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Module

1.8
1.8 Household Water Treatment Processes
Water treatment is usually processes for a particular
accomplished in a series of steps application will be discussed.
which are used in both large These criteria can be used as a
water treatment plants as well as basis to select an appropriate
in household water treatment. technology.

Conventional water treatment


plants and large pipeline
distribution systems are designed
for large town or city uses.
However, there are large portions
of the world’s population who do
not have access to these large
systems.

There are affordable water


treatment processes that have
been developed and proven for
use in household or ‘point of use’
applications.

This module will explain various


water treatment processes, the
pros and cons, and the best
application for each process.
Criteria for evaluating various
Module 1.8 Household Water Treatment Processes

1.8 HOUSEHOLD WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES ............................................. ..........1


WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES...........................................................................................................2
Sedimentation................................................................................................................. .........2
Filtration.................................................................................................................. ...............3
Disinfection............................................................................................................ .................3
HOUSEHOLD WATER TREATMENT.........................................................................................................4
HOUSEHOLD SEDIMENTATION...............................................................................................................4
Straining............................................................................................................................. .....4
The 3-pot system ............................................................................................................... ......5
Coagulant Agents................................................................................................... .................5
FILTRATION.......................................................................................................................................6
RAPID SAND FILTER...........................................................................................................................7
SLOW SAND FILTER...........................................................................................................................7
Pathogen Removal.................................................................................................................. .7
Bacteria........................................................................................................................... ........8
Viruses............................................................................................................................ .........8
Protozoa................................................................................................................... ...............8
Helminths.............................................................................................................. ..................8
BIOSAND FILTER................................................................................................................................9
KANCHAN ARSENIC FILTER...............................................................................................................11
OTHER FILTERS...............................................................................................................................12
Ceramic Filters............................................................................................. ........................13
Katadyn Drip Filter (ceramic Candle Filter with Plastic Bucket)............................... ..........13
DISINFECTION .................................................................................................................................14
Chemical Disinfection.......................................................................................... .................14
CDC Safe Water System............................................................................... .........................14
PuR - Coagulant and Disinfectant.................................................................................. .....14
Boiling Water....................................................................................................................... ..16
Solar Water Disinfection............................................................................. ..........................16
Water Pasteurization......................................................................................... ....................16
Ultraviolet Light Treatment.................................................................................... ...............17
TECHNOLOGY COMPARISON...............................................................................................................18
RESOURCES.....................................................................................................................................19

Water Treatment Processes


Raw water is usually treated in three main processes in order to make it safe for human
consumption. These processes are used in series starting with sedimentation, then
filtration, and followed by disinfection.

Sedimentation
If the water contains suspended materials such as particles of sand, clay and other
materials, they can be substantially removed with very little energy by allowing the water
to settle for some period of time. This is accomplished through the use of a natural
reservoir, settling pond, or a large tank. When considering household water treatment,
even a small container such as a pail will allow a majority of the particles to settle.
The sedimentation process can be accelerated through the use of coagulants and
flocculants. These are natural and synthetic chemicals that change the electrical charges

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of the suspended materials. This allows the particles to join together, thereby increasing
their mass so that they settle to the bottom of the container.

Bacteria and viruses are often attached to particle surfaces. Removal of particles by
sedimentation will produce a marked reduction in bacterial concentrations.

Filtration
Filters remove pathogens in several ways. These include straining, where the particles or
larger pathogens such as worms become trapped in the small spaces between the grains of
filter media; adsorption, where pathogens become attached to the filter media; or biologic
processes, where pathogens die naturally or the micro organisms which live in the filter
consume the pathogens.

Disinfection
Disinfection comes about primarily through the destruction of the organism cell walls by
oxidation. This oxidation is normally a result of the addition of chemicals such as
chlorine. It can also be induced by ultraviolet radiation such as natural sunlight or
artificial UV rays.

Pathogens can hide from disinfecting agents in organic and inorganic residue in the water.
Removal of suspended materials by sedimentation and filtration greatly improves the
performance of chemical disinfection agents.

The following is a schematic drawing explaining the basic steps involved in a typical
commercial or municipal water treatment process.

A Typical Conventional Water Treatment Plant Process


(Figure9.1, Droste: Theory and Practice - Water and Wastewater Treatment, 96)

After initial screening at the inlet to remove the larger rock fragments and debris,
chemical coagulants are added to and mixed rapidly with the water. The mixture is then
mixed more slowly in the flocculation tank so that the suspended particles in the water
form larger particles. These large particles are then allowed to settle out in the

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sedimentation basin. Filtration follows sedimentation. There are two principal alternatives
with respect to filtration; slow sand or rapid sand filtration. Rapid sand filtration is the
most commonly used. The filtered water is then disinfected before distribution and use.

Household Water Treatment


In many parts of the world, the individual household is often responsible for treating its
own drinking water. This reality has advantages and disadvantages depending on the
location and resources available to the householders. Where community utility water
treatment and distribution systems do not exist, it is frequently the only choice other than
using untreated water.

Advantages:
• only choice other than untreated water
• usually less expensive
• faster to implement
• lower water volumes need to be treated
• entry point for hygiene and sanitation connections

Disadvantages:
• requires operation and maintenance knowledge
• requires motivation to ensure required maintenance is done

The daily water consumption for people connected to a piped water system ranges between 80
to 200 litres per person, whereas for people not connected to a piped water system, the daily
consumption of water is primarily for essential purposes and this generally ranges between 5
and 10 litres per person. Therefore, a typical family of five would use about 40 litres of water
daily for essential purposes.

In the following material of this module, we will attempt to address household water use
and treatment systems.

Household Sedimentation
Water storage to allow for settling of suspended particles is a simple method to improve
the water quality. Plain sedimentation, however, can only partly remove turbidity – which
is a measure of suspended solids – and faecal coliforms – the common indicator used to
quantify the degree of faecal pollution. The main health risk associated with household
water storage is the risk of recontamination through inappropriate handling practices.

Straining
A cloth fabric can be used to strain particles out of water. The following is a presentation
that discusses cholera in detail, but it does have a reference to the use of old sari cloth in

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Bangladesh for straining water. If the cloth is folded such that there are eight layers, the
filtering of the cholera organisms can be very effective, and can reduce the outbreaks of
cholera.
http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/forum/colwell/rc021023swedishacadmy.htm (Apr 05)

The 3-pot system


If untreated water is drawn, stored, and allowed to stand for a long time, some
bacteria/viruses are known to die off. This system is suitable at a household level and is
done in the following sequence:
1. Two big pots are used for fetching water on alternative days.
2. The first pot is allowed to stand for 24 hours.
3. Then the clear top water is carefully poured into a smaller pot for drinking, and
the remaining water used for washing.
4. When the first pot is empty, it is cleaned, refilled, and allowed to stand for 24
hours.
In this way each day’s water has been standing for 24 hours (one day) before it is used.

Coagulant Agents
To encourage settling of suspended particles, various additives can be put into the water.
A coagulant is a material which forms a gelatinous precipitate in water which then
collects fine particles that are too small to filter. This results in a large particle that can be
removed by settling and/or filtration.

Two common chemical coagulants are alum (aluminium sulphate) and PAC (poly
aluminium chloride) also known as liquid alum. Many other aluminium or iron salts are
commonly used in industrial water treating systems.

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Native plants have traditionally been used to improve the quality of the water in a number
of countries in Africa and Latin America. For example, the seeds of the Moringa Oleifera
are commonly used in Guatemala and Africa as coagulant aids to clarify water. Dried
beans (Vicia Fava) and peach seeds (Percica Vulgaris) also have been used in Bolivia and
other countries for this purpose.

The seeds of many plants native to the South American continent contain essential oils
and have other properties that have been exploited by traditional cultures for centuries.
Among these is the ability of certain seed extracts to flocculate particulates in water. To
prepare the seeds for use as a coagulant aid, the following procedure is commonly used:
1. Extract the seeds from the plant or fruit.
2. Dry the seeds for up to three days.
3. Grind dried seeds to a fine powder.
4. Prepare a mixture of water and ground seed material; the volume of water
depends on the type of seed material used (in the case of Moringa oleifera, add 10
cm3 of water for each seed; for peach or bean seeds, add 1 L of water to each 0.3
to 0.5 g of ground seed material).
5. Mix this solution for 5 to 10 minutes; the faster it is stirred, the less time is
required.
6. Finally, after the sediments settle, decant the treated water. Testing it for pH,
colour, and turbidity is recommended.
7. If the test results are acceptable, the treated water can be used for consumption
and other domestic purposes

The following web sites describe how plant seeds can be used as a water coagulant.
http://www.oas.org/usde/publications/Unit/oea59e/ch22.htm (Apr 05)
http://www.le.ac.uk/engineering/staff/Sutherland/moringa/water/water.htm (Apr 05)
http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/water/paper/drinkingwater/simplemethods/technology.html (Apr 05)

Filtration
Water filtration by simple household filters, such as ceramic, stone, and sand filters, will
remove a high fraction of solid matter and a large portion of micro organisms. Many of
these are commercially produced filters which are relatively costly, but some filters can
be made of locally available material.

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Rapid Sand Filter


In the rapid sand filter, water is driven through a sand bed or beds of multimedia, either
by gravity or by pressure. Fine solids are entrapped in the filter. Particle removal is
primarily a physical process.

Rapid sand filters are inappropriate for many applications in developing countries
because of their construction cost, their complexity and their need for regular
‘backwashing’ (or rapid flow reversal) at regular intervals to clean the filter.

This is one suggested type of


a household rapid sand filter
but there are few references
that indicate its use and
acceptance by users.

Slow Sand Filter


The other filtration alternative is a slow sand filter where the water moves slowly through
a sand bed. Suspended material is removed by the physical removal of the material and
pathogen removal is due primarily to biologic processes in a biologic layer, or
schmutzdecke, which develops close to the surface of the sand. Slow sand filters have
been in use for over 150 years. They are simple to build and operate, and also improve
the microbiological quality of the water substantially. Virtually complete removal of
indicator organisms and pathogens, including bacteria, cysts, protozoa, viruses and
helminths, has been shown by many researchers.

Pathogen Removal
In slow sand filters, organic material gets trapped at the surface, or very close to the
surface of the sand. Over a period of approximately three weeks, micro organisms
colonize the filter in this region, given the abundance of organic food and oxygen derived
from the water. These micro organisms consume bacteria and other pathogens in the
water, thus providing a very effective water treatment process. In addition to this process,
which is known as predation, other biologic processes act on the various pathogens in the
water. These processes are summarized below.

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Bacteria
Bacteria are usually between 0.2 and 5 microns long (Brock and Madigan, 1991), much
smaller than the spaces between sand grains which are normally in the range of 10 to 20
microns. Bacterial cells are also nearly the same density as water. Bacteria, however,
normally grow attached to surfaces, covering the particle surface to form a biofilm.
Bacteria by themselves are too small to be removed by straining and too light to be
removed by sedimentation. However, they are generally associated with larger particles
which are removed by straining or sedimentation, producing a marked reduction in
bacterial concentrations.

Viruses
Viruses can range in size from 0.02 to 0.2 microns. In conventional water treatment, the
virus particles are clumped together using coagulants and then settled or strained out. In
slow sand filtration, the viruses are adsorbed or become attached to the sand grains. Once
attached, they are metabolized by the cells or inactivated by antiviral chemicals produced
by the micro organisms in the filter (Ellis ’85 in Buzunis ’95).

Protozoa
In conventional water treatment, cysts are removed in a manner similar to viruses.
However, a small variation in turbidity will result in large fluctuations in cyst
concentrations. Some of the recent interest in slow sand filtration has been sparked by the
more effective removal of cysts by slow sand filters. Cysts, unlike other pathogens, are
highly resistive to common disinfectants such as chlorine, iodine, ozone and ultraviolet
radiation.

Helminths
These worms are generally of sufficient size that they can be removed through straining
or sedimentation.

Basic Components of a Continuously Operated Slow Sand Filter


(after AWWA)

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In a conventional slow sand process, the water is continuously fed to the filter. Thus, a
pump or gravity flow system with large inlet and outlet storage tanks is required.

The following is a proposed design of a small slow sand filter. However, there are not any
references of such a system being used in a household service.

Continuously Operated Household Slow Sand Filter

A small, plastic SSF can be obtained from Blackburn and Associates in California.
http://www.slowsandfilter.com/ (Apr 05)

Biosand Filter
The major benefits of slow sand filtration are due to the microbiology of the filter. The
microbiological community must be kept alive for the filter to be effective. In a
conventional slow sand filter, oxygen is supplied to the organisms through dissolved
oxygen in the water. Consequently, they are designed to be operated continuously. Also,
because the water moves through at a slow rate, the filter beds tend to be very large.

The BioSand water filter is an adaptation of the traditional slow sand filters in such a way
that the filters can be built on a smaller scale and can be operated intermittently. These
modifications make the filter suitable for use at the household or small group level - uses
which are simply not possible with conventional slow sand filtration because of the size
requirements and the mode of operation.

A bucket of contaminated water can be poured into the top of the BioSand filter as
necessary. The water simply flows through the filter and is collected in another bucket or

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container at the base of the spout. It normally takes a few minutes for the entire bucket to
make its way through the filter because it is designed such that the flow through the filter
does not exceed 10 litres/minute/square metre. There are no valves or moving parts and
the design of the outlet system ensures that a minimum water depth of five centimetres is
maintained over the sand when the filter is not in use. The filtration processes are
identical to that of a conventional slow sand filter.

When the water is flowing through the filter, oxygen is supplied to the biologic layer at
the top of the sand by the dissolved oxygen in the water. During pause times, when the
water is not flowing, the oxygen is obtained by diffusion from the air and by slow
convective mixing of the layer of water above the sand (the supernatant). If this layer is
kept small in depth, enough oxygen is able to pass through to the micro organisms to
keep them alive and thus effective.

The main components of the BioSand filter and their uses are described below:

LID – Prevents contaminants


from entering the filter

DIFFUSER - Protects the


schmutzedecke from damage
when water is poured in

STANDING WATER LEVEL- keeps


schmutzedecke alive during pause periods

OUTLET PIPE- Conducts water from


the bottom of the filter to the outside –
maintains the water level constant

FINE SAND – traps contaminants


that pass through schmutzdecke

COARSE SAND – separates fine


sand from underdrain gravel

UNDERDRAIN GRAVEL - promotes


water flow to the outlet pipe

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Kanchan Arsenic Filter


The Kanchan Arsenic Filter (KAF) was developed at Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT), in collaboration with the Environment and Public Health
Organization (ENPHO) of Nepal. The filter can remove both microbial and arsenic
contamination. The KAF is a household-level slow sand filter with additional arsenic
removal capability. The design of this filter is similar to the Biosand Filter, but the
diffuser plated is replaced by a deep diffuser basin filled with 5 kg of non-galvanized iron
nails and a layer of brick chips. In addition to the concrete version of the filter, the MIT-
ENPHO team has developed a small plastic version using off-the-shelf plastic water
buckets available in Nepal.

Diffuser Basin
Lid
Brick chips
Container
Iron Nails

Water

Fine Sand
Pipe

Coarse Sand
Gravel
Components of a Kanchan Arsenic Filter

Plastic Kanchan Arsenic Filters in Nepal showing the


iron nails and brick chips in the diffuser basin

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The iron nails in the diffuser basin, after contact with water and air, will quickly rust.
Iron rust (ferric hydroxide) is an excellent adsorbent for arsenic. When arsenic-
contaminated water is poured into the filter, arsenic may stay in the diffuser box (i.e.
adsorbed to the surface of the rusted nails in the box), or the arsenic-loaded iron particles
can be flushed down and trapped on top of fine sand. The purpose of the brick chips is to
protect the underlying iron nails from dispersing due to the force of the incoming water.

The KAF can removal 85% to 95% arsenic in the raw water. The iron nails will lose their
capacity in 3 to 5 years if the raw water has up to 500 ug/L of arsenic. At that time,
replacement of the iron nails is necessary. However, the exact replacement period will
depend on a variety of factors such as the usage rate and water chemistry.

Other Filters
In addition to using sand as the filter media, there are other commercially made fabrics or
filaments that provide a filtering effect. The following is a description of one such filter.

Spiral Wound Cartridge and Charcoal Filter

The following water purification system is a simple but effective way to produce potable
water. It consists of two five gallon buckets and a sediment filter coupled to an activated
carbon filter. The crude water is first chlorinated with approximately 3 cc of commercial
bleach per 5 gallons and allowed to sit in a separate bucket for at least 45 minutes to
provide ample time for disinfection. It is then poured into the top bucket, where it is
filtered through the sediment filter and the activated carbon into the bottom bucket.

The filter units are inexpensive and offer a convenient method of producing potable
water. Testing has indicated that the life span of both the carbon and sediment cartridges
is considerable -- systems that have been in place for at least two years now are still
removing chlorine as efficiently as filters that have been newly distributed. The useful
life of the sediment filter varies widely depending on the water that is being filtered.

This is a good filtering system which also uses chlorine and it should give very good
quality water. The downside is that the filters elements have to be replaced periodically.
http://www.rollins.edu/int-programs/filter.html (Apr 05)

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Ceramic Filters
The ceramic filter is an old technology and seems to be making a comeback. A piece of
ceramic material is constructed such that there are very small pores in the clay/ceramic.
When water is allowed to flow the ceramic material, contaminants are trapped in the pore
spaces in a similar fashion to a sand filter. If properly construction and operated, a
ceramic filter can be very effective in producing good quality water.

Frequently, colloidal silver is added or applied to the ceramic surface. This silver has
properties which reduce the bacteria content in water that is in contact with the silver. In
its ionic colloid state, silver is recognized as a germicide, or in some cases as
bacteriostatic. It is believed that silver is able to disable the particular enzyme that
pathogenic bacteria and fungi use for oxygen metabolism, thus suffocating them.
Other pathogens are destroyed by the electric charge on the silver particles, causing their
internal protoplast to collapse, and still others are rendered unable to reproduce. Parasites
are also killed while in their egg stage.

Ceramic water purifiers can be:


1. Effective: consistently testing 99 to 100% removal of fecal coliform indicators.
2. Low cost: one new model projected at US$1.50 for the two container system.
3. User friendly.

Potters for Peace is an organization that produces low cost ceramic filters.
http://www.potpaz.org/pfpfilters.htm (Apr 05)

This is a very recent web site that describes a ceramic water filter that can be produced
for the poor. They are asking for support in testing and documenting the effectiveness of
ceramic filters.
http://www.purifier.com.np/ (Apr 05)

The following web site is from a commercial manufacturer in Brazil who sells various
ceramic filters. He also has distributors in South Africa and Australia. They have silver
coated candles as well.
http://www.stefani.ind.br (Apr 05)

Katadyn Drip Filter (ceramic Candle Filter with Plastic Bucket)

The heart of the Katadyn Drip Filter is the ceramic element, which will filter particles as
small as 0.2 microns, removing all disease-causing bacteria and protozoa. Because the
ceramic filter can be cleaned hundreds of times, more water can be filtered at a fraction
of the price of a unit with a non-recoverable filter.

The Drip Filter is easy-to-maintain and features no moving parts. It outputs 4 litres per
hour, and the service life is 39,000 gallons. A measuring gauge indicates when the filter
needs to be replaced. Weight: 7.3 lb. Size: 10" x 18" US $189.95
https://www.travmed.com/scripts/catalog.epl?product_id=143&category_id=40&moveit=8 (Apr 05)

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Disinfection
Disinfection comes about primarily through the destruction of the organism cell walls by
oxidation. This oxidation is normally a result of the addition of chemicals such as
chlorine, bromine, iodine or ozone, or it can be induced using ultraviolet radiation.

Pathogens and other micro-organisms can ‘hide’ from disinfecting agents in organic and
inorganic residue in the water. Thus, chemical dosages needed to deactivate or kill
pathogens increase with the amount of dissolved or suspended material. Removal of
suspended materials by sedimentation and filtration greatly improve the performance of
chemical disinfection agents.

Chemical Disinfection
Chemical oxidation or disinfection is accomplished by adding a solution of chemical
oxidizing agents to the water. With sufficient contact time, chemical reactions occur
which change the contaminants in the water. Bleach (chlorine) or sodium hypochlorite
addition is the most common chemical oxidation process. It oxidizes organic matter,
manganese, iron and hydrogen sulphide.

Water disinfection with chlorine is used to kill micro-organisms (bacteria and viruses),
but does not inactivate pathogenic parasites (e.g. Giardia, Cryptosporidium and helminth
eggs). This type of treatment requires a supply of chlorine either in liquid or powder
form. Skilled application is necessary as chlorine is a hazardous and corrosive substance.
Water treated by chlorine has a taste which many users do not appreciate. This table
describes the different concentrations of chlorine that are available and how they can be
used to make a water treatment solution suitable for household use.

CDC Safe Water System


The website below is the CDC Safe Water System manual that describes a program to
implement chemical disinfection and safe water storage:
Safe Water Systems for the Developing World: A Handbook for Implementing
Household-Based Water Treatment and Safe Storage Projects, Department of Health &
Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (over 200 pages, 2001)
http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/manual/sws_manual.pdf (Apr 05)

PuR - Coagulant and Disinfectant


Scientists from Proctor and Gamble Health Sciences Institute developed a product which
consists of powder in a small packet. This powder is made up of a clarifier and a
disinfectant (bleach). When added to water and stirred, it coagulates the solid particles
and disinfects the water. The water is then strained or decanted to take out the suspended
particles. The product is promoted as an affordable and simple-to-use in-home water
purification product, PuR Water Purifier. This new purifier clarifies and effectively
reduces microbial pathogens, improving the quality of drinking water. Their web site has
two short videos about the product and some research testing that has been done.
http://www.pghsi.com/communications/pur.htm (Apr 05)

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Source: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/emergencies/em2002chap7.pdf

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Boiling Water
Boiling of water kills viral, parasitic and bacterial pathogens. The recommended boiling
time is one minute at sea level, adding one minute for every additional 1000 meters in
altitude. The main disadvantage of boiling water is the large amount of energy required,
making it economically and environmentally unsustainable.

Solar Water Disinfection


SODIS is a simple water treatment method using solar radiation (UV-A light and
temperature) to destroy pathogenic bacteria and viruses present in the water. Its efficiency
in killing protozoa is dependent on the water temperature reached during solar exposure
and on the climatic and weather conditions. Microbiologically contaminated water is
poured into transparent containers and exposed to full sunlight for a minimum of 6 hours.
Very turbid water with a turbidity of more than 30 NTU cannot be used for SODIS.

SODIS is a water treatment method that:


• improves the microbiological quality of drinking water
• does not change the taste of water
• is applicable at household level
• is simple in application
• relies on local resources and renewable energy
• is replicable with low investment costs
• is ideal to treat small quantities of water

Sunlight is treating the contaminated water through two synergetic mechanisms: radiation
in the spectrum of UV-A (wavelength 320-400nm) and increased water temperature. If
the water temperature rises above 50°C, the disinfection process is three times faster.

Limitations of SODIS:
• does not change the chemical water quality
• requires relatively clear water (turbidity less than 30 NTU)
• requires suitable weather conditions
• is not useful to treat large volumes of water

The following web site is an excellent source of information on the SODIS system. It has
a good reference manual, contains lots of technical information, and is easy to use and
understand.
http://www.sodis.ch/ (Apr 05)

Water Pasteurization
This process achieves the same effect as boiling at temperatures of only 70°C-75°C, but
requires a longer exposure time of approximately 10 minutes.

It is essentially a large sized SODIS system. Safe Water Systems uses the time-honoured
technique of pasteurization to disinfect water that is microbiologically contaminated.

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Laboratory testing of SWS Solar Water Pasteurizers confirms an effectiveness of


99.999% in disinfecting water that contains disease-causing micro-organisms, including
bacteria, viruses, worms and protozoa.

The Family Sol*Saver model disinfects water by combining heat pasteurization with UV
radiation. The water is typically heated for 2-3 hours. Once the temperature reaches 62ºC
(143ºF), the thermal indicator wax melts, confirming that pasteurization has occurred.
http://www.safewatersystems.com/ (Apr 05)

Ultraviolet Light Treatment


Ultraviolet water disinfection is not a new technology, but the small-scale, energy-
efficient and low-maintenance design has created a uniquely affordable and effective
device. Typical systems operate using the equivalent of a 60-Watt light bulb at a cost of
as low as 4 cents/ton of water treated, treating 15 Litres/minute, enough for 500-1500
people. As a result, UVW offers the first practical means of providing many communities
in developing nations with readily accessible, disinfected drinking water.
• Effective on all water-borne bacteria and viruses
• Inexpensive to buy and operate
• Simple to use, low maintenance
• Uses 6,000 times less energy than boiling
• Accepted by villagers, universal use
• Works with the flow from a standard hand pump (treats 4 gallons/min)

How it Works
• UV light disables DNA of micro-organisms in the water
• Micro-organisms cannot replicate and soon die
• No effect on taste or smell of water
• Takes only 12 seconds to treat water

This web site describes an electric ultraviolet device.


http://eetd.lbl.gov/iep/archive/uv/ (Apr 05)

This is the web site of the commercial supplier of the household UV system described
above. They also sell other types of water treating equipment.
http://www.waterhealth.com (Apr 05)

There are several commercial suppliers of UV systems. This site describes a low cost UV
Tube that may be suitable for use where there is continuous power.
http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2003/06/02_water.shtml (Apr 05)

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Technology Comparison
There are several criteria that can be used to assess and compare technologies for treating
household water supplies.

A paper by H. Lukacs aims to develop a framework to evaluate the appropriateness of


point-of-use treatment technologies for developing country application. An innovative
slow sand filtration technology (BioSand filter) is described in this paper and then
evaluated based upon these criteria to set a baseline to which other technologies can be
compared. The following 10 complementary criteria are expanded upon and their
importance to the long-term implementation success of point-of-use water treatment
technologies discussed:
• Quality of water treated
• Quantity of water treated
• Robustness of design
• Local materials and maintenance
• Obvious importance to users
• Local demand for technology
• Opportunity for community participation
• Ease of technology transfer
• Economical sustainability (Capital and Operating Costs)
• Opportunity for financing

The full text of this paper can be found at this web site:
web.mit.edu/11.479/www/Lukacs.doc

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Resources

In the review in the following website, there are several tables where comparisons are
made of various household water treatment technologies that are recommended by the
author. There is no one “winner”, but the ratings will assist the user in determining which
technology might be the most applicable for the particular situation.

This site shows a comparison of various water treating systems.


http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/manual/alt_water.htm#figure_19

Within this web site, the following is a page that compares various water disinfection
methods.
http://www.safewatersystems.com/General%20Pages/Technology%20Comparison%20C
hart.htm (Apr 05)

Identifying the most accessible and effective methods for household water storage and
treatment are matters of considerable importance and are the subject of the report found
at the web site:
Managing Water in the Home: Accelerated Health Gains from Improved Water Supply.
Geneva, WHO, 2002. WHO/SDE/WSH/02.07.
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/wsh0207/en/ (Apr 05)

This web site contains a number of MIT Master of Engineering theses and other research
reports on household water treatment technologies, from technical performance
evaluation to social acceptability to marketing strategies.
http://web.mit.edu/watsan(Oct 05)

This web site has an interesting article about household based water treatment processes.
http://www.skat-foundation.org/publications/pdf/Aguasan_16.pdf (Apr 05)

The following web site is a very extensive list (6,600 listings) of commercial companies
from around the world that design and manufacture various pieces of equipment or
provide services for the following: environmental information, waste water treatment,
water supply and purification, air pollution control.
http://www.eco-web.com/ (Apr 05)

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