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Teachers as leaders – an exploratory framework

Frank Crowther
Associate Professor at the School Leadership Institute, University of Southern
Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia
Peter Olsen
Lecturer in Education at the School Leadership Institute, University of Southern
Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia

Based on a study of the lead- that some members of their staff had
ership approaches of highly Introduction achieved striking successes in working
successful teachers and Educational leadership is a fascinating but towards this end. They recognized that finan-
paraprofessionals who work slippery concept. Hundreds of definitions cial, technical and human support services
in socioeconomically disad- have been offered since research into leader- made available through the projects had
vantaged school communi- ship developed as a serious academic under- undoubtedly been a significant factor in these
ties, presents a preliminary taking in the immediate post-war period. achievements. However, they also believed
framework for teacher leader- However, two points are generally agreed on. that practitioners who appeared to them to be
ship, in which aspects of First, leadership is a group function requir- highly successful exerted an influence that
transformational and educa- ing human interaction. Second, leadership transcended the requirements of funded pro-
tive approaches to leadership involves intentional influence on the behav- jects.
are evident with strategic iour of others. In September 1995, researchers in the
approaches less so. Con- Until very recently, educational leadership School Leadership Institute at the University
cludes that the work of highly has tended to be construed as associated with of Southern Queensland were contracted to
successful teachers is not ascribed authority and position – for exam- explore the following research problem:
sufficiently recognized in the ple, school administration or system director- What characteristics distinguish the work
development of most theories ship. The idea of educational leadership as of a sample of educators who have achieved
of educational leadership. involving practising teachers and paraprofes- success in working in socioeconomically
This may be particularly the disadvantaged schools? What forms of edu-
sionals as central figures has been a seriously
case with theories that origi- cational leadership are inherent in these
underdeveloped topic, although terms like characteristics?
nate in corporate and man-
superior-subordinate and leader-follower,
agerial systems, raising Criteria to facilitate the identification of
which were once standard usage in educa-
serious doubts about the official participants in the research were
tional administration texts, and which tend
potential of much existing developed jointly by the researchers and
to cast teachers in positions of relative depen-
theory to meet the needs of representatives of the administrator group.
dency and powerlessness, are now less com-
the education profession in Four criteria were endorsed as indicating
monly used.
emerging educational con- evidence of success in responding to socioeco-
This article presents findings from a
texts. nomic disadvantage:
study[1] of 15 highly effective teachers and
paraprofessionals – individuals acclaimed 1 concrete evidence of a significant contri-
not only for their pedagogical excellence, but bution to an aspect of social justice in the
also for their influence in stimulating change school or the school community;
and creating improvement in the schools and 2 highly esteemed in the community, partic-
socioeconomically disadvantaged communi- ularly among socioeconomically disadvan-
ties in which they work. Do the decisions and taged individuals and groups;
actions of practitioners such as these imply 3 recognized by colleagues as very influen-
processes and concepts in educational leader- tial in school decision-making processes;
ship? If so, what is the relevance to their work 4 accorded a high level of school-based
of leadership theories that are prominent in responsibility by colleagues and the school
educational management? It is these ques- administration.
tions that guided the study and that provide
These criteria were believed to take into
the focus of this article.
account the intents of indices of socioeco-
nomic disadvantage that are used to distrib-
ute compensatory education funds in a
Research design and methodology number of Australian states. As described by
The study originated through meetings and Batten[2], such indices tend to “relate to the
informal discussions of educational adminis- key socioeconomic factors of income, occupa-
trators who had been responsible for moni- tion, unemployment and education”. Indices
International Journal of
Educational Management toring government-funded compensatory of this type were believed to have direct rele-
11,1 [1997] 6–13 education projects that were designed to vance in the geographic area in question,
© MCB University Press ameliorate the effects of socioeconomic disad- where unemployment levels approach 20 per
[ISSN 0951-354X]
vantage. The administrators had observed cent and are among the highest in Australia.
[6]
Frank Crowther and The criteria also appeared to be sensitive to A three-stage approach was taken to the
Peter Olsen the “five faces of oppression” framework data analysis. First, an holistic profile was
Teachers as leaders – an developed by Young[3]. Young’s contention is prepared for each of the 15 participants. Sec-
exploratory framework
that each “face” – namely marginalization, ond, descriptive data were quantified and
International Journal of powerlessness, exploitation, cultural domina- categorized to generate conceptualizations of
Educational Management
tion and violence – can exist independently disadvantage, educational strategies and
11/1 [1997] 6–13
but that multiple interactions are common. leadership. Finally, tentative research find-
Some schools in the area of the research have ings were tested with project participants to
a majority of aboriginal students and very ascertain levels of perceived credibility.
high levels of transience, in addition to prob- Adjustments were made to several statements
lems associated with severe unemployment. of outcomes following these consultations.
Young’s framework therefore seemed to pro-
vide a helpful theoretical background for
exploring meanings ascribed to disadvantage The conceptual framework
in schools in the area. The possibility that leadership might be a
Fifteen school-based practitioners were function of the work of teachers has only
identified by the administrators as meeting recently begun to be accorded serious consid-
the four criteria. Thirteen of the practition- eration. Attempts to conceptualize teacher
ers were teachers and two were paraprofes- leadership appeared to make some headway
sionals. Ten were female and five were male. in US education reforms in the 1980s, most
Nine were employed in primary schools notably as an outcome of research into colle-
(years one to seven) and five in secondary gial approaches to school improvement.
schools. All agreed to participate with the Berry and Ginsberg[4] identified three com-
university researchers in a joint, six-week ponents of the role of a new cadre of profes-
inquiry of their work. sional educators, whom they called “lead
Data relevant to the research problem were teachers”:
collected through a range of procedures. 1 mentoring and coaching other teachers;
First, extensive use was made of a critical 2 professional development and review of
incident strategy. Each of the 15 participants school practice; and
recorded written descriptions of their percep- 3 school-level decision making.
tions of, and educational responses to, spe-
cific situations involving socioeconomic In a helpful study of successful school-based
disadvantage as these occurred in their work- teams in which principals played facilitative,
places across a four-week period (mid-Octo- supportive roles, Lieberman et al.[5] identi-
ber to mid-November 1995). In total, 43 inci- fied 18 skills that were manifested by teacher
dents were described by the 15 participants leaders. These they classified as:
and made available to the researchers for • building trust and rapport;
study and follow-up inquiry. • organizational diagnosis;
Second, on-site interviews of approximately • dealing with the process;
one hour were held with each of the 15 partic- • using resources;
ipants. Interviews were structured to facili- • managing the work;
tate understanding of participants’ decisions • building skill and confidence in others.
and actions in responding to disadvantage, Smylie and Denny[6] and Smylie and
and to explore processes associated with the Brownlee-Conyers[7] cite a range of “teacher
high levels of influence that they were per- leadership opportunities” that have emerged
ceived to have in their school communities. as a result of the promotion of shared deci-
Interviews were also conducted with two or sion making between teachers and adminis-
more administrators and teachers at each site trators, creation of school-based instructional
to explore colleagues’ perceptions of these teams, and teachers’ involvement in school
same processes. governance. These “opportunities” tend to be
Finally, two three-hour focus group sessions consistent in nature with the responsibilities
were held with the 15 participants, one prior delineated by both Lieberman et al.[5] and
to commencement of the site-based recording Berry and Ginsberg[4]. In all cases, however,
of critical incidents, and the other at the cul- it might be observed that attempts to concep-
mination of site-based activities. These ses- tualize teachers’ leadership roles pay limited
sions engaged participants in reflection attention to leadership approaches that have
about their work and in dialogue with each emerged in educational management across
other regarding the types of leadership that the past decade. The relevance to the work of
appear most able to stimulate educational teachers of theories of leadership that are
achievement in socioeconomically disadvan- used in educational management remains
taged schools and communities. relatively unexplored.
[7]
Frank Crowther and In Australian education, perhaps the first Hambrick[12] suggests that it involves align-
Peter Olsen significant recognition of practising teachers’ ing the organization with anticipated exter-
Teachers as leaders – an potential leadership capabilities occurred in nal forces – technological developments,
exploratory framework the late 1980s through the vehicle of policy, market trends, regulatory constraints, com-
International Journal of with the creation in all states and territories petitors’ actions, and so on. In similar vein to
Educational Management of Advanced Skills Teacher (AST) industrial Hosmer and Hambrick, Caldwell[13] advo-
11/1 [1997] 6–13
awards. Research into the work practices of cates a leadership function that is dominant-
ASTs has yet to confirm, however, that they ly strategic as the most appropriate approach
have either the opportunities or capabilities for principals in self-managing schools:
to engage in authentic leadership roles. …the principal must be able to develop and
Whether difficulties associated with the clas- implement a cyclical process of goal-setting,
sification derive from the culture of schools need identification, priority setting, policy
and the teaching profession, or whether they making, planning, budgeting, implementing
derive from abuses of industrial processes, and evaluating in a manner which provides
has been a topic of ongoing debate. Some for the appropriate involvement of staff and
community, including parents and students
researchers, including Chadbourne and Ing-
as relevant (p. 160).
varson[8] and Crowther and Gaffney[9], have
suggested that the latter alternative is more Strategic processes such as these may be
plausible than the former. The possibility highly relevant in conceptualizing the work
also exists, however, that criteria for leader- of successful school managers of the 1990s.
ship that have been employed to examine the But what meanings, if any, do they have in the
work of practitioners in cases such as these work of highly successful classroom practi-
are themselves inadequate or inappropriate. tioners and other non-managers? This ques-
Certainly, consideration of the topic of tion remains largely unconsidered in educa-
teacher leadership appears to have focused tional leadership literature.
mainly on teachers’ capacity to assume high
levels of responsibility in managerial aspects Transformational leadership
of school organization. However, it should not Transformational leadership emphasizes the
be taken for granted that this capacity neces- significance of “the person”, and personal
sarily constitutes “educational leadership”. traits, in bringing about social and cultural
To illuminate this essential point, three lead- change.
ership approaches that have acquired credi- To Avolio and Bass[14], whose pioneering
bility in contemporary educational manage- research has been instrumental in developing
ment theory and practice are discussed transformational approaches to leadership,
briefly. Each is used subsequently as a refer- leaders are individuals who “motivate follow-
ence point in the analysis of research data ers to work for transcendental goals instead
and discussion of research findings. of immediate self-interest and for achieve-
ment and self-actualization instead of safety
Strategic leadership and security”. Avolio and Bass further assert
The view that leadership is primarily a func- that transformational leadership comprises
tion of “strategy” is certainly not new. It three elements:
reflects the ideology of logical empiricism 1 Charisma. The leader instils pride, faith
that shaped educational administration as a and respect, has a gift for seeing what is
discipline until the 1980s[10] and bears con- really important, and has a sense of vision
siderable resemblance to the two-dimension- which is effectively articulated.
al (i.e. task-relationships) conceptualizations 2 Individualized consideration. The leader
of leadership that were developed in the 1950s delegates projects to stimulate and create
and 1960s and that have dominated leadership learning experience, pays attention to
research until the very recent past. With the followers’ needs, especially those followers
emergence over the past decade of a wide- who seem neglected, and treats each fol-
spread view of the principal or head as chief lower with respect and as an individual.
executive and entrepreneurial marketer in a 3 Intellectual stimulation. The leader pro-
self-managing school, this particular concep-
vides ideas that result in a rethinking of
tion of leadership may be said to have gained
old ways, that is, the leader enables follow-
new momentum and status.
ers to look at problems from many angles
As the term implies, strategic leadership
and to resolve problems that were at a
emphasizes rationality in the leader’s role.
standstill[14, p. 137].
Thus, Hosmer, cited in Shrivastava and Nach-
man[11], defines it as the creation of an over- Transformational leadership is generally
all sense of purpose and direction which regarded as having originated in the work of
guide integrated strategy formulation and Burns[15]. It would appear to have relevance
implementation in organizations. to the work of teachers as leaders if for no
[8]
Frank Crowther and other reason than that Burns regarded “lead- follows that educative leadership must
Peter Olsen ership as education” and “education as lead- closely respond to the cultural context, be
Teachers as leaders – an ership”. The essence of leadership, Burns critically aware of the long-term practices of
exploratory framework asserted, is one of relationship, or engage- participants in educational processes, and
International Journal of ment, and of common elevation of motives or when action is proposed, justify ends and
Educational Management processes using an educative philosophy...
values. It gains strength when pluralistic
11/1 [1997] 6–13 Hence, educative leadership implies a
qualities inherent in groups and communi- responsible involvement in the politics of
ties are recognized. Differences based on the organization (pp. 3-4).
gender, ethnicity, race and culture are there-
fore important. With regard to gender, for In similar vein, Smyth[19] challenges practi-
example, Burns[15] claimed that: tioners to “frame problems, and to discuss
The male bias is reflected in the false con- and work individually and collectively to
ception of leadership as mere command or understand and change the situations that
control. As leadership comes properly to be cause these problems”. As Fried expressed it,
seen as a process of leaders engaging and empowerment as used in this sense means
mobilizing the human needs and aspira- helping people to take charge of their lives,
tions of followers, women will be more read-
people who have been restrained, by social or
ily recognized as leaders and men will
political forces, from assuming such control.
change their own leadership styles (p. 50).
Implicit in Smyth’s challenge is the view that,
Transformational concepts like “empower- if education is to create emancipation or
ment”, “vision” and “mission” have become a liberation in the human condition, it will be
feature of the rhetoric associated with devel- unlikely to do so through the sole influence of
opmental processes at different levels in edu- administrators. Indeed, Smyth contends that
cation systems throughout the world. They the notion of educative leadership is itself a
are to be found, for example, in the strategic misnomer in that leadership as traditionally
plans of departments of education, in the defined implies hierarchical division of
annual plans of regional authorities and in power and corporate direction setting, while
school-based development plans. But is there educativeness implies the opposite, namely
opportunity in modern, corporate education “assisting people to understand themselves
systems for practitioners with deep personal and their world... to overcome the oppressive
convictions to inspire social change and conditions that characterize work patterns
improvement, individually or collaboratively. and social relationships” (p. 182).
The implications of recent developments in The relevance of educative concepts and
transformational leadership for the school processes to the work of school administra-
and classroom levels of education are thus tors has been recognized[20], but their rele-
extremely complex. vance to the work of teachers and other prac-
titioners remains largely unexplored. The
Educative leadership present study represents a step in addressing
Educative leadership is often viewed as this void.
linked to social reconstructionist philosophy.
For Bates[16], the essential point about lead-
ership in education is that it “involves the Findings of the research
making and articulating of choices, the loca-
tion of oneself within the cultural struggles of Conceptualizations of disadvantage
the times as much in the cultural battles of The exploration of teacher leadership that
the school as in the wider society” (p. 19). For was the major focus of the research cannot be
Foster[17], “leadership is at its heart a critical viewed in isolation from the major contextual
practice”, involving educational leaders in variable, socioeconomic disadvantage. Thus,
the necessary practice of reflective and criti- before research findings relating to teacher
cal thinking about the culture of their organi- leadership are reviewed, it is appropriate to
zations (p. 52). Both Bates and Foster could be consider the meanings ascribed by partici-
said to emphasize educative approaches to pants in the research to disadvantage.
leadership. From an analysis of the 43 critical incident
Duignan and Macpherson[18] cite writers statements provided by participants, sup-
like Deal and Kennedy, Purkey and Smith, ported by interview data, it is possible to
and Starratt in creating a definition of educa- identify four different conceptualizations of
tive leadership that involves continuous criti- disadvantage that were perceived to impose
cal discourse and social action as a means of on schools and students (Table I). The four
addressing social injustice and disadvantage conceptualizations encompass one or another
in an organization: form of deficit in social competence, material
Educative leadership appears to be a delib- means, relationship with the law and attitude
erate attempt at cultural elaboration... It towards school. Of relevance is that most
[9]
Frank Crowther and Table I
Peter Olsen Conceptualizations of disadvantage
Teachers as leaders – an
exploratory framework N
International Journal of (Critical incident
Educational Management Conceptualizations Specific examples references)
11/1 [1997] 6–13
Inappropriate social competences
Reluctance to co-operate with authority
figures “You can’t make me” 6
Very aggressive approach to social
intercourse Hostile, threatening language 4
Bullying of peers Gender-based harassment in play area 4
Total 14
Lack of material means
No support for school attendance or
participation “No one cares if I don’t come to school” 6
No resources to meet basic needs Unable to purchase school uniform 3
Total 9
At risk with the law
Demonstrated criminal background or
tendency Stealing, brandishing a weapon, drug abuse 4
Abuse of welfare system Illegal claim of welfare benefits 3
Ambiguous legal status Victim in custody battle 2
Total 9
Alienated from schooling
History of personal failure “I can’t do anything” 5
History of family failure at school Parents’ school experiences were associated
with fear 3
Victim of poor teaching Negative influence of Teacher X 3
Total 11
Total 43

descriptions of disadvantage that were pro- in meeting societally prescribed expectations


vided by the research participants encom- have been successful. Teachers of disadvan-
passed two or more of the four conceptualiza- taged children may themselves begin to feel
tions. Also of interest is that there is no indi- disadvantaged if they are unable to meet
cation in the descriptions that any one con- externally-defined criteria for success.
ceptualization is more significant in overall Thus, participants’ perspectives on socio-
impact than the others. economic disadvantage related closely to
Based on the two sources of data that were their everyday experiences in disadvantaged
considered, socioeconomic disadvantage is schools. This point is an important considera-
regarded by project participants as character- tion in interpreting the framework for
ized by a number of complex factors that teacher leadership that emerged from the
would appear to make it very difficult to research.
redress. First, disadvantaged students are
perceived as confronting a range of barriers
which are beyond their control. For example, Conceptualizations of leadership
some participants observed that disadvan- At the end-of-research focus session, partici-
taged children in their schools are part of a pants engaged in a process of individual
“culture of unemployment” that spans four reflection, small group sharing and total
generations and that manifests in practicali- group discussion of the question: What do
ties like lack of funds to participate in enrich- you regard as the essential characteristics of
ment activities and attitudes that are socially leadership in addressing disadvantage in
unacceptable. schools? In preparing for this activity, partici-
Second, some participants indicated that pants had been provided with detailed
individuals affected by various forms of dis- descriptions of tentative outcomes of the
advantage may be subject to pressures to research, as well as descriptions of their own
attempt to obscure, deny or change their preliminary profiles. A summary entitled
circumstances in order that institutions, “Essential characteristics of leadership” was
including schools, may feel that their efforts then prepared by the participants. With
[ 10 ]
Frank Crowther and minor editorial modifications, this summary law. His work took him, by invitation, into
Peter Olsen is reproduced in Table II. homes, police stations and, on occasion, out-
Teachers as leaders – an Thus, the framework for teacher leadership of-control teenage parties on Saturday nights.
exploratory framework that is proposed is based on detailed external A third participant had developed and imple-
International Journal of analyses of teachers’ work as well as mented across a period of years an initiative
Educational Management processes of individual and collegial self- to enable year-seven students in his commu-
11/1 [1997] 6–13
reflection. However, the five generalized char- nity to live for a week in an aboriginal com-
acteristics in the framework should not be munity in preparation for cross-cultural
interpreted as an explanatory system that secondary schooling. Longstanding distrust
captures the individual leadership ap- and bitterness between the two communities
proaches of participants in the research. To had not been overcome by this action, but the
the contrary, individual profiles reflected initiative enjoyed the support of both commu-
uniqueness of personality, belief and context nities and also the strong endorsement of
at least as much as they did the five general- staff at both schools. In each of these in-
ized characteristics. One participant, for stances, the salient point is the unique way
example, dwelt heavily on issues associated that conviction, action and dialogue led to new
with chronic unemployment in articulating a forms of understanding in the community.
personal philosophy and in describing her Cautions regarding the use of Table II
response in creating and implementing ongo- notwithstanding, the work of each of the 15
ing work experience projects in conjunction participants in the research illustrated each
with the local business community. A second of the five characteristics. The relevance of
participant, at the same school, focused on essential principles of contemporary leader-
ship theories to the work of the designated
the problems of students “at risk” with the
teacher leaders is therefore able to be consid-
ered through reference to the framework.
Table II First, Table II reflects concrete evidence of
Teachers as leaders: a suggested framework transformational, educative and strategic
Articulates clear views of a better world approaches to leadership. Most readily appar-
Can articulate “what ought to be” on important social ent is the transformational framework.
issues School-based educators who were identified
as highly successful in their work in socioeco-
Values teaching as an important profession in shaping
nomically disadvantaged schools tended to be
meaning systems
motivated by transcendental goals that
Personal views about social justice are a source of
derived from a deep concern for marginalized
personal pride
and powerless groups and individuals. In
Models trust and sincerity most, if not all instances, participants
Has the respect of the community espoused an uncompromising commitment to
Demonstrates tolerance and reasonableness in difficult values like fair go, cross-cultural understand-
situations ing, individual responsibility and community
Regarded by peers as totally trustworthy pride. While it must be said that these values
Confronts structural barriers had somewhat different meanings to different
Stands up for children, especially marginalized or power- participants, all 15 had clear views about
less groups social issues that they were very willing to
Engages confidently with authority figures voice publicly. (Thus, discussions at focus
Influences the development and implementation of sessions were in some instances passionate,
socially just policies as individual convictions surfaced and posed
challenges for others, including the
Builds networks of support researchers.) Relatedly, all were character-
Feels at ease with individuals and groups who assert ized by contagious enthusiasm, an ability to
cultural, social and other differences inspire others to raise their expectations, and
Communicates with authority and persuasion across a pervasive sense of optimism.
groups Transformational aspects of leadership
Promotes collaboration in teaching, planning, decision that were evident in participants’ work did,
making however, show one important variation from
Organizes tasks with relative ease general principles of transformational theory.
Nurtures a culture of success That is, the teacher leaders who were studied
Creates opportunities for individual success and recog- did not view themselves as either charismatic
nition or as exercising undue influence. In particu-
Builds problem-solving skills lar, the leader-follower mindset that contin-
Adopts a “no blame” attitude when things go wrong ues to dominate in the rhetoric of much trans-
Searches continuously for new ideas formational theory was not at all evident in
Conveys a sense of optimism to others their thinking or their actions, based on the
descriptions of their work that were provided.
[ 11 ]
Frank Crowther and Also present in the data is a strong educa- consciousness raising, community building
Peter Olsen tive aspect. Indeed, influence in shaping the and personal learning were inseparable in
Teachers as leaders – an culture of schools and communities appears descriptions of their work that were offered
exploratory framework to depend on considerably more than the by participants in the research. When holistic
International Journal of existence of transformational qualities like profiles were analysed to identify general
Educational Management personal conviction and social vision. characteristics of leadership, it proved to be
11/1 [1997] 6–13
Research participants saw themselves, and very difficult to differentiate the instruc-
were seen by their colleagues and administra- tional roles of participants from their roles as
tors, as engaged continuously in practical influential figures in their schools and com-
problem solving on terms, and in surround- munities. An important irony is evident here
ings, determined by others. Positional in that the historical failure of educational
authority and regulation tended to be called theorists to recognize leadership dimensions
on only when questions of safety, health or in teachers’ work may be partly attributable
natural justice arose. Stated a little differ- to the insistence of highly successful teach-
ently, the 15 participants tended to view them- ers, such as the participants in this research,
selves as collaborators in emancipatory and that their primary concern is “to teach”.
consciousness-raising activities, and quite Of possible importance, also, is that the
frequently as advocates for marginalized or language of participants in the research
powerless individuals in challenging author- included very few references to the terminol-
ity structures – but not as agents of external ogy that is often associated with leadership,
agendas for social change. raising further doubt as to whether teacher
The forms of educative leadership that were leaders work in the same paradigm of leader-
evident in the research data deviate from the ship that has evolved out of the study of edu-
principles of most educative theories in one cational management. Terms such as “trans-
important respect. That is, educative theories formational”, “task-oriented”, “strategy
tend to view the cultural context of teachers’ formulation”, “charismatic”, “bias-for-
work as focusing on the school as an organi- action”, “team building” and “change agent”,
zation. In this sense, they would seem to be which figure prominently in descriptions of
too restrictive to explain satisfactorily the leadership roles of school administrators, are
community-wide sphere of action and influ- conspicuously absent from the descriptions
ence of those educators who participated in that were provided by research participants
the research. or others who described their work. Rather,
Of less direct significance, but important terms like “wildly enthusiastic”, “lives and
nevertheless, is strategic leadership. While breathes worthy causes”, “values friends”,
most, perhaps all, of the 15 participants were “admits failures” and “always on the lookout
regarded as sound organizers, adept at team for new ideas” tended to characterize the
building and highly influential in school dialogue.
decision making, these capabilities tended to Finally, it seems possible on the basis of this
be construed by both participants and their research to propose a definition of teacher
peers as means to an end rather than as leadership. Teacher leadership is essentially
important processes in their own right. Table an ethical stance that is based on views of
II indicates that the notion of “strategy”, as a both a better world and the power of teaching
rational process of goal setting, needs identifi- to shape meaning systems. It manifests in
cation and policy making did not figure actions that involve the wider community
prominently in the thinking of research par- and leads to the creation of new forms of
ticipants. Nevertheless, participants tended understanding that will enhance the quality
to acknowledge the impetus provided by of life of the community in the long term. It
special project funding. They also insisted reaches its potential in contexts where
that the assistance of school administrators system and school structures are facilitative
in establishing socially-just organizational and appreciative.
goals was vitally important to them. Most
also agreed that Department of Education Suggestions for further inquiry
equity policies were of help, asserting that Thus, it seems that the work of some teachers
their work would retain its focus if such poli- reflects clear evidence of both authoritative
cies did not exist, but would undoubtedly be leadership theories and forms of influence
more difficult to carry out. that are not encompassed by theories that
A second implication of the research is that originate in educational or corporate man-
leadership in the work of successful practi- agement.
tioners appears to incorporate a quality Further research is essential in a number
which is not found in leadership theories that of areas. First, it is unclear to what extent the
have their origins in business management particular socioeconomic context of the pre-
or, for the most part, in educational manage- sent research influenced outcomes. That is,
ment. That is, processes of teaching, whether a framework like that in Table II
[ 12 ]
Frank Crowther and would have emerged from similar research in 3 Young, I.M., Justice and the Politics of Differ-
Peter Olsen other social, cultural or educational settings ence, Princeton University Press, Princeton,
Teachers as leaders – an is deserving of investigation. Second, there NJ, 1990.
exploratory framework are suggestions in this research that some 4 Berry, B. and Ginsburg, R., “Creating lead
International Journal of teachers: from policy to implementation”, Phi
authoritative leadership approaches may be
Educational Management Delta Kappan, April 1990, pp. 616-21.
at least as relevant to the work of teachers as
11/1 [1997] 6–13 5 Lieberman, A., Saxl, E. and Miles, M. (Eds),
they are to the work of school managers. Building a Professional Culture in Schools,
Administrators in the research themselves Teachers’ College Press, New York, NY, 1988.
suggested that political and managerial 6 Smylie, M. and Denny, J., “Teacher leadership:
aspects of their work militate strongly tensions and ambiguities in organisational
against their being able to assume transfor- perspective”, Educational Administration
mational and educative leadership functions Quarterly, Vol. 26 No. 3, 1990, pp. 235-9.
that some teachers in their schools were able 7 Smylie, M. and Brownlee-Conyers, J., “Teacher
to realize. With the prospect of increasing leaders and their principals: exploring the
managerialism and corporatism in school development of new working relationships”,
administration, the potential of these theoret- Educational Administration Quarterly, Vol. 28
No. 2, 1992, pp. 150-84.
ical approaches in the work of managers on
8 Chadbourne, R. and Ingvarson, L., “Advanced
the one hand, and teachers on the other, would
Skills Teacher 1: lost opportunity or profes-
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11 Shrivastava, P. and Nachman, S., “Strategic
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is, why has leadership theory in education process”, Journal of Strategic Management,
presumed that positional authority is so criti- special issue, Summer 1989, pp. 5-15.
cal? What effects has this presumption had on 13 Caldwell, B., “The principal as leader of the
the image and culture of the teaching profes- self-managing school in Australia”, Journal of
sion? And how can we begin to make amends Educational Administration, Vol. 20 No. 3, 1992,
for the obvious limitations of our own past pp. 6-19.
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1 This article is based on the research report, 15 Burns, J.M., Leadership, Harper & Row, New
Crowther, F. and Olsen, P., “Teachers as lead- York, NY, 1978.
ers: an exploration of success stories in socio- 16 Bates, R., “Leadership and school culture”,
economically disadvantaged communities”, paper presented at the University of Seville,
School Leadership Institute, University of Deakin University, Geelong, 1992.
Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, 1996. 17 Foster, W., “Towards a critical practice of
The authors acknowledge the support of the leadership”, in Smyth, J. (Ed.), Critical Per-
Queensland Department of Education in fund- spectives on Educational Leadership, The
ing the research, and take full responsibility Falmer Press, London, 1989.
for the contents of the report and of this arti- 18 Duignan, P.A. and Macpherson, R.J.S. (Eds),
cle. Copies of the full report are available from Educative Leadership: A Practical Theory for
the School Leadership Institute, University of New Administrators and Managers, The
Southern Queensland at a cost of A$10.00. Falmer Press, London, 1992.
2 Batten, M., “Educational provision for socio- 19 Smyth, J. (Ed.), Critical Perspectives on Educa-
economically disadvantaged school students”, tional Leadership, The Falmer Press, London,
in Ainley, J., Graetz, B., Long, M. and Batten, 1989.
M. (Eds), Socioeconomic Status and School 20 Rizvi, F., “Educative leadership in a multicul-
Education: A Project Funded by the Common- tural society”, in Duignan, P.A. and Macpher-
wealth Department of Employment, Education son, R.J.S. (Eds), Educative Leadership: A
and Training, Australian Government Print- Practical Theory for New Administrators and
ing Service, Canberra, 1995. Managers, The Falmer Press, London, 1992.

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