoning to resolve problems, and the use of evidence anticipating poten tial conceptual or practical difficulties, and consistently being alert to intervene.

about asking questions, and edge in a given context, courageous even if the findings honest and objective about pursuing inquiry do not support one's self-interests or one }s preconceived opinions. new evidence A truth-seeking person welcomes and continually to evaluate new information. A process in truth-seeking is not open to new facts or per person lacking spectives and is not likely to change his or her mind (egocentric). engages in a dialectical Critical-Thinking trust the soundness others in the rational S e If-Confidence is defined as allowing of one's own reasoned judgments and one

to

to lead

fidence may underrate (or overrate) his or her critical-thinking skills. is defined as approaching Maturity inquiry, and de problems, ill cision making with a sense that some problems are necessarily

resolution of problems. A person with critical self-confidence exhibits leadership qualities appropriate to thinking critical thinking skills. A person lacking critical-thinking self-con

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Wilson

structured, some situations admit of more than one plausible op tion, and many times judgments must be made based on standards, contexts, and evidence that preclude certainty. A person with ma turity is comfortable working with issues having multiple solutions that require judgments based on values, beliefs, philosophies, poli cies, or ethics. A person lacking maturity may prefer a dualistic context inwhich one solution appears to be more right than others.

a disposition

A disposition toward critical thinking represents an aptitude and inclination that precedes the development of critical thinking. For this reason, it seemed appropriate to test the relationship between toward critical thinking and intellectual development.

The Theory of Intellectual Development

Williams

frameworks

(1968, 1970, 1981) is divided intofourdifferent epistemological

are static and develop as upward movement. 1 is the belief that there is one right author Dualism: Position true authorities are right and others are frauds. ity; for Position 2, is defined Rela Multiplicity, represent the four epis

Perry's

Scheme

of Intellectual

and Ethical

Development

ment

regarding knowledge?Dualism, Nine positions tivism, and Commitment. frameworks. The positions temological

Position 3 is that we are still waiting for Early Multiplicity: the real Truth to explain uncertainties; Position 4 is that everyone has a right to his or her own opinion and authorities do not know learners acknowledge different of these viewpoints, however, is made on viewpoints. Judgment the basis of quantity. Therefore, learners have difficulty justify ing their opinions. Relativism: ism. Learners relativistic of meaning. Position 5 makes a shift from Dualism and values to Relativ and case. perceive knowledge in addition to perceiving themselves Dualistic functions are subordinate as contextual in a special the right answer. In Multiplicity,

learners have difficulty when absorbing Truth. Consequently, or when asked for their confronted with conflicting viewpoints own personal opinions.

In Dualism, there are two realms?Good and Bad?and knowl as receptacles is quantitative. Learners view themselves edge

as active makers

Business With hend Position 6 comes the realization

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309 their

that learners must make Learners

own decisions

in this uncertain world.

of orienting themselves In Relativism, by making personal commitments. is disengaged from the concept of Dualism?absolute

the necessity

begin to appre in a relativistic world all knowledge Truth and

"good" versus "bad." Learners view themselves as alone in a cha otic world and feel the loss of simpler, dualistic guidelines. Now learners must create their own "truth" based on their own experi
ences.

dent from patterns of responsibility and engagement. welcomed and respected. is qualitative Knowledge dent on contexts. The essence of the individual other research toward critical lated sources,
review.

one commitment. 7 is that of making tomaking Position several commitments. Finally, Posi to values, careers, relation tion 9 moves further to commitments is evi identity. In Commitment, ships, and personal judgment Commitment: Position 8 moves is Diversity and depen with several

of Perry's Scheme seems comparable scales in Facione's CCTDI. At

tested the relationship between Other re thinking and intellectual development. are appropriate to present in the literature however,

has

this time, no a disposition

Literature The being

Review of critical and theories and thinking, epistemological research conducted with the instruments be reviewed.

construct

critical

thinking, used in this study will

The Construct

of Critical

Thinking

are represented three perspectives in the literature on Basically, in college students, namely, critical thinking and its development and intellectual develop skills, cognitive processes, generalized ment (Kurfiss, 1988). first perspective, skills, may be an informal generalized course offered through the philosophy that in logic department The

310
eludes

Wilson
the following goals: (a) focusing on a question, (b) ana

Informal logic focuses on form rather sumptions (Ennis, 1987). than content. Subject matter is not infused or embedded into the curriculum. Critics of the generalized-skills perspective argue that knowledge The or context

as lyzing arguments, (c) making judgments,and (d) identifying

(McPeck, 1981).
nization There

subject matter

is necessary

for inquiry

met acognitive. Declarative is about facts and things. knowledge Procedural is about how to perform activities such as knowledge critical thinking, problem solving, and decision making (Ander For critical thinking, procedural son, 1976). repre knowledge sents a frame of reference for presenting a good argument in the

second perspective, studies the orga cognitive processes, of knowledge inmemory and its role in critical thinking. are three kinds of knowledge?declarative, and procedural,

field (Kurfiss, 1988) or thegeneral principles thatone can apply inorder to solve problems (King, 1994). The third kind of knowl
edge, metacognitive, supports procedural The cognitive planning and monitoring. an example of the cognitive-perspective, knowledge and is about is apprenticeship model which includes model

and that it is on them that prior to conceptualization temologically more attention needs to be focused (Brown, Collins, & Duguid,

ing, coaching, scaffolding, articulating, reflecting, and exploring is sequenced within (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1986). Learning the connections of activity, tool, and culture. A criticism of the cognitive-processes suggests that critical thinking in perspective volves more than just acquiring skills and knowledge. The theory of situated learning suggests that activity and perception are epis

1989).
The

third perspective, follows epistemological development, in students' beliefs about the nature of knowledge and changes truth. Epistemological about knowledge, truth, au assumptions and inquiry influence our ability to think critically. Three thority, examples of models Perry's (1970) Kitchener and King's (1981) Reflective and associates' Women's Belenky Ways Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986). Scheme of epistemological of Intellectual areWilliam development and Ethical Development,

The

and Judgment Model, of Knowing (Belenky, epistemological de

Business are based velopment models and growth. Learners change knowledge date new brought

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311

on adaptation, which accounts for either assimilate new beliefs about structures or accommo structures. Furthermore, 1977). Change epistemo is

or truth into existing mental mental beliefs by modifying

logica! ment is uneven

Develop subjects a student seem to advance first. Thus, it is in through education is engaged in our curriculum by design. important that topics are embedded in various

through disequilibrium. is differentiated development

about

(Kurfiss, content areas. Those

Epistemological Theories and Critical Thinking

and the Scheme Two models, The Reflective Judgment Model have secondary sources Intellectual and Ethical Development, the construct of critical thinking. of on

more

The Reflective Judgment Model and Kitchenermake thedistinction thatcritical thinkingis King
concerned Brabeck with

ment.

lems (Hofer& Pintrich, 1997). Two studies support this state

(1983) found that structural development (reflec

the solving

of closed, well-structured

prob

tive judgment) and skills acquisition (critical thinking)are not

the same specific. section.) construct. generalized Brabeck defined critical-thinking skills as skills that transfer across domains and are not content skills are defined in the literature review (Generalized This study has one very important implication: Learn alter one's beliefs about truths and their knowledge instructional

does not ing the supposedly generalized skills of critical thinking

students with

necessarily structures.

Consequently, providing for learning generalized critical-thinking opportunities not necessarily reflective thinkers. produce

skills will

and found that the relationship between More critical thinking is only moderate. stages of reflective judgment:

King,Wood, andMines (1990) also tested the relationshipbe tweenreflectivejudgmentand critical thinking (generalized skills)
reflective

the following critical-thinking skills thatdistinguish different

important,

judgment and they defined

312

Wilson
1. Interpretation, weighing evidence and identifying gener alizations that are warranted beyond a reasonable doubt; 2. detecting fallaciously arguments (e.g., evalu ambiguous

3. 4.

ating arguments to determine whether the laws of a valid argument were violated); deduction, reasoning deductively from premises to conclu sions; and the degree of accuracy of inferences inference, analyzing drawn from a given statement, (p. 546) likely to be demonstrated

These Model.

in the higher stages (Stages 5-7) of The Reflective Judgment

most studies do not include students be

critical-thinking

skills are most

Unfortunately, yond Stage 5.

Development structures (episte in knowledge Scheme, differences account for the difficulty in developing critical-thinking mology) critical thinking are assump skills (Kurfiss, 1988). Underlying In Perry's

Intellectual

and Ethical

external authorities provide them with truth and knowledge, which In acts as a barrier to critical thinking; inquiry is not understood. learners identify assumptions underlying their beliefs, Relativism, justify their ideas justifications. Intellectual and actions, and judge the rationality

tions about knowledge, truth, authority, and inquiry that are im learners assume that in the process. Prior to Relativism, plicit

of their dif

ferences in critical thinking may be best explained by positing

stages of thinking which change in systematic, qualitative ways" individuals believe that all opin 1990, p. 6). When (Van Hecke, of discrete

development

theorists argue

that "individual

skills, individuals are seen as poor criti about the cal thinkers. As individuals change their assumptions nature of knowledge to a contextual structure (Relativism), opin accumulation contexts across different and synthesized ions are compared, evaluated, and individuals are seen as good critical thinkers.

ions are equally valid (Multiplicity) and critical thinkingis an

Business Instruments The two instruments being used

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Critical ThinkingDisposition Inventory(CCTDI) and theLearn

ing Environment conducted using Preferences the CCTDI

in this study are the California

(Facione et al., 1995). Research using the LEP shows thatmove ment on Perry's Scheme is related to education. Vocational edu cation instructors with more education (masters' degrees) reasoned at higher stages of intellectual development than did their coun terparts with less education (Wilson, 1995). higher on the LEP In the same than men

one published study establishing the validity of the instrument

research needs to be (LEP). More instrument. At this time, there is only

LEP needs tobe published.

The literature review

and patient, and as having good networking ing, people-oriented, skills. Still, more research using the and group decision-making demonstrates the complexity of critical the construct is defined in

(bachelors' degrees or no degrees) women scored significantly study, as more nurtur and were perceived

thinking and the importance of how theoretical models, which impacts measurement and how the in strument is used. In the next section, the limitations of the CCTDI, with the need for additional research. First, however, the scope requirements of the students who it relates to critical thinking.

will be identified, the instrument being used for this study, along
the general education

will define participated

in the study and how

Scope

and Limitations

"an understanding der thinking skills in each student." Namely, in some areas of the liberal arts and of information and principles in sufficient depth to encourage critical and creative sciences thought and expression" (California State University, Northridge

in this study are freshmen enrolled in one participating of eight colleges of a university and are required to complete gen for the general One of the six objectives eral education courses. of higher-or "the development education program encompasses Students

314

Wilson

General

1996-1998, p. 46). Three out of the 52 general educa Catalog, tion units must be from the subsection of Critical Reasoning, which includes five courses offered by the Philosophy Department?

entific Method, and Symbolic Logic I and II. Students in this

potential to be used needed to determine study are beginning to fulfill their general education requirements. The California Critical Thinking Dispositions Inventory has the for assessment. However, more research is use of the instrument. Spe

Logic,

Critical

Reasoning,

Inductive

Logic

and the Sci

the appropriate research is needed to investigate how students' cifically, longevity toward critical thinking change over time. For ex dispositions the Reflective ample, Judgment Interview (RJI) indicates that col

course

lege students change one-half of a stage (seven total stages) be tween freshman and sophomore years (King, Kitchener, & Strohm, the RJI would not be a good measure of 1985). Consequently, assessment and how itwould be a better measure students changed during a semester; for program assessment over a four

programswill be invitedto retake theCCTDI during pleting their

the last semester rently conducting measurements of analytical writing, and the use of instructional thinking, of their senior year. In addition, I am concur another study to investigate course assessment disposition activities. toward

year period. At the present time, this study is limited to data collected from college freshmen. Over the next six years, however, students com

critical

Methodology
This was a descriptive study designed to compare groups and test

relationships.

Population The White 693 African American, comprised population freshmen students in the College of Business and Latino, Administra

tion and Economics fornia;

of a large state university in Cali (COBAE) the students were majoring in accounting, management

Business information ment

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315

in the Representation African American females, 6 percent; 12 percent; females, percent; Latino White 8 percent; and White females, science.

business law, finance, market systems, economics, business education, office systems, or manage ing, management,

population was as follows: African American males, 7 Latino males, 10 percent;

13 percent. males, Thus, for African American, Latino, and White ethnic groups accounted The other 44 percent in 56 percent of freshmen in the COBAE. cluded the following ethnic East, and Other. groups: American Indian, Asian,

Middle

Participants The size of the groups was determined by a power test (Huitema, Power was set at .80, alpha at .05, and sample size was 1980). to be 20.16. The minimum number of participants per calculated

in this study was as group was set at 20. Student participation 13African American follows: females, 7 African American males, 15White 11 Latino 13 Latino males, females, and 10 females, was 20, 24, and 25 White males. Thus, group size for ethnicity respectively.

Instruments

Dispositions Inventory (CCTDI) California Critical Thinking

and Sanchez's Facione, Facione, items and reports an individual vidual scales as well individual Thinking," scales are provided CCTDI contains score on each

75 Likert-type of the seven indi

as a total score

above.) Respondents by choosing one out of six responses ranging from Strongly Dis Scores on the individual scales can agrees to Strongly Agrees. range from 10 to 60; scores above 40 indicate a positive tendency The total score is a sum of the individual toward the disposition. scores

of the (1994). (Definitions in "Disposition Toward Critical are asked to rate each statement

and can range from 70 to 420; scores above 280 indicate a toward critical thinking. positive overall disposition for the seven individual scales in the initial reliabilities Alpha pilot sample ranged from .71 to .80. The alpha reliability

for the

316
overall

Wilson
the overall et al., disposition toward criti

instrument, measuring cal thinking, was .91 (Facione

1995).

(LEP) Learning Environment Preferences The Learning Environmental Preferences

is a survey in (LEP) strument consisting of five domains related to epistemology and course con to learning: and (a) view of knowledge approaches tent, (b) role of the instructor, (c) role of the student and peers in atmosphere, and (e) the role of Each domain presents a list of

the classroom, (d) the classroom evaluation 1989, 1990). (Moore, a mixture of more

using a rating scale from (1) Not at all Significant to (5) Very
At the end of each domain, Significant. rank the top three statements according tance (1st, 2nd, 3rd). The LEP measures 2-5 the intellectual Position 5). level. participants are asked to to significance or impor

items; each item in the five domains complex are asked a position in Perry's Scheme. represents Participants to rate each statement in terms of its significance or importance

13 itemsbeginningwith the least complex itemsand followed by

Position

(Dualism, Position 4; and Relativism, rarely exists at the college shift in focus however,

portion of Perry's Scheme, Positions 3 and 2; Multiplicity, 1 is ignored because it Position Beyond Position 5, there is a to ethical develop ethical development

development it is very difficult tomeasure Positions 7-9) using an objective survey instru (Commitment, ment. The reliability coefficients for each position were as fol ment; lows: Position 5, .84 (Moore, 2, .81; Position 1989). 3, .72; Position 4, .84; and Position

from intellectual

Procedures A 3 2 design, three groups of ethnic background (African Ameri can, Latino, and White), with gender subgroups was used. Thirty five students were randomly selected from each of six popula American tions?African females, African American males, Latino to assure females, and White males females, Latino males, White that ethnic background and gender were represented in groups and

Business

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Information on ethnicity, gender, GPA, and SAT scores subgroups. was provided by the university administration. Each of the randomly selected students received an envelope in the in the mail containing a letter inviting them to participate study, a consent form, two instruments, a stamped return enve the lope, and a $5 stipend. Each student was asked to complete in Each consent form and instruments and return all materials. strument takes most to complete. participants 30-45 minutes one week after the first letter. postcard was sent

A follow-up Two weeks following the postcard, a second letter was sent with another consent form, both instruments, and a stamped return en students responded after the first letter, 31 Twenty-three velope. after the postcard, response and 17 after the second Two rate 30 percent. letter,making were unusable. surveys

the total

Analysis ofData
For Research

der. For Research by a two-way

runfora disposition towardcritical thinking ethnicity and gen by

Question

1, summary

and frequency

statistics were

2 and 3, group differences were tested Questions score (de between the CCTDI factorial ANOVA

pendent variable) and ethnicity and gender (independent variables). were Because gender was significant, additional one-way ANOVAs

run for each of the individual scales of theCCTDI

et al., 1995). a disposition For Research

(Facione between able)

and SAT

4, the relationships Question vari toward critical thinking (dependent scores and GPA (independent variables) were tested

by gender

by multiple tion 5 was

regression using the stepwise method. Research Ques and tested by multiple regression between the CCTDI re was significant, multiple Because the relationship the LEP. and the the LEP (dependent variable) gression was run between

seven individual scales (independent variables) of the CCTDI & (Grimm Yarnold, 1995).

Findings and Discussion

toward criti 1, the frequency distribution for a disposition cal thinking shows a normal distribution, with 68 percent of par In Table

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Wilson

ticipants having a positive overall disposition toward critical think the scores for a disposition toward critical think ing. However, than for females. ing shows a higher range for males Table 1. CCTDI FrequencyDistributionof Freshmanby EthnicityandGender Ethnicity
African

Gender White 3 2 4 4 Male Female Total

Score

American

Latino

2 225-238 211 2 5 239-252 42 253-266 27 267-280 534 281-294 7 5 295-308 66 22 4 1 309-322 3 42 4 6 2 323-336 11 2 337-350 351-365 1 1 1 20 Table 2 shows 25

4 8 5 8 16

4 1611 8

3 24 30

1 69 39

the freshmen

(1995) a higher total mean score than COB AE freshmen, as well as higher scores in Truth-Seeking, In individual mean Open-Mindedness, Table 2. Comparison ofCCTDI Scores ofCOBAE Freshmanwith Freshman in the CCTDI Validation Study1 COBAE Validation Study Scales Total Score
Truth-Seeking Open-Mindedness

a comparison scores between of mean CCTDI et al. in this study and the freshmen in the Facione In the Facione et al. study, freshmen have validation study.

Mean 291.22
33.65 40.07

SD Mean 28.71
7.11 4.95 44.96

SD 27.36 298.22
35.36 5.40 5.73

Analyticity Systematicity
Self-Confidence Inquisitiveness

44.35 40.85
43.74 46.31

5.17 42.89 6.77 40.30

42.53 6.96 6.34 47.60

5.08 6.55
6.22 6.10

Maturity
bacione, Facione,

41.88
Sanchez, & Gainen, 1995.

7.39

44.58 6.38

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In contrast, freshmen in this study and Maturity. quisitiveness, scores inAnalyticity, had higher individual mean Systematicity, et al. sample "was drawn from The Facione and Self-Confidence. a selective, private, contrast, the sample

(1995, p. 12). In university" comprehensive for this study was drawn from a state univer

the difference in popu system. Considering sity in the California seem comparable. lations, themean scores and standard deviations

Disposition Table

Toward

Critical

Thinking

and Ethnicity

scores and group summary statistics for CCTDI In testing for differences in a disposition toward criti cal thinking among ethnic groups, no significant difference was found. Table 4 shows theANOVA table with alpha at .05. Ethnicity was nonsignificant, > .059. At this with F(2, 63) = 2.96 and no published studies have tested for differences in a dispo time, 3 shows variables. sition toward critical thinking among ethnic groups. Table 3. SummaryStatisticsofCCTDI Scores for ANOVA Group Variables
Mean Groups SD Variance

AfricanAmerican Latino

302.30 383.32 290.21 White Male 298.24 Female 286.13

24.43 24.87 33.51 28.66 28.00

596.853 20 618.40 25 1122.69 24 821.69 29 783.86 40

Table 4. Two-WayANOVA for CCTDI by Ethnicityand Gender_ Sum of Source df Main Effects Ethnicity Ethnicity/Gender Explained Residual Squares 3 6530.56 2 4283.34 1 Gender 3300.05 2 2908.71 5 10395.69 63 45648.05 TOTAL 68
*p < .05

Mean Square 2176.85 2141.67 3300.05 1454.36 2079.14 724.57 824.17

F Ratio 3.00 2.96 4.55 2.00 2.87

Prob .037 .059 .037* .143 .021

56043.74

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Wilson Toward Critical Thinking and Gender

Disposition

A significant difference in disposition toward critical thinking was found between men and women. Table 4 shows that gender had a = 4.55 with > .037. Men had a higher mean ratio of F(l, 63) score in six of the total CCTDI score, as well as a higher mean seven individual of the scales. scales; women had a higher mean score for one Men scored significantly higher in Truth-Seeking

similar, portraying a desire for inquiry and new evidence. et al. (1995) also found significant gender differences, Facione men scoring higher inAnalyticity while women scored higher with inOpen-Mindedness and Maturity. Significant gender differences in a disposition toward critical thinking were attributed to devel differences in young adult men of social-gender roles. and women

(p < .019) and Inquisitiveness (p < .012). Both dispositions are

opmental

or to their

perceptions No other published studies have tested for gender differences the CCTDI. studies in the area of moral develop However, using and intellectual development have found ment, ego development, cultural differences between men and women

Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986; Gilligan, 1982; Josselson, 1987; Wilson, 1995).
Toward Critical and Achievement

(Belenky,

Clinchy,

Disposition Variables GPA

Thinking

and SAT

toward critical

Mean SAT scores should be interpreted with caution VSAT(420). because high-school students in the upper five percent of their class are not required to report SAT scores when applying in California within the California

ables were as follows: GPA (2.19), SAT (870),MSAT

scores were not significantly related to a disposition scores for the achievement vari thinking. Mean

(450), and

explained only three percent of the variability in a disposition ward critical thinking, and there was a negative relationship tween a disposition toward critical thinking and theMSAT.

State University system; for this study, 8 stu variables dents out of 69 did not report SAT scores. Achievement be

to

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The CCTDI and The LEP

Table that 72 percent of freshmen in this study were in Positions 3 and 3/4 of their intellectual devel early Multiplicity, InMultiplicity, the students acknowledge different view opment. 5 shows

is made on the however, points. Judgment of these viewpoints, basis of quantity rather than quality, with students often choosing means choosing evidence provided by external authorities while quality means choosing evidence only after internal evaluation. structures In Relativism (Position 5), students have knowledge that are most likely associated with critical thinking. Table 5 shows

evidence that fits an established belief (King, 1994). Quantity

LEP by Intellectual Table 5. FrequencyDistributionof PositionRatings on the

Development of Freshmen

Intellectual
Development of

PositionRatings by% Pos 21 Pos 3 Pos 4 Pos 5

Freshmen

Dualism

Position 22 Transition 2/3 Multiplicity Position 3 Transition 3/4 Position 4 Transition4/5

72 58

82 0 815

20 26

35 19 9

35 37 27

16 25 31

14 19 33

25 20 7

lrThe percentage of times a person chose items representing Position 2 in the LEP. 2Students in this study in the Position 2 stage of intellectual development.

frequently as their For instance, two students intellectual development progresses. 5 items 0 percent of the time, in Position 2 chose from Position while seven students in Position 4 chose Position 5 items 33 per that students chose items in Position cent of the time. Students in Relativism will choose Position related 5 to items at least 50 percent of the time. was As shown in Table 6, the CCTDI the LEP, with <.0140. However,

5 more

significantly

only eight percent

of the vari

322 ance

Wilson in a disposition toward critical As by thinking was explained in Table 6, when stepwise the LEP as the dependent vari

development. multiple regression was run with individual able and the CCTDI scales ables, Maturity was significantly < .0027. Eleven percent and development The definition as was

intellectual

shown

as the independent vari related to the LEP, with T= 3.124 of the variability in intellectual

inquiry, answers, judgments being made inmultiple contexts, and evidence. These concepts are consistent with the construct of Relativism in Perry's Scheme of Intellectual other Unexpectedly, Mindedness, Analyticity, related to the CCTDI. This Development. such as Open scales, and Truth-Seeking, were not significantly individual is difficult to explain. Three possible and Ethical

explained by Maturity. in the CCTDI ofMaturity includes concepts such ill-structured problems, decision making, plausible

Table 6. Multiple Regression Statisticsfor the CCTDI and the LEP_ Variables LEP1 .415778 196.235583 21.964674 234.964819 SEB Beta .164713 48.160675 .628995 26.744354 .296787 2.525 4.075 3.124 8.786 Sig .0140* .0001 .0027* .0000

(Constant) Maturity2 (Constant)

*p<-05

.358867

= .29679 'Multiple R R Square = .08808 = .07427 Adjusted R Square = .35887 2Multiple R R Square = .12879 = .11559 Adjusted R Square

Standard Error = 38.90537 F-Ratio = 6.37495 P<.0140 Standard Error = 38.02719 = 9.75634 < .0027

F-Ratio

reasons

include

these:

periences rather than an epistemological platform of how students make meaning of their educational the in Second, experiences. with

are differ and Truth-Seeking (3) Open-Mindedness, Analyticity, ex ent constructs. First, the LEP is designed around educational

founded, (2) reliabilityof theCCTDI

(1)

the design

of the LEP

is somewhatunstable, and

may

be con

dividual scales of theCCTDI were defined by a Delphi method

consensus resulting in alpha reliabilities crossdisciplinary ranging from .71 to .80 in the initial pilot sample and from .60 to

Business .78 in two additional

Administration

323

samples (Facione et al., 1995). Third, Open are not related to the Mindedness, Analyticity, and Truth-Seeking of intellectual development. theory They may be epistemological more closely related to generalized skills that are critical-thinking transferable across

and are not content specific. disciplines The relationship between the CCTDI and the LEP needs to be re tested with a more comprehensive sample having representation in 4/5 of the LEP, as well as higher total scores on the CCTDI.

Position

Summary COBAE ward Freshmen critical a positive to tendency for a disposition There were no significant differences in thinking. toward critical thinking among ethnic groups (Afri had There was

disposition can American, Latino, and White). ence in disposition toward critical

or SAT scores. related to GPA The LEP and the nificantly were significantly related. Of the seven CCTDI CCTDI individual scales, only Maturity was significantly related to the LEP.

a significant differ for gender, with men thinking in Truth-Seeking and In scoring significantly higher than women was not sig A disposition toward critical thinking quisitiveness.

Implications of the Study

Based that relate to education on the results of this study, I will and assessment: note five implications

ethnic groups enter Latino, and White (1) African American, the COBAE of the California State University system at this cam pus with no ethnic barriers restricting the students' dispositions toward critical thinking. African American and Latino freshmen are not disadvantaged or underprepared toward critical thinking. disposition compared to Whites

in a

enter the COBAE of the California State Univer (2) Women at this campus with weaker dispositions toward criti sity system need to be provided with more opportuni cal thinking. Women there is positive reinforcement for cultivating a de in a dialectical sire for investigating ideas, participating process, and evaluating evidence. ties in which

324

Wilson

scores (GPA and SAT scores) are not good (3) Achievement measures of a student's disposition toward critical thinking in the of the California COBAE State University system at this campus. Since the mission of the university and college includes the de velopment of higher-order thinking skills such as critical assessment of these skills using appropriate validated ing, sures is needed. think mea

structures. Students inDualism knowledge prefer a dualistic con text in which one solution appears to be more right than others make decisions based on quantity, and students in Multiplicity not quality. Consequently, there needs to be embedded and inte grated into the curriculum appropriate experiences ill-structured problems with more than one plausible that judgments are contextual and founded on values to determine

and their (4) Maturity is associated with beliefs about truths

that present option such and beliefs.

research is needed the appropriate use (5) More of the CCTDI. studies Specifically, longevity investigating whether significant changes occur between freshmen and senior scores on the CCTDI need for comparison studies fects of instructional strategies sitional attributes subscales vidual of the CCTDI to be published. in specific courses There is similar need that investigate the ef to develop the dispo

that are used

toward critical

generalized critical-thinking termine whether they are the same construct. Because critical and program a need to assess

thinking. Furthermore, the indi and other instruments measuring skills need to be investigated to de

may be useful as a critical think However, program/course-assessment must be defined by institutions and then appropriately matched ing the same construct. with an instrument measuring the construct. The CCTDI instrument.

statements thinking is included in themission some universities and colleges, there is of objectives

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