An executive summary for managers and executive readers can be found at the end of this article

A practical method for uncovering the direct and indirect relationships between human values and consumer purchases
Michael W. Allen
Lecturer, Department of Psychology, School of Behavioural Science, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia Keywords Consumer behaviour, Values, Product attributes, Perception, Consumer marketing Abstract Details a method for uncovering the direct and indirect influences of human values on consumer decisions. The procedure is quantitative, uses large samples and employs widely known statistical techniques such as correlations, regression and (optionally) factor analysis. Uses a study of Toyota Corolla as an example. Describes the four steps involved: development of the questionnaire; administration to sample of market; assessment of general preferences; and assessing the extent to which individuals in the sample apply their human values directly or indirectly when forming product preference. The main marketing strategies for which this method can yield useful information are: solidifying consumers' current perceptions and evaluations of the product; and changing consumer perceptions of the product. Implications for marketing professionals are discussed.

Human values

Introduction Of continuing interest to consumer researchers and other marketing professionals is how a person's product selection is influenced by his or her human values. Human values are ``desirable trans-situational goals, varying in importance, that serve as guiding principles in the life of a person or other social entity'' (Schwartz, 1994, p. 21). For instance, some individuals may value freedom, a life of excitement, or a world of beauty. Thus, information regarding the human values that are important to the target market would be valuable in the development of advertising campaigns and other marketing strategies. To date, however, few methods have been available for uncovering how consumer choices are influenced by human values. Moreover, the techniques that are on hand are mainly qualitative and only reveal one route through which human values may influence consumer choice, that is, an ``indirect'' path in which human values influence purchase behaviour by mediating through another construct (such as the importance of the product's attributes). Accordingly, the present article outlines a quantitative method that:
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uncovers both the direct and indirect relationships between human values and consumer choice; encompasses multiple levels of detail; and produces outputs that can be easily presented to other marketing professionals.
The research register for this journal is available at http://www.mcbup.com/research_registers The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emerald-library.com/ft

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Direct and indirect relationships

To discuss what is meant by the ``direct'' and ``indirect'' relationships between human values and purchase behaviour, outlining a model of consumer valuing is first necessary (see Table I and Figure 1). This model, proposed by Allen (2000) and Allen and Ng (1999), is a new way of determining how consumers' choice of products is influenced by the human values that they endorse. The previous models, which were loosely based on the multi-attribute model (Fishbein, 1967), suggested that human values may only influence consumer choices by affecting what product attributes consumers prefer and that it is the calculated evaluation of product attributes that in turn determines product choice (i.e. Lindberg et al., 1989; Scott and Lamont, 1973; and to a lesser extent, Gutman, 1982). For instance, a consumer who placed ultimate importance on the human value of security may decide at the outset only to purchase products that are safe. Accordingly, when this consumer is deciding which car to purchase, he or she would compare the different cars one by one on their safety attributes (i.e. air bags, anti-lock brakes, etc.) and choose the car with the highest utility. However, Allen and Ng (1999) argued that such a view is limited because it assumes consumers only make rational, attribute-specific judgements of the utility of products. While this is often true, consumers also make emotionladen, intuitive and holistic judgements of products. These gut-level judgements can also be traced to human values, though in a different theoretical way. Consequently, Allen (2000) suggested that human values shape consumers' choice of products in two ways; first, when consumers are evaluating a product's utilitarian meaning and making a piecemeal, attributeRoutes of human value influence on product preference Indirect Direct Product meaning Content Location Focus Breadth Conceptual clarity Judgement type Reasoning Memory representation Affect latency Affect intensity Psychological function Source of benefit Utilitarian Overt function and utility Separate tangible attributes Objective: product-focused Specific/narrow Clear Piecemeal Logical, comprehensive, and systematic attribute-by-attribute analysis Uncertain-perhaps verbal Delayed Low: evaluative Symbolic Social categories and cultural principles (e.g. ideals, values, traits) Product whole Subjective: self-focused Abstract/broad Vague Affective Holistic, intuitive and approximate goodness of fit to exemplar Visual: multi-sensory imagery Immediate High: emotional states Expressive The use of the product as a vehicle for self-expression High Strong

Instrumental The product's intrinsic qualities, means to an end, and ability to control the environment Value relevance Low Product attachment Weak Note: Indirect (via tangible attribute importance)

Table I. Product meaning, type of judgement and psychological function associated with the direct and indirect influences of human values on product preference
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Figure 1. The correspondence between the levels of prescriptive and evaluative beliefs and the levels of product meaning. Also represented are the direct and indirect influences of human values

by-attribute judgement, human values may influence the importance of the product's tangible attributes that in turn influence product preference. Second, when consumers are evaluating a product's symbolic meaning and making an affective, intuitive and holistic judgement, human values may influence product preference directly. In addition, each route of value influence serves a distinct psychological function; the indirect influence serves consumers' need to feel that they can competently and effectively control their environment (i.e. instrumentality need), and the direct influence serves consumers' need to express, enhance and maintain their personal and social identities (i.e. expressiveness need). Complex conceptual model Because Allen and his colleague's (Allen, 2000; Allen and Ng, 1999) conceptual model is complex, involving both mediating and moderating variables, the analytical technique employed to test the model was thorny. Briefly, Allen (2000) used the ``Residual Method'' in which consumers were separated into two groups based on whether each individual's direct or indirect influence of human values more accurately predicted his or her product preference (as indicated by the regression residuals). The two groups were then compared on their meaning and judgement preferences as measured by scales (see Table II). As expected, individuals whose direct influence of human values more accurately predicted their product preference most preferred symbolic meaning and affective judgements, whereas individuals whose human values more accurately predicted their product preference indirectly via the importance of the product's tangible attributes most preferred utilitarian meaning and piecemeal judgements.
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Subscale 1 Before you make your final selection of a product, you would: Think a lot about yourself as a user of the product (i.e. how you would look, feel, etc.) 2 The instant I see a product I know if I like it 3 To what extent would you want your chosen product to be: Something that puts you in a good mood when you use it 4 To what extent would you want your chosen product to be: Something that feels pleasant to your senses (i.e. sight, feel, etc.) 5 Usually my selection of a product is based on a gut feeling 6 I believe in being logical and rational when deciding on a product 7 Before you make your final selection of a product, you would: Consider the pros and cons for each product 8 Before you make your final selection of a product, you would: Seek a lot of information about each product 9 I believe in exercising self-control and not being impulsive when deciding on a product 10 I believe in making a responsible and well-considered decision 11 I believe in selecting a product based on a careful examination of all its features 12 I prefer a product that reflects who I am 13 The image a product portrays is an important part of my decision whether or not to buy it 14 To what extent would you want your chosen product to be: A product that you can proudly display 15 To what extent would you want your chosen product to be: In fashion or in vogue 16 To what extent would you want your chosen product to be: Known to be expensive 17 To what extent would you want your chosen product to be: Most compatible with the image you have of yourself 18 I think it is important to select the most practical product 19 When deciding on whether or not to buy a product I think about how useful it will be Affective judgement Affective judgement Affective judgement Affective judgement Affective judgement Piecemeal judgement Piecemeal judgement Piecemeal judgement Piecemeal judgement Piecemeal judgement Piecemeal judgement Symbolic meaning Symbolic meaning Symbolic meaning Symbolic meaning Symbolic meaning Symbolic meaning Utilitarian meaning Utilitarian meaning

Notes: Items rated on a scale of 1-7, ``strongly disagree'' to ``strongly agree''; items gathered from Mittal (1988), or newly constructed for Allen (2000) and Allen and Ng (1999)

Table II. Meaning and judgement scale

Limitations of Residual Method

Although the Residual Method engaged by Allen (2000) was useful in establishing the viability of the proposed value influence model, the Residual Method has two practical limitations: relationships between human values and specific product preferences are obscured; and no indication is given of the strength of each route of value influence for each kind of product. Thus, the Residual Method does not yield outputs that can be easily used by marketing professionals. Given that the proposed value influence model has been empirically supported, it is now worthwhile to illustrate how, using a different technique, the model can produce practical information. In particular, the technique reported in the present article illustrates how three questions often posed by marketing professionals can be addressed: (1) Do consumers evaluate a particular product mainly on the product's utilitarian or symbolic meaning?

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(2) Do consumers usually judge the product in a piecemeal, rational, attribute-by-attribute manner, or with an emotion-laden, spontaneous, and holistic judgement? (3) Do consumers tend to apply their human values directly or indirectly (via the importance of the product's tangible attributes) when forming product preference? Moreover, what are the values that influence directly and indirectly? Laddering interviews Regarding the last question, the values that have a direct influence likely reveal the product's image or symbolic meaning, as these values are not captured in any of the product's tangible attributes. In contrast, the values that have an indirect influence reveal how consumers believe that certain tangible product attributes bring about the long-term goals in human values. The question of how product attributes reinforce human value goals can be resolved through a Laddering interview (Gutman, 1982). Laddering is a wellestablished, qualitative technique in which the interviewer asks the participants what attributes they use to discriminate among brands and why those attributes are important. When a participant tells why an attribute is important, the interviewer would then ask him or her to elaborate, and upon the response, the interviewer would ask the participant to elaborate again. An example, taken from Reynolds and Gutman (1988), is that if the researcher were interested in how human values are associated with a beer's attribute of ``low alcohol'', the interviewer would begin by asking the participant why low alcohol is important, to which the participant might reply that it makes him or her feel less drowsy (a consequence). The interviewer would then ask why not feeling drowsy is important, to which the participant might reply that it allows him or her to spend more quality time with friends and family (a human value). A major strength of laddering and comparable methodologies is that it reveals the specific pathways between human values, the importance of the product's attributes, and purchase behaviour. However, Laddering, like all research methodologies, has shortcomings and in this case the limitations are that laddering:
. . .

is mainly qualitative; gives no indication of the overall influence of human values; and only uncovers the indirect route through which human values influence product preference.

As mentioned, Allen and his colleague (Allen, 2000; Allen and Ng, 1999) showed that human values have both direct and indirect influences on product choice. Quantitative procedure In sum, unlike laddering, which is a qualitative, small sample procedure for determining the indirect (and specific) relationships between human values and purchase behaviour, the procedure detailed here is quantitative, uses large samples and employs widely known statistical techniques such as correlations, regression and (optionally) factor analysis. It uncovers both the direct and indirect relationships at both specific and overall levels and yields outputs that can be easily presented to marketing and advertising managers. The method The best way to explain this procedure is to illustrate with an actual study. In this example, the product of interest was automobiles, and in particular, the Toyota Corolla because of its popularity and familiarity to most consumers.
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Step 1. Development of the questionnaire The questionnaire contained the following four sections. Human value scales Human values. Three commonly used human value scales suitable for the current purposes are the Rokeach (1973) Value Survey, the Schwartz Value Survey (Schwartz, 1994; Schwartz and Bilsky, 1990), and the Social Values Inventory (Braithwaite, 1982). Of these measurement scales, the Rokeach Value Survey has been the most popular, but the Schwartz Value Survey is gaining acceptance. The Schwartz Value Survey, which was built from the Rokeach Value Survey, was designed to be equally applicable to Western and non-Western cultures. Moreover, in contrast to the Rokeach Value Survey, the value groupings or subscales outlined by Schwartz (what he terms ``domains'') have strong empirical and theoretical foundation. Given that the Rokeach Value Survey is the most widely implemented and the strength of Schwartz' research program is the empirical foundation to the subscales, the present study used a (modified) form of the Rokeach Value Survey and formed subscales using Schwartz' proposed domains. The modified form of the Rokeach Value Survey comprised the 36 original Rokeach Value Survey items plus four others: social justice; equity; social power; and self-determination (definitions supplied by Ng et al., 1982). Respondents indicated the importance of the values using a forceddistribution response format that intended to balance ease of use for participants with the maximization of within-subject variability. One limitation of instructing participants to rate all the values on a scale of 1 to 7 ``Opposed to my values'' vs ``Of supreme importance'' (Schwartz' preferred method) is that the method often yields low within-subject variability. Similarly, having respondents rank order all the human values (Rokeach's preferred method) is time consuming and taxing for the participant. Thus, a compromise strategy was used in which respondents selected the 13 most important, and then 13 least important, values. The values selected as most important were coded as a three, those least important a one and those not marked a two. Value domains Using the Schwartz value domains as a guide, subscale scores for each participant were calculated. Schwartz domains represented by only one human value in the Rokeach Value Survey were not included. The domains used for the present study were:
. . . . . . . .

hedonism (i.e. a comfortable life, a pleasurable life); achievement (i.e. a sense of accomplishment, ambitious, capable); self-direction (i.e. independent, imaginative, intellectual); social power (i.e. social power, recognition); conformity (i.e. obedient, politeness); security (i.e. family security, national security); benevolence (i.e. forgiving, helpful, loving, honest, friendship, love); universalism (i.e. equality, a world of peace, social justice, inner harmony, wisdom, self-respect, a world of beauty, broadminded).

Evaluation of tangible product attributes. Using a 1-10, ``not at all important'' to ``very important'' scale, respondents rated the importance of the product's tangible attributes when deciding which brand or product class to buy. Critically, for theoretical and conceptual reasons detailed in Allen (2000) and Allen and Ng (1999), these product attributes should be tangible
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and objective (i.e. perceptible via the five senses). Intangible attributes are the images of the product (i.e. beauty, style, prestige) and are not judged in the same way as tangible attributes. Thus, tangible and intangible attributes should be kept separate and distinct. Indeed, rather than measuring intangible attribute importances, it is advisable to only measure tangible attribute importances. The important intangible attributes to the sample can be gauged later (in Step 4) when uncovering the direct influence of human values on product preference. Tangible attributes For the current example, 20 tangible automobile attributes were rated by participants. Given that many attributes were used, the attributes should be reduced to a handful of subscales. This reduction can be based on theoretical and conceptual grounds, or factor analysis can be employed to empirically reduce the items to subscales. For the present study, the car's tangible attributes were reduced to four subscales based on previous factor analytic research (see Allen, 2000; Allen and Ng, 1999): (1) large size and fast engine attributes (i.e. large engine, spacious interior, high speed, advanced engineering); (2) safety and reliability attributes (i.e. safety, reliability, quality workmanship, few repairs needed); (3) comfort attributes (i.e. air conditioning, heating, comfortable, good handling, smooth riding); (4) economy attributes (i.e. inexpensive, high kilometres per litre, low pollution emission, compact). Product preference. Respondents indicated how much they like the Toyota Corolla on a scale of 1-10 (``Do not like at all'' vs ``Like very much''). Meaning and judgement preferences. The meaning and judgement preference scales, which are described in Allen (2000) and Allen and Ng (1999), are presented in Table II. Briefly, the symbolic meaning subscale measures individuals' attention and evaluation of the product's image; the utilitarian meaning subscale measures individuals' attention and evaluation of the product's instrumentality and usefulness; the affective judgement subscale measures individuals' tendency to judge the product holistically, intuitively and spontaneously; finally the piecemeal judgement subscale measures individuals' tendency to judge the product deliberately, systematically and attribute-by-attribute. Implementing the subscales The meaning and judgement subscales can be implemented in two ways. First, the scale items can refer to a specific brand, class or category. For instance, the scale items could instruct consumers to answer the items regarding how they go about deciding which cars to buy. A second mode, which is the one reported in Table II, instructs consumers to think about how they normally go about deciding which products to buy (for products in general). Although the way in which individuals evaluate goods varies from one product to another, many individuals have a predisposition to attend to one kind of meaning and make one kind of judgement. Moreover, measuring individuals' predisposition to attend to one kind of meaning and make one kind of judgement engenders greater flexibility during the analysis phases. Accordingly, the second method was used for the example survey. Step 2. Administration to sample of market Depending on the strategic aims of the research program, the sample frame could comprise: current customers; potential customers; or the general
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public. For the current example study, the public was chosen as the sample frame and so the questionnaire was distributed through the post to a random sample of 750 adults drawn from the telephone directory. The random procedure selected every nth name in the directory and for married and cohabiting couples alternated between the male and female partner. The respondents were encouraged to return the questionnaire within three weeks, and those unwilling or unable to participate were urged to pass the survey along to another adult household member. To increase the response rate, all those who participated were eligible to win a prize of $100; and a reminder letter was sent along with another copy of the survey to those who had not returned the survey within two weeks of receipt. A sample of 230 respondents is used for the present example (54 per cent male and 46 per cent female; and an average age of about 40). Preliminary explorations Step 3. Assessment of general preferences Ahead of assessing the direct and indirect influences on product preference (Step 4), making preliminary explorations of the sample's general preferences is constructive. Table III reports the means for all the main variables. As can be seen, the sample has a moderately favourable attitude toward Toyota Corolla, and the most important car tangible attribute importances to the sample are safety and reliability followed by comfort attributes. Among human values, security and benevolence are most important to the sample, whereas self-direction and social power are least important. Regarding meaning and judgement preferences, utilitarian meaning is most important to this sample, whereas symbolic is less vital. In addition, most people have a predisposition to judge products in a piecemeal judgement, though an affective judgement is still popular.
Mean Product preference Toyota Corolla Car tangible attribute importances Large size and fast engine attributes Safety and reliability attributes Comfort attributes Economy attributes Human values Hedonism Achievement Self direction Social power Conformity Security Benevolence Universalism Meaning and judgment preferences Utilitarian meaning Piecemeal judgment Symbolic meaning Affective judgment 6.57 5.37 8.99 7.40 6.76 1.79 1.95 1.44 1.50 1.73 2.10 2.15 1.88 5.48 5.28 3.86 4.92 Std deviation 2.17 1.65 1.15 1.37 1.57 0.66 0.42 0.35 0.50 0.55 0.50 0.30 0.26 1.12 1.09 1.04 0.90

Notes: Product preference ranges from 1-10, ``do not like at all'' to ``like very much''; Car tangible attribute importances range from 1-10, ``not at all important'' to ``very important''; Human values range from 1-3, ``least important'' to ``most important''; Meaning and judgment preferences vary from 1-7, ``strongly disagree'' to ``strongly agree''

Table III. Means of items measured

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Correlations with Toyota Corolla preferences

Besides examining the sample's general meaning and judgement predispositions, the meanings and judgements that form the basis to Toyota Corolla preference can also be inferred. Table IV reports the correlations of meaning and judgement preferences with Toyota Corolla preference. As shown, utilitarian meaning and piecemeal judgement are positively correlated with Toyota Corolla preference, whereas symbolic meaning is negatively correlated. An affective judgement is not significantly correlated. As mentioned, the direct influence of human values on product preference is most common when consumers evaluate the product's symbolic meaning and make an affective judgement, whereas the indirect influence via tangible attribute importances is most common when consumers evaluate the product's utilitarian meaning and make a piecemeal judgement. Thus, the correlations imply that indirect route of value influence may be the most important basis to Toyota Corolla preferences, and the direct influence of lesser importance. Step 4 makes this assessment. Step 4. Assessing the extent to which the individuals in the sample apply their human values directly or indirectly (via tangible attribute importances) when forming product preference As mentioned, the statistical technique employed by Allen and his colleague (Allen, 2000; Allen & Ng, 1999) to test the proposed model of how human values influence consumer choices was complex and specific relations were obscured. Thus, a simpler technique for assessing the direct and indirect influences of human values on product preference is presented below: (1) Regression no. 1:
. .

Simpler technique

DV = product preference; IVs = human values. DV = product preference; IVs in Block 1 = tangible attribute importances; IVs in Block 2 = human values.

(2) Regression no. 2:

. . .

First, two regressions are performed. In the first regression, the predictor variables are human values and the dependent variable is product preference. The second regression involves two blocks or steps. In the first block, the predictor variables are tangible attribute importances and the dependent is product preference, and in the second block, the predictors are human values. Thus, second block represents the influence of human values on product preference that does not mediate via tangible attribute importances (and hence, represents the direct route). The indirect influence of human values on product preference can be indexed, somewhat crudely, as the difference
Toyota Corolla preference Utilitarian meaning Piecemeal judgement Symbolic meaning Affective judgement 0.11* 0.19** 0.11* 0.06

Notes: * = p < 0.05 ** = p < 0.01; One-tailed significance (degrees of freedom are 219)

Table IV. Correlations between meaning and judgement preferences and product preference
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between the first regression (the total influence of human values on product preference) and the direct influence of human values (Block 2 of the second regression). Indirect route is more important For the current example, Toyota Corolla product preference was regressed onto the eight human value domains scores in the first regression. In the second regression, Toyota Corolla preference was regressed onto the four car tangible attribute importances subscales (Block 1) and then the eight human value domains (Block 2). The results of the regressions are reported in Table V. Of first interest are the Multiple Rs from the regressions. In the first regression, human values alone significantly predicted Toyota Corolla preference (0.24). In the second regression, car tangible attribute importances significantly predicted Toyota Corolla preference (Block 1 = 0.33), and human values in Block 2 added to that prediction (Block 2 = 0.38). Thus, the direct influence of human values on Toyota Corolla is 0.05 (0.38 0.35) and is significant. The indirect influence of human values on Toyota Corolla via car tangible attribute importances is 0.19 (0.24 0.05), the significance of which cannot be calculated. Overall, the Multiple Rs show that the main way human values influence individuals' preferences for Toyota Corolla is by influencing which car tangible attributes are important, which in turn influence product preference. Human values also have a direct influence on product preference, which is less strong but significant. Thus, consistent with the correlations reported in the previous step (Table IV), the indirect route of value influence (with its associated attention to utilitarian meaning and making of piecemeal judgement) is most important to Toyota Corolla preference, whereas the direct route (with its associated symbolic meaning and affective judgement) is less robust. Now that the overall influences of human values via the two routes have been examined, uncovering which human values influence Toyota Corolla preference directly and indirectly is necessary. By examining the results of the first regression, it can be observed that two human value domains significantly predicted Toyota Corolla preference; Self-direction (negatively) and Hedonism (negatively). Thus, the issue is whether these two domains influence Toyota Corolla preference direct or indirectly via tangible attribute importances. The Self-direction domain still predicts Toyota Corolla preference in Block 2 of the two-block regressions, indicating that Selfdirection (negatively) directly influences Toyota Corolla preference. In contrast, the Hedonism domain does not emerge in Block 2 of the two-block regression, suggesting that it influences Toyota Corolla preference indirectly via tangible attribute importances. Given that only two car tangible attribute importances subscales significantly predicted Toyota Corolla preference at Block 1 of the two-block regression (safety and reliability; and large size and engine), it can be deduced that Hedonism mediates through one or both of the attributes. The simplest way to assess this possibility is to carry out the two-block regressions two more times; the first time by only using the safety and reliability tangible attribute importance subscale and Hedonism; the second by only using the large size and engine tangible attribute importance subscale and Hedonism. The results of these two regressions are reported in Table VI, and show that Hedonism does not significantly predict product preference (Block 2) when Safety and Reliability attributes are included in Block 1, whereas Hedonism still has a significant direct influence on Toyota Corolla (Block 2) when Large Size and Engine are included in Block 1. This suggests that Hedonism mediates though Safety and Reliability attributes to influence Toyota Corolla preference, but not Large Size and Fast Engine attributes.
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Significance of two domains

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Regression No. 1: Human values only regression onto Toyota Corolla preference Initial predictors Human values Domains entered Beta Mult. R All human Self-direction 0.21 0.24*** Value domains Hedonism 0.15 Regression No. 2: Two-block regression onto Toyota Corolla preference Block 1 Initial predictors Tangible attribute importances Subscales entered Beta All values and attributes Safety and 0.29 reliability Large size and -0.22 fast Block 2 Multiple R for Block 1 and 2 0.38***

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Mult. R Block 1 0.33***

Human values Domains entered Beta Self-direction 0.19

Change in R (Direct route) 0.05**

Estimated indirect Route Mult. R 0.19

Notes: * = p < 0.05; ** = p < 0.01; *** = p < 0.001; F for human values only regression was 6.8 (df=2,219); F for Block 1 of Two-block regression was 13.2 (df=2,216); F for Block 2 of Two-block regression was 12.2 (df=3,215); Only factors significant at the p < 0.05 level were entered (stepwise); Indirect route calculated, somewhat crudely, by subtracting direct route Multiple R from human values only regression Multiple R

Table V. Regressions uncovering the direct and indirect influences of human values

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Initial predictors Hedonism and Safety and reliability attributes Hedonism and Large size and fast Large and fast attributes

Block 1 Tangible attribute importances Subscales entered Beta Safety and reliability 0.14 0.23 0.14*

Mult. R Block 1

Human values Domains entered Beta

Block 2 Multiple R for Block 1 and 2

Change in R (Direct route) 0.00

Estimated indirect Route Mult. R 0.24

0.25*** [Hedonism not sig.] Hedonism 0.13 0.19** 0.05*

0.19

Notes: * = p < 0.05; ** = p < 0.01; *** = p < 0.001; F for Block 1 of the first Two-block regression was 14.5 (df = 1,217); F for Block 1 of the second Two-block regression was 4.3 (df = 1,214); F for Block 2 of the second Two-block regression was 4.2 (df = 2,213); Only factors significant at the p < 0.05 level were entered (stepwise); Indirect route calculated, somewhat crudely, by subtracting direct route Multiple R from human values only regression Multiple R

Table VI. Supplementary two-block regressions onto Toyota Corolla preference

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Public image of the product

To add clarity to the results, the pattern uncovered in the regressions can be represented in a diagram (see Figure 2). As shown, the Hedonism value domain has a negative influence on Safety and Reliability attributes that in turn have a positive impact on attitudes toward Toyota Corolla. In particular, given the negative weighting of Hedonism in the regression and the positive weighting of safety and reliability attributes, the results suggest that rejecting Hedonism is associated with giving more importance to safety and reliability attributes that in turn results in a positive attitude toward Toyota Corolla. In contrast, individuals who value Hedonism care less about the safety and reliability and consequently have a less favourable attitude toward the car. Figure 2 also shows that the self-direction value domain has a direct, negative influence on Toyota Corolla attitudes. As mentioned, the direct influence of human values is largely the image of the product, or those aspects that cannot be encompassed in the product's tangible attributes. Thus, one image that the general public appears to have of Toyota Corolla is that it is for people who do not value self-direction (i.e. people for whom being independent, free, pursuing one's own goals, etc. is less important). Applications There are two main marketing strategies for which the proposed method of uncovering the direct and indirect influences of human values can yield useful information: solidifying consumers' current perceptions and evaluations of the product; changing consumer perceptions of the product. Table VII presents an executive summary of information. Using the results of the proposed method to develop promotional material that maintains current consumer perceptions and evaluations An important strategic goal among marketers is to develop promotional material that promotes and positions the product in a way that the target audience finds credible (i.e. Kotler, 1991). The results of the proposed method are well suited to this goal because the significant associations of human values, tangible attribute importances and product preference represent consumer knowledge and evaluation structures. That is, that promotional material that uses the results of the method outlined in the

Promotional material

Figure 2. Human value domains that influence Toyota Corolla preference directly and indirectly; signs indicate the direction of the relationship
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present article for uncovering the direct and indirect influences of human values would be consistent with the ways in which:
.

consumers currently perceive the product (i.e. its tangible attributes and images); consumers currently evaluate the product (i.e. on its utilitarian or symbolic meaning, with a piecemeal or affective judgement, tangible attribute importances, and the direct or indirect influences of human values).

Significant prediction

Moreover, the human values and tangible attribute importances that emerge in the proposed method are those that significantly predict product preference; not simply those that consumers claim are important in their evaluations. Thus, regarding the results of the example study, the indirect route (and its associated utilitarian meaning and piecemeal judgement) forms the strongest
If the marketing strategy is to solidify current consumer perceptions and evaluations of Toyota Corolla, the list below are those items that the present study showed contribute to favourable attitudes toward Toyota Corolla 1. Focus mainly on Toyota Corolla's practicality and usefulness (utilitarian meaning) a. Tangible attributes to mention: i. Safety and reliability ii. Is not large in size and nor has a fast engine iii. Less relevant are Economy and Comfort attributes b. Mention how tangible attribute importances bring about human values (indirect route): i. Example: Toyota Corolla's safety and reliability attributes mean that the car is not ``too exciting'' nor hedonistic c. Present the above utilitarian meanings in a factual, detailed, attributeby-attribute verbal list (which fosters a piecemeal judgement) 2. Focus secondarily on the Toyota Corolla's image or symbolism: a. Example: one image is the rejection of self-direction, presumably in favour of other-directedness (i.e. the demands of family, friends, etc) b. Present this symbolic information using emotion and holistic imagery (which fosters an affective judgement) If the marketing strategy is to change current consumer perceptions and evaluations of Toyota Corolla, the list below are those items that the present studsy showed may be suitable ways of promoting the car 1. Creating new utilitarian meaning: a. Highlight the Toyota Corolla's tangible attributes that: i. Do not currently influence Toyota Corollal preference ii. Are important to target audience iii. Example: comfort attributes b. Create an indirect influence of human balues in consumers' decision making by: i. Choosing human values that are correlated with the above tangibles attributes ii. Example: confort attributes enhance conformity values 2. Creating new symbolic meaning: a. Promote the image of the Toyota Corolla as being human values that: i. Do not currently influence Toyota Corolla preference directly or indirectly ii. Are supported by target group iii. Are the least correlated with tangible attribute importances b. Example: benevolence value domain

Table VII. Example executive summary for Toyota Corolla promotion recommendations based on the direct and indirect influences of human values
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foundation to individuals' Toyota Corolla preferences, whereas the direct influence (and its associated symbolic meaning and affective judgement) is less important (though still significant). In particular, the regression procedure outlined in Step 4 showed that car tangible attribute importances strongly predicted Toyota Corolla preference (Multiple R 0.33), and that the indirect route of value influence was much stronger than the direct (Multiple R of 0.19 vs 0.05). Moreover, as found at Step 3, individuals' predisposition to attend to products' utilitarian meanings and make piecemeal judgements were positively correlated with Toyota Corolla preference, whereas symbolic meanings and affective judgements were negative or non-significant. Focus of advertising Accordingly, advertising and other promotional material should focus mainly on the Toyota Corolla's utilitarian meaning, tangible attribute importances, the indirect route of value influence, and should facilitate a piecemeal judgement. For instance, safety and reliability tangible attribute importances had the strongest influence on Toyota Corolla preferences, and so ads should underscore the Toyota Corolla's safety and reliability. Large size and fast engine tangible attribute importances were negatively correlated, and so ads could mention that the Toyota Corolla is not large or high speed. Interestingly, economy and comfort tangible attribute importances did not significantly predict Toyota Corolla preference, and so might not be stressed. Human values should mainly be mentioned in relation to how tangible attributes bring about the goals of human values (i.e. the indirect route). Here, ads could emphasise how the Toyota Corolla's safety and reliability attributes mean that the car is ``not exciting'' or hedonistic. Moreover, all the information contained in the ad should be presented in a factual, detailed, attribute-by-attribute format that makes decision making easy for individuals who have a predisposition to make piecemeal judgements. The results found at Step 4 in the proposed method also showed that human values have a weaker, direct influence on product preference, and so less emphasis in the ads should be given to the Toyota Corolla's symbolic meaning, direct route, and affective judgements. Some issues should be mentioned. For instance, self-direction was negatively associated with Toyota Corolla preference (in Block 2 of the two-block regression), and so one image conveyed should be that of the rejection of self-direction. Schwartz and Bilsky (1990, p. 552) suggested ``values in the self-direction domain refer to reliance on and gratification from one's independent capacities for decision-making, creativity, and action'' (p. 552). Thus, the Toyota Corolla could project the image of non-self direction by showing current Toyota Corolla owners or spokespersons who reject self-direction in favour of other-directedness (i.e. following the preferences and directions from friends, family, etc). Projecting the image of the Toyota Corolla as nonself direction could also be achieved by metaphorically associating the Toyota Corolla with other actions or objects that already mean non-self direction. Using the results of the proposed method to develop promotional material that changes consumer perceptions and evaluations Instead of developing promotional material that is consistent with the way that consumers currently view and evaluate the product, occasionally marketers seek to create new meanings and perceptions of the product. Uncovering the direct and indirect influences of human values can assist in this aim as well.
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Less emphasis on symbolic meaning

Utilitarian rather than symbolic meaning

For instance, if marketing professionals wish to create a new image or symbolism for a product, they should choose human values that are: supported by the target audience; and the least correlated with tangible attribute importances. Human values that are strongly correlated with tangible attribute importances are more likely to influence product preference indirectly via those tangible attribute importances. Thus, that indirectly influence of human values would be associated with attending to the product's utilitarian meaning rather than symbolic. For present study, Security and Benevolence are the most important human values to the sample (see Table III), but Security is consistently correlated with tangible attribute importances whereas Benevolence is less strongly correlated (see Table VIII). Thus, developing promotional material that projects ``Benevolent'' image for the Toyota Corolla may be worthwhile. Of course, this suggestion would need to be verified via focus groups or other pilot methods (Kotler, 1991). The same rationale applies when marketers aspire to create new perceptions and evaluations of the product's tangible attributes. The ads should highlight tangible attribute importances that are already important to consumers. Moreover, the ads could associate these tangible attributes with longer-term goals to foster the indirect influence of human values. Here, suitable human value domains would be those that are already correlated with tangible attribute importances (as this requires one less connection to be cemented by the ads, that is, between human values and tangible attribute importances). For instance in the present study, comfort and economy tangible attribute importances did not significantly predict Toyota Corolla preference (see Table V), but Comfort tangible attribute importances are more important to the sample than Economy tangible attribute importances (see Table III). Moreover, Comfort tangible attribute importances are strongly positively correlated with the Conformity value domain (see Table VIII). Thus, future ads might create suitable new meanings for the Toyota Corolla by promoting its Comfort tangible attributes (i.e. air conditioning, heating, comfortable, etc.) and illustrate how these Comfort attributes foster Conformity (i.e. obedience, politeness). In sum, the proposed method can serve as a quantitative adjunct for more qualitative procedures such as Laddering, with each method adding insight and verification to the findings of the other. This large-sample method, using well-known statistical techniques, uncovers both the direct and indirect
Large size and fast engine attributes Hedonism Achievement Self direction Social power Conformity Security Benevolence Universalism 0.05 0.17*** 0.08 0.02 0.22*** 0.07 0.16** 0.32*** Safety and reliability atttributes 0.19** 0.04 0.10 0.01 0.20*** 0.23*** -0.01 0.01 Comfort attributes 0.07 0.11* 0.11* 0.04 0.27*** 0.15* 0.14* 0.10 Economy attributes 0.14* 0.03 0.14* 0.03* 0.15* 0.13* 0.09 0.09

Longer-term goals

Notes: * = p = < 0.05; ** = p = < 0.01; *** = p = < 0.001; One-tailed significance (degrees of freedom are 219)

Table VIII. Correlations between human values and car tangible attribute importances
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relationships between human values and purchase behaviour at the specific and overall levels. Furthermore, the relationships uncovered are based on predictive power in that although consumers may rate certain attributes or values as important, the values and attributes only emerge in this analysis if they predict or co-vary with their actual product preference. For these reasons, it is felt this procedure is a comprehensive and reliable method for investigating the direct and indirect relationships between human values and consumer behaviour.
References Allen, M.W. (2000). ``The attribute-mediation and product meaning approaches to the influences of human values on consumer choices'', in Columbus, F. (Ed.), Advances in Psychology Research, Vol. 1, Nova Science Publishers, Huntington, NY, pp. 31-76. Allen, M.W. and Ng, S.H. (1999), ``The direct and indirect influences of human values on product ownership'', Journal of Economic Psychology, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp. 5-39. Braithwaite, V. (1982), ``The structure of social values: validation of Rokeach's two-value model'', British Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 21, pp. 203-11. Fishbein, M. (1967), ``A behavior theory approach to the relations between beliefs about an object and the attitude toward the object'', in Fishbein, M. (Ed.), Readings in Attitude Theory and Measurement, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, pp. 389-400. Gutman, J. (1982), ``A means-end chain model based on consumer categorization processes'', Journal of Marketing, Vol. 46, pp. 60-72. Kotler, P. (1991), Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation and Control, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliff, NJ. Lindberg, E., Garling, T. and Montgomery, H. (1989), ``Belief-value structures as determinants of consumer behavior: a study of housing preferences and choices'', Journal of Consumer Policy, Vol. 12, pp. 119-37. Mittal, B. (1988), ``The role of affective choice mode in the consumer purchase of expressive products'', Journal of Economic Psychology, Vol. 9, pp. 499-524. Ng, S.H., Hossain, A., Ball, P., Bond, M.H., Hayaski, K., Lim, S.P., O'Driscoll, M.P., Sinha, D. and Yang, K.S. (1982), ``Human values in nine countries'', in Rath, R., Asthana, H.S., Sinha, D. and Sinha, J.B.P. (Eds), Diversity and Unity in Cross-cultural Psychology, Swets and Zeitlinger, Lisse, pp. 196-205. Reynolds, T.J. and Gutman, J. (1988), ``Laddering theory, method, analysis and interpretation'', Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 28, pp. 19-26. Rokeach, M. (1973), The Nature of Human Values, Free Press, New York, NY. Schwartz, S.H. (1994), ``Are there universal aspects in the structure and contents of human values?'', Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 50 No. 4, pp. 19-46. Schwartz, S.H. and Bilsky, W. (1990), ``Toward a theory of the universal content and structure of values: extensions and cross-cultural replications'', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 58, pp. 878-91. Scott, J.E. and Lamont, L.M. (1973), ``Relating consumer values to consumer behavior: a model and method for investigation'', in Greer, T.W. (Ed.), Increasing Marketing Productivity, American Marketing Association, Chicago, IL, pp. 283-8.

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This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives a rapid appreciation of the content of this article. Those with a particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the research undertaken and its results to get the full benefit of the material present

Executive summary and implications for managers and executives

Values, marketing strategies and advertising We seek to link consumer values to our communications about products and services because we know, as marketers, that consumers do not always act rationally in making purchase decisions. Allen points out the limitations of a research process that assumes ``. . . consumers only make rational attributespecific judgments of the utility of products.'' The consumer also judges products or services on the basis of prejudice in Allen's words; ``. . . emotion-laden, intuitive and holistic judgments of products.'' The problem for the advertiser is how to identify which values the consumer associates with the product and how to incorporate that knowledge into the words and pictures within the advertisement. What Allen presents us with is an approach that uncovers the direct and indirect influences of human values on consumer decisions. Allen points out that the main methods available to researchers do not identify the ``direct'' influences of values on consumer decisions, only the ``indirect'' influences. A consumer's values influence preferences for product features and hence product choice. What Allen aims for and, in the main succeeds at doing is to add the ``direct'' influences (unfiltered by the matter of product features) to the process. ``Direct'' and ``indirect'' influences of consumer values on purchase Allen describes how the ``direct'' influence of values is revealed by a consumer's preference for ``. . . symbolic meaning and affective judgments . . .'' whereas the ``indirect'' influence of those values is indicated by a consumer's preferences for ``. . . utilitarian meaning and piecemeal judgments.'' The answers to these questions about the link between values and consumer decision making should provide a very useful support to those involved in creating advertising and promotional material for a product or service. Importantly, the inclusion of ``direct'' influences avoids the situation where these values ``. . . are not captured in any of the product's tangible features.'' It seems to me that the ability to identify a relationship between consumer values and the image of a product/service is especially useful in situations where brand image is more important to the consumer's decision making than the specific features of the product. Many fast-moving consumer goods plainly fall into this category. However, as Allen's example shows us, the importance of the ``direct'' influence of values is pertinent where product features drive a significant element of the consumer's decision. Applying the findings from a study of value linkages to purchase Allen points out the usefulness of his method in the development of a new image or symbol for a product, in changing consumer perceptions and evaluations of a product's features and in the development of promotional material in general. These issues deserve consideration not because marketing management cannot understand the significance of the findings but because, in most cases, the ideas will land on the drawing board of someone with a marker pen. The essential element in communicating with the creative designing the ad is the identification of the key values thrown up by the research and an

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indication as to whether the desire is to stress one or other product feature or to create a general feel in line with the ``direct'' link to a given value or values. Another way in which the research findings might be applied is in a repositioning exercise. As Allen points out such an exercise must be grounded in the values held by the market. There is always a danger in someone calling for a shift in position unconnected to the market's values. In concluding it is worthwhile listing the possible applications from strategy to implementation of Allen's research method:
.

Marketing and positioning strategies. The approach applies here in that decisions about the development of the product portfolio, marketing budgeting and overall positioning can all benefit from a better appreciation of the link between the image and attributes of the product and consumer values. Product development. The development of new products and new product features should be linked into the market's expectations. By seeing the link to values, marketers are able to direct engineering or other product development initiatives down a more effective path. New developments respond to the market rather than vice versa. Brand development. The identification of ``direct'' links to consumer values should inform our brand strategies again the process allows for us to introduce changes that reflect the values held by the product's target market. Marketing communications and advertising. We have noted how Allen's approach links into the creation of advertising but we should also consider how other aspects of the advertising process such as media selection and choice might be influenced by consumer values.

Finally, we should not see Allen's method as a panacea indeed Allen himself stresses the need to use other techniques focus groups and other ad testing methods alongside the quantitative method he presents. But Allen is right to conclude, ``this procedure is a comprehensive and reliable method for investigating the direct and indirect relationships between human values and consumer behaviour.'' (A precis of the article ``A practical method for uncovering the direct and indirect relationships between human values and consumer purchases''. Supplied by Marketing Consultants for MCB University Press.)

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