Heat-Flow Studies in India

131

Heat-Flow Studies in India

SUKANTA ROY1* and R. SRINIVASAN2

Geophysical Research Institute, Uppal Road, Hyderabad - 500 007 2114, Kshithija, Ramanashree Nagar, Bannerghatta Road, Bangalore - 560 076 INTRODUCTION Heat-flow studies in India were initiated at the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Hyderabad in 1962. Heat-flow determined at Kolar, by measurements in the Nandydurg mine up to a depth of 2150 m, finds place in the first compilation of the global heat-flow data set by Lee and Uyeda (1965). Over the last four decades, temperature measurements in boreholes and thermal conductivity measurements on rock cores have been carried out systematically at the NGRI, resulting in improved models for thermal structure of the continental lithosphere. Extensive geothermal investigations towards assessment of geothermal energy potential of the hot spring areas located in different parts of the country were launched by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) and a few other organizations including NGRI during the 1970s and continued up to the mid-1980s. The period 2003-2007 witnessed significant growth on two fronts, (1) characterization of the thermal structure of the continental lithosphere through acquisition of new data on heat-flow and thermal properties of rocks, and (2) applications of geothermal measurements to interdisciplinary studies such as global climate change. The activities include modelling the thermal structure of the lithosphere through new heat-flow determinations at 35 sites and characterization of radiogenic heat production for major rock formations in southern India, characterization of temperature dependence of thermal properties for midto lower-crustal rocks, geothermal investigations in parts of the Himalaya, studies related to geothermal energy, and analysis of geothermal observations for past climate change. The salient results emerging from these studies are discussed briefly in the following sections. THERMAL MODELLING OF CONTINENTAL LITHOSPHERE Thirty-five new heat-flow values have been determined for the Indian shield. The new sites include 11 in the greenstone-granite gneiss western dharwar craton (WDC), 9 in the Closepet Granite (CG) batholith, and 15 in the gneiss-granulite terrain of southern India. Together with the previously reported heat-flow values from 45 sites in the Dharwar craton and 18 sites in the gneiss-granulite terrain, the present data set contributes to a complete characterization of the thermal state of southern Indian crust (Fig. 1). A significant feature of the data set are the measurements in 14 boreholes drilled to depths ranging from 400 to 600 m at sites carefully chosen to minimize perturbations to the subsurface temperature field. The data set effectively covers a wide range of crustal heat production scenarios comprising the Precambrian terrain of southern
* E-mail: sukantaroy@yahoo.com

1National

India and includes, (a) the mid-Archean tonalitic crust in the WDC, so far known to be the oldest crust in south India, the late Archaean granodioritic crust in the EDC, and the late Archaean gneiss-granulite terrain to the south of the WDC and EDC, all of which are unaffected by Proterozoic to Pan-African metamorphism and magmatism, (b) the late Archean greenschist- and amphibolite-facies levels of CG, and (c) the late Archaean to Proterozoic granulite terrain with overprint of Proterozoic to Pan-African metamorphic and magmatic events. Results from the study are as follows: a) the WDC is characterized by low heat-flow, 29 - 32 mW m-2, relative to the EDC, 25 - 51 mW m-2.

Fig. 1: Geological map of southern India (modified after Geological Survey of India, 1998) showing the distribution of heat-flow data in the eastern Dharwar craton (EDC), western Dharwar craton (WDC), Closepet Granite batholith (CG) and Southern Granulite Province (SGP). PCL and AKL (dashed lines) represent the Palghat-Cauvery lineament and the Achankovil lineament respectively. Transects along which seismic soundings have been carried out are shown as thin solid lines. Source of the heat-flow data are Gupta et al. (1991), Roy and Rao (2000), Ray et al. (2003), Roy et al. (2003, 2007, 2008) and references therein

132 b) The previous heat-flow range for the gneiss-granulite terrain of south India, 28-45 mW m-2, stands revised in the light of new heat-flow value of 58 mWm -2 determined in the Kerala khondalite belt (scenario c). Measurements at two different crustal levels within a single pluton, the Closepet Granite, demonstrate that heat-flow variations in a tectonic province can be explained by variations in radiogenic heat production of rocks constituting the upper crust, and heat production generally decreases with depth in plutons although not necessarily in a systematic way. The new data set reveals differences in crustal thermal structure between individual geologic sub-provinces comprising the southern Indian Precambrian terrain. Within the scenario (a), the mantle heat-flow estimates vary from ~11 mW m-2 beneath the region of the oldest, undeformed tonalitic crust of the WDC to ~23 mW m2 beneath the region of the late Archaean post-accretion granulites. The mantle heat-flow range in the Closepet granite is 12-14 mWm-2, which is consistent with previous estimates from the EDC.

Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India 0.40.4 and 0.40.2 W m-3 respectively) relative to those of the Madurai block (1.30.8 and 1.3 0.8 Wm-3) and the Kerala khondalite block (2.21.6 and 5.54.4 Wm-3). (ii) The highest levels of depletion in all the three heatproducing elements, K, U and Th, are observed over a ~50 km long sector (Salem-Namakkal) in the northern block, which is characterized by mean heat production of 0.160.07 Wm -3 (N=25). Crustal segments comprising such low-heat-producing rocks serve as potential windows to glean into mantle thermal regime. (iii) The garnet-biotite gneisses, which constitute the dominant rock type in the Kerala khondalite block, are associated with the highest heat production levels (5.54.4 Wm-3) observed so far. (iv) Heat-production levels in individual rock types are strongly controlled by the nature of their precursors, P-T conditions of metamorphism and later metasomatism affecting them. Thermal Conductivity of Higher Himalayan Crystallines The Higher Himalayan Crystallines (HHC) constitutes a major structural feature of the Himalayan belt characterized by a typical collisional and metamorphic evolution from Eocene to Miocene (Guillot and Allemand, 2002). Over the last decade, modelling the thermal structure of the Himalayan orogen has been recognized as one of the critical aspects in understanding the tectonic evolution of large continental collisional zones. Thermal modelling, in turn, is critically dependent upon thermal conductivity of rocks constituting the lithosphere. Because measurements on thermal conductivities of Himalayan rock formations are lacking, a number of 1-D and 2-D thermal modelling studies carried out for this region depend on assumed values of conductivity of rocks, and often a uniform value for conductivity of the entire crust. Thermal conductivity characteristics of the major rock formations in the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda-Dhauliganga river valleys in and around Uttarkashi and Joshimath areas respectively of the Garhwal Himalaya have been studied at NGRI (Ray et al., 2007). Seventy-three rock samples including gneiss, metabasic rock and quartzite were measured using a steady-state divided bar method. These constitute the first systematic measurements on Himalayan rocks in India. The data are plotted in Fig. 2. The following results emerge from the study: (i) Thermal conductivity of augen gneiss, fine-grained gneiss and banded gneiss exhibit large variations. The mean values for these varieties of gneisses range from 2.1 to 2.7 Wm-1K-1.

c)

d)

In conclusion, it appears that the variations in heat-flow within the greenstone-granite gneiss terrains of Dharwar craton can be explained by variations in heat production of upper crustal rocks. However, the granulitic terrain of the Dharwar craton exhibits a higher component of mantle heat-flow relative to the greenstone-granite-gneiss terrain, in addition to significant differences in heat production of upper crustal rocks. Contrary to previous hypotheses, the Precambrian terrain of southern India cannot be represented by a single model covering all the geological sub-provinces, but represents a mosaic of terrains with varying subcrustal thermal regimes. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS Radiogenic Heat Production of Major Rock Formations in South India A unique feature of the heat-flow studies programme in India is the systematic characterization of radiogenic heat production of all major rock formations likely constituting the crust in south India. Both in-situ as well as laboratorybased gamma-ray spectrometry has been employed to obtain data from more than 1500 sites covering a variety of rock suites of the greenschist facies, amphibolite facies and granulite facies that are exposed along a oblique crustal cross-section cutting across different rock formations of the Dharwar craton (Rao et al., 2003; Roy and Rao, 2003; Kumar and Reddy, 2004). The dataset provides an opportunity to examine the depth distribution of heat production in the continental crust, and therefore facilitates modelling the temperature structure in the crust using heat-flow data with greater confidence. Radiogenic heat production characteristics of granulite-facies rocks, as obtained from measurements over 378 outcrops and cores from a few boreholes in the gneiss-granulite province of south India are as follows (Ray et al., 2003; Roy et al., 2003; Ray et al., 2008). (i) The charnockites and gneisses in the Northern Block are characterized by low heat production (mean values:

(ii) Metabasic rocks and quartzites represent the lowest and the highest conductivity among the rock types of the present study. Also, these are relatively more homogeneous when compared with gneisses, and therefore show a small range in conductivity. The variation in conductivity of metabasic rocks is attributable to intercalation of gneissic bands in them. (iii) Gneissic rocks exhibit a small anisotropy, generally ranging between 0.95 to 1.1.

Heat-Flow Studies in India

133 enderbites and mafic granulites that are exposed over a large region of the southern Indian shield offers a good opportunity to sample and study their thermal properties, such as conductivity and diffusivity. Systematic studies over the past decade have led to a good characterization of thermal conductivity of granulite-facies rocks at ambient temperatures. At temperatures beyond ~600C, radiative heat transfer adds to the phonon conduction and thus increases the effective conductivity. However, data at elevated temperatures representative of lower-crustal conditions are meagre in literature. A facility has been set up recently at the National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad for measurement of thermal conductivity at a range of temperatures starting from 50C up to about 800C. Experimental studies were initiated by NGRI in collaboration with Geo Forschungs Zentrum Potsdam, Germany to study the temperature dependence of thermal diffusivity for granulite facies rocks from southern India (Ray et al., 2006). Experiments on 16 rock samples used a transient technique of Schilling (1999) to measure the thermal diffusivity of rocks at elevated temperatures. The technique also allows determination of anisotropy in thermal diffusivity at elevated temperatures. The samples included felsic and intermediate granulites (charnockites, enderbites), mafic granulites, and amphibolite-facies gneisses (ortho- and mafic paragneisses. Sample size of ~1 cm3 was used for the study. The measurements were made from temperatures ranging between ambient and 550C, at intervals of 25C up to a temperature of 100C, and intervals of 50C at temperatures above 100C. Some of the results are shown in Figure 3.

Fig. 2: Thermal conductivity data of 73 samples of Higher Himalayan Crystalline rocks from Joshimath (filled symbols) and Uttarkashi (open symbols) areas, Garhwal Himalaya. (iv) Although the dataset presented here is limited to a small part of the western Himalaya only, the study has brought forth significant variations in thermal conductivity, both for the different rock types found in an area as well as for similar rock types from different areas. Therefore, modelling the subsurface thermal structure in a region, either for tectonic studies or engineering applications, by assuming an average thermal conductivity for the rocks (obtained from measurements in other distant regions) can result in large uncertainties in the thermal models. The study thus emphasizes the need for carrying out actual measurements on individual rock types in a specific area before modelling. Temperature Dependence of Thermal Properties Granulite-facies rocks are believed to constitute the middle- to lower- continental crust. Precise information on their thermal properties is therefore one of the major components in characterizing the thermal structure of the crust. A variety of granulitic rocks including charnockites, Fig. 3: Temperature dependence of thermal diffusivity for felsic, intermediate and mafic granulites of the Southern Granulite Province, India. Symbols reflect the average thermal diffusivity for each temperature. The solid line represents the least-square regression line for each sample

134 The major findings of the study are as follows: (i) At room temperature, the thermal diffusivity of charnockites and enderbites ranges from 1.3 to 2.2 mm2s-1, whereas that of the mafic granulites is usually lower and in the interval between 1.2 and 1.4 mm2s-1. The mafic orthogneiss has a relatively low thermal diffusivity of 1.6 mm2s-1, in contrast to that of the more silica-rich paragneiss (2.0-2.1 mm2s-1). The range in diffusivity is a function of modal mineralogy of the rock samples.

Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India Upon a request from Elsevier Press, a book titled Geothermal Resources: An Energy Alternative (Gupta, 1980) was updated and published as Geothermal Energy: An Alternative Resource for the 21st Century (Gupta and Roy, 2006). The book provides a coherent account of all facets of geothermal energy development worldwide. GEOTHERMICS OF CLIMATE CHANGE Temporal variations in surface ground temperature (SGT) impart a perturbation to the subsurface thermal regime that is captured in borehole temperature-depth profiles. The magnitude and depth extent of these perturbations provide a direct measure of the magnitude and timing of temperature changes at the surface. The depth extent of these anomalies is governed by the rock material property thermal diffusivity such that subsurface temperatures in the top 200 m potentially contain a record of SGT variations over approximately the past 300 years. Because heat transfer is a diffusive process, Earth acts as a low-pass filter for surface temperature changes. High-frequency components are attenuated, but important decadal and century SGT trends through time can be confidently resolved. Since very few surface air temperature (SAT) records exist prior to 1860 globally, geothermal observations provide a useful tool to extend our knowledge of surface temperature variations prior to the onset of instrumental records. Analysis of borehole temperature data can therefore address whether current global warming trends inferred from SAT data result from data coverage starting near a climatic temperature minimum in the late 1800s or whether they represent significant long-term climate change. In contrast to proxy climate records, which have to be transformed to temperature through a calibration process, borehole temperature profiles constitute a direct measure of temperature variation. Seventy temperature-depth profiles in India, located between 12 and 28oN, were analysed to infer the past changes in ground temperature (Roy et al., 2002). These profiles exhibit predominantly positive anomalous temperatures relative to the background thermal regime beginning at depths of 75150 m and increasing toward the surface. This pattern is consistent with warming over the past century. An interpretation in terms of linear surface temperature change indicates warming of about 0.9 0.1C over the past 150 years. Relatively complete surface air temperature (SAT) records from meteorological stations near the boreholes indicate similar rates of warming over the last century. A combined analysis of borehole temperatures and SAT records yields a long-term, preobservational mean temperature, 0.8 0.1C lower than the 19611990 mean SAT suggesting that the warming trends observed in the SAT records represent significant increases from the pre-instrumental (19th Century) conditions (Fig. 4). Studies are underway to characterize the nature and extent of tracking between surface air-temperature variations and ground-temperature changes over decadal and longer time scales. A geothermal climate change observatory is being set up in southern India, where both meteorological data as well as subsurface temperature data up to a depth of 150 m would be recorded continuously at the same site.

(ii) With increasing temperature, diffusivity decreases for all rock types until about 450C beyond which radiative heat transfer comes into play. In the case of mafic granulites, diffusivity shows a lower rate of decrease with increasing temperature and the radiative component is visible only beyond ~550C. GEOTHERMAL INVESTIGATIONS IN A PART OF THE HIMALAYA Systematic geothermal investigations were carried out by the NGRI to examine the subsurface temperature regime along two proposed tunnel alignments in the Uttarkashi and Joshimath areas of Garhwal Himalaya (Roy et al., 2005). The two proposed tunnels are 11 km and 15 km long respectively and cut across the rugged mountain ranges in the region. On the basis of precise temperature measurements carried out up to the tunnel, invert levels in boreholes distributed along the proposed tunnel alignments, thermal conductivity measurements on cores, and information on the distribution and geological setting of hot and cold springs in the area, an assessment of the likely temperatures at the tunnel invert level was made. The studies provided valuable inputs to devise appropriate engineering strategies prior to excavation of the tunnels. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY Efforts aimed at development of geothermal energy in the Puga hot springs area in Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir State, received a fresh impetus from the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Government of India. An assessment of the status of geothermal exploration in the area and the feasibility of setting up a pilot-scale geothermal power plant was made by a committee of experts from different organizations including the Geological Survey of India, National Geophysical Research Institute, Central Electricity Authority, Mineral Exploration Corporation Limited, National Hydroelectric Power Corporation, Ladakh Renewable Energy Development Authority and other agencies. Critical information gaps affecting the complete characterization of the nature of the heat source and its sustainability for power generation have been identified. A similar effort is underway in the Tattapani hot springs area in Chattisgarh State, central India. Wideband magnetotelluric studies by NGRI revealed deep-seated anomalous electrical conductivity anomalies beneath the Puga hot springs area (Harinarayana et al., 2004, 2006; Abdul Azeez and Harinarayana, 2007). The studies indicate the presence of a deeper (>2 km) geothermal reservoir underlying the shallow reservoir (<500 m) already identified by the GSI.

Heat-Flow Studies in India

135 formations, (b) refinement of existing crustal thermal models through better characterization of the temperature dependence of thermal conductivity for rocks constituting the middle and lower crust, and (c) initiation of heat-flow studies in parts of the Himalaya. The vast potential of utilizing the bottomhole temperature datasets acquired by the oil industry in different petroliferous sedimentary basins of India has remained untapped so far. The datasets would be valuable not only for the evaluation heat-flow in those basins but also in determining their thermal history, which has significant implications for hydrocarbon exploration. 3. Climate Change: Work is underway to establish a geothermal climate change observatory to study the tracking between variations in surface-air temperature and ground temperatures and advance our understanding of the geothermics of climate change. Thermal Setting of Hot Springs: Groups of hot springs occur along the West Coast, Son-Narmada-Tapti lineament zone, Cambay graben, the Himalaya and at few other locations in India. Helium isotopic ratios representative of a dominantly crustal radiogenic helium (He4) component in the hot spring waters in Chattisgarh, Gujarat and Rajasthan suggest that the waters are essentially meteoric in origin. Convective heat transfer by moving groundwater, and not conductive heat transfer, plays the dominant role in the subsurface temperature distribution in areas having permeable aquifers, fracture zones and recharge/ discharge of groundwater, in most cases in the upper few kilometres of the crust. Heat-flow measurements so far have been restricted to boreholes drilled in the hot spring zones only. There is a clear need to establish regional thermal conditions by heat-flow and radiogenic-heat-production measurements outside the localized hot-spring zones, because they would additionally contain information about subsurface flow and location of recharge area. Geothermal Energy: Assessment of geothermal energy potential of Tattapani hot springs in Chatttisgarh is presenting through (a) determination of background heat-flow in the area, (b) characterization of thermophysical properties of major rock formations, and (c) combined interpretation of geothermal datasets and existing geological, hydrological, geochemical and geophysical datasets to throw more light on the nature of the heat source of the hot springs and their sustainability for power production. Detailed feasibility study for geothermal power production in the Puga hot springs area in Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir is being carried out by a multi-Institutional team, covering some critical gaps in information through acquisition of new data, undertaking drilling and setting up of a pilot-scale binary power plant.

4. Fig. 4: Combining borehole transient temperature and surface air temperature (SAT) data for India. (a) Pre-observational mean (POM) temperature relative to the 1961-1990 mean (dashed red line) along with average SAT time series (staircase plot). (b) computed reduced temperature profile (thick red line) corresponding to the best POM-SAT combinations shown in (a) along with borehole reduced temperature profiles (thin lines) for all sites Expansion of the borehole temperature database to cover major climatic provinces has also been initiated utilizing suitable boreholes of opportunity. PERSPECTIVES FOR FURTHER WORK On the basis of an extensive review of results from heatflow studies carried out so far and perspectives for future work in the Indian context (Rao et al., 2003), a number of activities will be taken up during the next few years. Some of those are mentioned briefly below. 1. Temperature Structure in the Deeper Parts of the Lithosphere: Heat-flow considerations dominate the temperature regime in the crustal part of the lithosphere. For constraining the deeper parts (>100 km), the temperature structure borne out by P-T data of modules need to be examined. Future studies thus need to be directed to the following aspects: (i) How further could the heat-flow geotherm be refined to obtain better estimates for the temperatures in the crust, (ii) To obtain and examine P-T estimates from module data on a worldwide scale from various cratons and examine whether a universal condition exists, (iii) How to connect a heat-flow geotherm applicable in the crustal part, to the temperature structure in the deep lithosphere implied by the nodule data, and (iv) What possible mode(s) of evolution would result in P-T structure deduced for the cratons from module data? Thermal Structure of the Indian Shield: The major challenges are: (a) characterization of the thermal regime in previously uncovered regions of northern India through acquisition of new heat-flow data and radiogenic heat production of the major rock 5.

2.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are grateful to the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India for supporting acquisition of high-quality heat-flow data from different regions in the country. We thank Director, NGRI for continuous support

136 to the Heat-Flow Studies Programme and permission to publish this report. REFERENCES
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Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India

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