Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Frank Crowther
Associate Professor at the School Leadership Institute, University of Southern
Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia
Peter Olsen
Lecturer in Education at the School Leadership Institute, University of Southern
Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia
Based on a study of the lead- that some members of their staff had
ership approaches of highly Introduction achieved striking successes in working
successful teachers and Educational leadership is a fascinating but towards this end. They recognized that finan-
paraprofessionals who work slippery concept. Hundreds of definitions cial, technical and human support services
in socioeconomically disad- have been offered since research into leader- made available through the projects had
vantaged school communi- ship developed as a serious academic under- undoubtedly been a significant factor in these
ties, presents a preliminary taking in the immediate post-war period. achievements. However, they also believed
framework for teacher leader- However, two points are generally agreed on. that practitioners who appeared to them to be
ship, in which aspects of First, leadership is a group function requir- highly successful exerted an influence that
transformational and educa- ing human interaction. Second, leadership transcended the requirements of funded pro-
tive approaches to leadership involves intentional influence on the behav- jects.
are evident with strategic iour of others. In September 1995, researchers in the
approaches less so. Con- Until very recently, educational leadership School Leadership Institute at the University
cludes that the work of highly has tended to be construed as associated with of Southern Queensland were contracted to
successful teachers is not ascribed authority and position – for exam- explore the following research problem:
sufficiently recognized in the ple, school administration or system director- What characteristics distinguish the work
development of most theories ship. The idea of educational leadership as of a sample of educators who have achieved
of educational leadership. involving practising teachers and paraprofes- success in working in socioeconomically
This may be particularly the disadvantaged schools? What forms of edu-
sionals as central figures has been a seriously
case with theories that origi- cational leadership are inherent in these
underdeveloped topic, although terms like characteristics?
nate in corporate and man-
superior-subordinate and leader-follower,
agerial systems, raising Criteria to facilitate the identification of
which were once standard usage in educa-
serious doubts about the official participants in the research were
tional administration texts, and which tend
potential of much existing developed jointly by the researchers and
to cast teachers in positions of relative depen-
theory to meet the needs of representatives of the administrator group.
dency and powerlessness, are now less com-
the education profession in Four criteria were endorsed as indicating
monly used.
emerging educational con- evidence of success in responding to socioeco-
This article presents findings from a
texts. nomic disadvantage:
study[1] of 15 highly effective teachers and
paraprofessionals – individuals acclaimed 1 concrete evidence of a significant contri-
not only for their pedagogical excellence, but bution to an aspect of social justice in the
also for their influence in stimulating change school or the school community;
and creating improvement in the schools and 2 highly esteemed in the community, partic-
socioeconomically disadvantaged communi- ularly among socioeconomically disadvan-
ties in which they work. Do the decisions and taged individuals and groups;
actions of practitioners such as these imply 3 recognized by colleagues as very influen-
processes and concepts in educational leader- tial in school decision-making processes;
ship? If so, what is the relevance to their work 4 accorded a high level of school-based
of leadership theories that are prominent in responsibility by colleagues and the school
educational management? It is these ques- administration.
tions that guided the study and that provide
These criteria were believed to take into
the focus of this article.
account the intents of indices of socioeco-
nomic disadvantage that are used to distrib-
ute compensatory education funds in a
Research design and methodology number of Australian states. As described by
The study originated through meetings and Batten[2], such indices tend to “relate to the
informal discussions of educational adminis- key socioeconomic factors of income, occupa-
trators who had been responsible for moni- tion, unemployment and education”. Indices
International Journal of
Educational Management toring government-funded compensatory of this type were believed to have direct rele-
11,1 [1997] 6–13 education projects that were designed to vance in the geographic area in question,
© MCB University Press ameliorate the effects of socioeconomic disad- where unemployment levels approach 20 per
[ISSN 0951-354X]
vantage. The administrators had observed cent and are among the highest in Australia.
[6]
Frank Crowther and The criteria also appeared to be sensitive to A three-stage approach was taken to the
Peter Olsen the “five faces of oppression” framework data analysis. First, an holistic profile was
Teachers as leaders – an developed by Young[3]. Young’s contention is prepared for each of the 15 participants. Sec-
exploratory framework
that each “face” – namely marginalization, ond, descriptive data were quantified and
International Journal of powerlessness, exploitation, cultural domina- categorized to generate conceptualizations of
Educational Management
tion and violence – can exist independently disadvantage, educational strategies and
11/1 [1997] 6–13
but that multiple interactions are common. leadership. Finally, tentative research find-
Some schools in the area of the research have ings were tested with project participants to
a majority of aboriginal students and very ascertain levels of perceived credibility.
high levels of transience, in addition to prob- Adjustments were made to several statements
lems associated with severe unemployment. of outcomes following these consultations.
Young’s framework therefore seemed to pro-
vide a helpful theoretical background for
exploring meanings ascribed to disadvantage The conceptual framework
in schools in the area. The possibility that leadership might be a
Fifteen school-based practitioners were function of the work of teachers has only
identified by the administrators as meeting recently begun to be accorded serious consid-
the four criteria. Thirteen of the practition- eration. Attempts to conceptualize teacher
ers were teachers and two were paraprofes- leadership appeared to make some headway
sionals. Ten were female and five were male. in US education reforms in the 1980s, most
Nine were employed in primary schools notably as an outcome of research into colle-
(years one to seven) and five in secondary gial approaches to school improvement.
schools. All agreed to participate with the Berry and Ginsberg[4] identified three com-
university researchers in a joint, six-week ponents of the role of a new cadre of profes-
inquiry of their work. sional educators, whom they called “lead
Data relevant to the research problem were teachers”:
collected through a range of procedures. 1 mentoring and coaching other teachers;
First, extensive use was made of a critical 2 professional development and review of
incident strategy. Each of the 15 participants school practice; and
recorded written descriptions of their percep- 3 school-level decision making.
tions of, and educational responses to, spe-
cific situations involving socioeconomic In a helpful study of successful school-based
disadvantage as these occurred in their work- teams in which principals played facilitative,
places across a four-week period (mid-Octo- supportive roles, Lieberman et al.[5] identi-
ber to mid-November 1995). In total, 43 inci- fied 18 skills that were manifested by teacher
dents were described by the 15 participants leaders. These they classified as:
and made available to the researchers for • building trust and rapport;
study and follow-up inquiry. • organizational diagnosis;
Second, on-site interviews of approximately • dealing with the process;
one hour were held with each of the 15 partic- • using resources;
ipants. Interviews were structured to facili- • managing the work;
tate understanding of participants’ decisions • building skill and confidence in others.
and actions in responding to disadvantage, Smylie and Denny[6] and Smylie and
and to explore processes associated with the Brownlee-Conyers[7] cite a range of “teacher
high levels of influence that they were per- leadership opportunities” that have emerged
ceived to have in their school communities. as a result of the promotion of shared deci-
Interviews were also conducted with two or sion making between teachers and adminis-
more administrators and teachers at each site trators, creation of school-based instructional
to explore colleagues’ perceptions of these teams, and teachers’ involvement in school
same processes. governance. These “opportunities” tend to be
Finally, two three-hour focus group sessions consistent in nature with the responsibilities
were held with the 15 participants, one prior delineated by both Lieberman et al.[5] and
to commencement of the site-based recording Berry and Ginsberg[4]. In all cases, however,
of critical incidents, and the other at the cul- it might be observed that attempts to concep-
mination of site-based activities. These ses- tualize teachers’ leadership roles pay limited
sions engaged participants in reflection attention to leadership approaches that have
about their work and in dialogue with each emerged in educational management across
other regarding the types of leadership that the past decade. The relevance to the work of
appear most able to stimulate educational teachers of theories of leadership that are
achievement in socioeconomically disadvan- used in educational management remains
taged schools and communities. relatively unexplored.
[7]
Frank Crowther and In Australian education, perhaps the first Hambrick[12] suggests that it involves align-
Peter Olsen significant recognition of practising teachers’ ing the organization with anticipated exter-
Teachers as leaders – an potential leadership capabilities occurred in nal forces – technological developments,
exploratory framework the late 1980s through the vehicle of policy, market trends, regulatory constraints, com-
International Journal of with the creation in all states and territories petitors’ actions, and so on. In similar vein to
Educational Management of Advanced Skills Teacher (AST) industrial Hosmer and Hambrick, Caldwell[13] advo-
11/1 [1997] 6–13
awards. Research into the work practices of cates a leadership function that is dominant-
ASTs has yet to confirm, however, that they ly strategic as the most appropriate approach
have either the opportunities or capabilities for principals in self-managing schools:
to engage in authentic leadership roles. …the principal must be able to develop and
Whether difficulties associated with the clas- implement a cyclical process of goal-setting,
sification derive from the culture of schools need identification, priority setting, policy
and the teaching profession, or whether they making, planning, budgeting, implementing
derive from abuses of industrial processes, and evaluating in a manner which provides
has been a topic of ongoing debate. Some for the appropriate involvement of staff and
community, including parents and students
researchers, including Chadbourne and Ing-
as relevant (p. 160).
varson[8] and Crowther and Gaffney[9], have
suggested that the latter alternative is more Strategic processes such as these may be
plausible than the former. The possibility highly relevant in conceptualizing the work
also exists, however, that criteria for leader- of successful school managers of the 1990s.
ship that have been employed to examine the But what meanings, if any, do they have in the
work of practitioners in cases such as these work of highly successful classroom practi-
are themselves inadequate or inappropriate. tioners and other non-managers? This ques-
Certainly, consideration of the topic of tion remains largely unconsidered in educa-
teacher leadership appears to have focused tional leadership literature.
mainly on teachers’ capacity to assume high
levels of responsibility in managerial aspects Transformational leadership
of school organization. However, it should not Transformational leadership emphasizes the
be taken for granted that this capacity neces- significance of “the person”, and personal
sarily constitutes “educational leadership”. traits, in bringing about social and cultural
To illuminate this essential point, three lead- change.
ership approaches that have acquired credi- To Avolio and Bass[14], whose pioneering
bility in contemporary educational manage- research has been instrumental in developing
ment theory and practice are discussed transformational approaches to leadership,
briefly. Each is used subsequently as a refer- leaders are individuals who “motivate follow-
ence point in the analysis of research data ers to work for transcendental goals instead
and discussion of research findings. of immediate self-interest and for achieve-
ment and self-actualization instead of safety
Strategic leadership and security”. Avolio and Bass further assert
The view that leadership is primarily a func- that transformational leadership comprises
tion of “strategy” is certainly not new. It three elements:
reflects the ideology of logical empiricism 1 Charisma. The leader instils pride, faith
that shaped educational administration as a and respect, has a gift for seeing what is
discipline until the 1980s[10] and bears con- really important, and has a sense of vision
siderable resemblance to the two-dimension- which is effectively articulated.
al (i.e. task-relationships) conceptualizations 2 Individualized consideration. The leader
of leadership that were developed in the 1950s delegates projects to stimulate and create
and 1960s and that have dominated leadership learning experience, pays attention to
research until the very recent past. With the followers’ needs, especially those followers
emergence over the past decade of a wide- who seem neglected, and treats each fol-
spread view of the principal or head as chief lower with respect and as an individual.
executive and entrepreneurial marketer in a 3 Intellectual stimulation. The leader pro-
self-managing school, this particular concep-
vides ideas that result in a rethinking of
tion of leadership may be said to have gained
old ways, that is, the leader enables follow-
new momentum and status.
ers to look at problems from many angles
As the term implies, strategic leadership
and to resolve problems that were at a
emphasizes rationality in the leader’s role.
standstill[14, p. 137].
Thus, Hosmer, cited in Shrivastava and Nach-
man[11], defines it as the creation of an over- Transformational leadership is generally
all sense of purpose and direction which regarded as having originated in the work of
guide integrated strategy formulation and Burns[15]. It would appear to have relevance
implementation in organizations. to the work of teachers as leaders if for no
[8]
Frank Crowther and other reason than that Burns regarded “lead- follows that educative leadership must
Peter Olsen ership as education” and “education as lead- closely respond to the cultural context, be
Teachers as leaders – an ership”. The essence of leadership, Burns critically aware of the long-term practices of
exploratory framework asserted, is one of relationship, or engage- participants in educational processes, and
International Journal of ment, and of common elevation of motives or when action is proposed, justify ends and
Educational Management processes using an educative philosophy...
values. It gains strength when pluralistic
11/1 [1997] 6–13 Hence, educative leadership implies a
qualities inherent in groups and communi- responsible involvement in the politics of
ties are recognized. Differences based on the organization (pp. 3-4).
gender, ethnicity, race and culture are there-
fore important. With regard to gender, for In similar vein, Smyth[19] challenges practi-
example, Burns[15] claimed that: tioners to “frame problems, and to discuss
The male bias is reflected in the false con- and work individually and collectively to
ception of leadership as mere command or understand and change the situations that
control. As leadership comes properly to be cause these problems”. As Fried expressed it,
seen as a process of leaders engaging and empowerment as used in this sense means
mobilizing the human needs and aspira- helping people to take charge of their lives,
tions of followers, women will be more read-
people who have been restrained, by social or
ily recognized as leaders and men will
political forces, from assuming such control.
change their own leadership styles (p. 50).
Implicit in Smyth’s challenge is the view that,
Transformational concepts like “empower- if education is to create emancipation or
ment”, “vision” and “mission” have become a liberation in the human condition, it will be
feature of the rhetoric associated with devel- unlikely to do so through the sole influence of
opmental processes at different levels in edu- administrators. Indeed, Smyth contends that
cation systems throughout the world. They the notion of educative leadership is itself a
are to be found, for example, in the strategic misnomer in that leadership as traditionally
plans of departments of education, in the defined implies hierarchical division of
annual plans of regional authorities and in power and corporate direction setting, while
school-based development plans. But is there educativeness implies the opposite, namely
opportunity in modern, corporate education “assisting people to understand themselves
systems for practitioners with deep personal and their world... to overcome the oppressive
convictions to inspire social change and conditions that characterize work patterns
improvement, individually or collaboratively. and social relationships” (p. 182).
The implications of recent developments in The relevance of educative concepts and
transformational leadership for the school processes to the work of school administra-
and classroom levels of education are thus tors has been recognized[20], but their rele-
extremely complex. vance to the work of teachers and other prac-
titioners remains largely unexplored. The
Educative leadership present study represents a step in addressing
Educative leadership is often viewed as this void.
linked to social reconstructionist philosophy.
For Bates[16], the essential point about lead-
ership in education is that it “involves the Findings of the research
making and articulating of choices, the loca-
tion of oneself within the cultural struggles of Conceptualizations of disadvantage
the times as much in the cultural battles of The exploration of teacher leadership that
the school as in the wider society” (p. 19). For was the major focus of the research cannot be
Foster[17], “leadership is at its heart a critical viewed in isolation from the major contextual
practice”, involving educational leaders in variable, socioeconomic disadvantage. Thus,
the necessary practice of reflective and criti- before research findings relating to teacher
cal thinking about the culture of their organi- leadership are reviewed, it is appropriate to
zations (p. 52). Both Bates and Foster could be consider the meanings ascribed by partici-
said to emphasize educative approaches to pants in the research to disadvantage.
leadership. From an analysis of the 43 critical incident
Duignan and Macpherson[18] cite writers statements provided by participants, sup-
like Deal and Kennedy, Purkey and Smith, ported by interview data, it is possible to
and Starratt in creating a definition of educa- identify four different conceptualizations of
tive leadership that involves continuous criti- disadvantage that were perceived to impose
cal discourse and social action as a means of on schools and students (Table I). The four
addressing social injustice and disadvantage conceptualizations encompass one or another
in an organization: form of deficit in social competence, material
Educative leadership appears to be a delib- means, relationship with the law and attitude
erate attempt at cultural elaboration... It towards school. Of relevance is that most
[9]
Frank Crowther and Table I
Peter Olsen Conceptualizations of disadvantage
Teachers as leaders – an
exploratory framework N
International Journal of (Critical incident
Educational Management Conceptualizations Specific examples references)
11/1 [1997] 6–13
Inappropriate social competences
Reluctance to co-operate with authority
figures “You can’t make me” 6
Very aggressive approach to social
intercourse Hostile, threatening language 4
Bullying of peers Gender-based harassment in play area 4
Total 14
Lack of material means
No support for school attendance or
participation “No one cares if I don’t come to school” 6
No resources to meet basic needs Unable to purchase school uniform 3
Total 9
At risk with the law
Demonstrated criminal background or
tendency Stealing, brandishing a weapon, drug abuse 4
Abuse of welfare system Illegal claim of welfare benefits 3
Ambiguous legal status Victim in custody battle 2
Total 9
Alienated from schooling
History of personal failure “I can’t do anything” 5
History of family failure at school Parents’ school experiences were associated
with fear 3
Victim of poor teaching Negative influence of Teacher X 3
Total 11
Total 43
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