Teaching Values Through A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics

by Margaret Taplin
Institute of Sathya Sai Education, Hong Kong

For many reasons, the state oI society has reached a stage where it is more critical than ever
to educate people in the traditional values oI their culture. In recent years there has been
considerable discussion about whether it is the responsibility oI schools to impart values
education. There is growing pressure Ior all teachers to become teachers oI values, through
modelling, discussing and critiquing values-related issues.
There are many opportunities to teach the principles oI values education through existing
subjects and topics. The purpose oI this article is to suggest one oI the many ways in which
values education can be incorporated into existing mathematics curricula and approaches to
teaching mathematics. In particular, it will Iocus on ways in which values education can be
enhanced by utilising a problem-solving approach to teaching mathematics. The articles
include quotations, printed in italics, Irom the Sathya Sai Education in Human Values
program, which originated in India and is now active in more than 40 countries around the
world.
These quotations are concerned with the Iollowing values:
O equipping students to meet the challenges oI liIe
O developing general knowledge and common sense
O learning how to be discriminating in use oI knowledge, that is to know what
knowledge is appropriate to use Ior what purposes
O integrating what is learned with the whole being
O arousing attention and interest in the Iield oI knowledge so it will be mastered in a
worthy way
hy Can Values be Enhanced by Teaching Mathematics via Problem Solving?
Increasing numbers oI individuals need to be able to think for themselves in a constantly
changing environment, particularly as technology is making larger quantities oI inIormation
easier to access and to manipulate. They also need to be able to ,/,5t to unf,mili,r or
un5re/ict,-le situ,tions more easily than people needed to in the past. Teaching
mathematics encompasses skills and Iunctions which are a part oI everyday liIe.
Examples:
O reading a map to Iind directions
O understanding weather reports
O understanding economic indicators
O understanding loan repayments
O calculating whether the cheapest item is the best buy
Presenting a problem and developing the skills needed to solve that problem is more
motivational than teaching the skills without a context. It allows the students to see a reason
Ior learning the mathematics, and hence to become more deeply involved in learning it.
Teaching through problem solving can enh,nce logic,l re,soning, helping people to be able
to decide hat rule, iI any, a situation requires, or iI necessary to develop their on rules in
a situation where an existing rule cannot be directly applied. Problem solving can also ,llow
the whole 5erson to /evelo5 by experiencing the Iull range oI emotions associated with
various stages oI the solution process.
Examples:
O The problem that we worked on today had us make a hypothesis. Through testing,
our hypothesis was proven incorrect. The problem solving approach allowed our
group to Iind this out Ior ourselves, which made the "bitter pill" oI our mistake easier
to Iollow.
O I Iound this activity to be quite a challenge. I Ielt intimidated because I could not see
an immediate solution,and wanted to give up. I was gripped by a Ieeling oI panic. I
had to read the question many times beIore I understood what I had to Iind. I really
had to "dig down" into the depths oI my memory to recall the knowledge I needed to
solve the problem.
O Seeing patterns evelop beIore my own eyes was a powerIul experience: it had a
stimulating eIIect. I Ielt that I had to explore Iurther in a quest Ior an answer, and Ior
more knowledge.
tr,cts from , stu/ent te,chers fourn,l ,fter three se5,r,te 5ro-lem solving sessions
The student who wrote the extracts above, has illustrated howinterest roote/ in the
5ro-lem encouraged ste,/ interest nee/e/ to m,ster worth knowle/ge. Experience with
problem solving can develop curiosity, conIidence and open-mindedness.
Ho To Teach Human Values By Incorporating Problem Solving Into The
Mathematics Program.
This section will describe the types oI problem solving which can be used to enhance the
values described above, and will give some suggestions oI how it can be used in the
mathematics program.
There are three types oI problems to which students should be exposed:
i. word problems, where the concept is embedded in a real-world situation and the
student is required to recognise and apply the appropriate algorithm/rule 5re5,ring
5u5ils for the ch,llenges of life)
ii. non-routine problems which require a higher degree oI interpretation and
organisation oI the inIormation in the problem, rather than just the recognition and
application oI an algorithm encour,ging the /evelo5ment of gener,l knowle/ge ,n/
common sense)
iii. "real" problems, concerned with investigating a problem which is real to the students,
does not necessarily have a Iixed solution, and uses mathematics as a tool to Iind a
solution eng,ging 5u5ils in service to societ).
Each oI these problem types will be described in more detail below.
Problems hich require the direct use of a mathematics rule or concept.
By solving these types oI problems, students are learning to/iscrimin,te wh,t knowle/ge is
require/ for cert,in situ,tions, ,n/ /evelo5ing their common sense. The Iollowing examples
have been adapted Irom the HBJ Mathematics Series, Book 6, to show how values such
as sh,ring, hel5ing and conserving energ can be included in the wording oI the problems.
They increase in diIIiculty as they require more steps:
Examples:
O children went mushrooming and agreed to share. They picked 245 mushrooms.
How will they Iind out how many they will get each?
O ick helps his elderly neighbour Ior 1/4 oI an hour every week night and Ior 1/2 an
hour at the weekend. How much time does he spend helping her in 1 week?
O #ecently it was discovered that a clean engine uses less Iuel. An aeroplane used 400
litres oI Iuel. AIter it was cleaned it was Iound to use 4630 litres Ior the same trip. II
Iuel cost 59 cents a litre, how much more economical is the clean plane?
Sometimes it is important to give problems which contain too much inIormation, so the
pupils need to select what is appropriate and relevant:
Example:
Last week I travelled on a train Ior a distance oI 1093 kilometres. I leIt at 8 a.m. and
averaged 86 km/hour Ior the Iirst Iour hours oI the journey. The train stopped at a station Ior
1 1/2 hours and then travelled Ior another three hours at an average speed oI 8 km/hour
beIore stopping at another station. How Iar had I travelled?
To be able to solve these problems, the pupils cannot just use the-ookish knowle/ge which
they have been taught. They also need to apply gener,l knowle/ge ,n/ common sense.
Another type oI problem, which will encourage pupils to beresourceful, is that which does
not give enough inIormation. These problems are oIten called Fermi problems, named aIter
the mathematician who made them popular. When people Iirst see a Fermi problem they
immediately think they need more inIormation to solve it. Basically though, common
sense and experience can allow Ior reasonable solutions. The solution oI these problems
relies totally on knowledge and experience which the students already have. They are
problems which are non-threatening, and can be solved in a co-o5er,tive environment. These
problems can be related to soci,l issues, Ior example:
Examples:
O How many liters oI petrol are consumed in your town in a day?
O How much money would the average person in your town save in a year by walking
instead oI driving or taking public transport?
O How much Iood is wasted by an average Iamily in a week?
&sing a Fermi Problem to Promote Human Values
Ms. Lam wanted to teach her class oI ten-year-olds about the value oI money,
and to appreciate what their parents were doing Ior them:
"I believe that students should be aware oI this important issue and thus can be
more considerate when a money issue raised in their own Iamily, such as Iailure
to persuade their parents to buy an expensive present. In solving the problems, I
think that students can have a better understanding oI the concept oI money, not
simply as a tool oI buying and selling things.
"First I told the class a story about Peter's argument with his Iamily. Peter Iailed
to persuade his parents to buy expensive sportshoes as his birthday present and
thought that his parents did not treat him well. The parents also Ielt upset as
they regarded this son as an inconsiderate child. They thought that he should
understand that the economy is not so good. They asked Peter iI he knew about
how much money was being spent on him throughout the whole year.
UnIortunately, Peter could not produce the answer immediately. So I asked the
class iI they could help Peter. I asked them to Iind answers to the Iollowing
problems:
O How much money do your parents spend on you in a year?
O How much money have your parents spent on you up till now?
O How much money will your parents have spent on you by the time you
Iinish secondary school?
O How much money will be spent on raising children in the whole country
this year?
"The students were Iormed into groups oI 4 to Iind out the possible data that
they need to know. Later, the groups were asked to present their data and the
way oI Iinding out the answer. Finally, I concluded that this is an open question
as each person may have diIIerent expenditure along with some common human
basic needs such as Iood, clothes and travelling Iares. Anyway, the answer
should be regarded as a large sum oI money and thus give them a better
understanding oI their parents' burden."


Sometimes pupils can be asked to make up their own problems, which can help to enhance
their understanding. This can encourage them to be flei-le, and to realise that there can
be more th,n one w, of looking ,t , 5ro-lem. Further, the teacher can set a theme Ior the
problems that the pupils make up, such as giving hel5 to others or concern for the
environment, which can help them to Iocus on the underlying values as well as the
mathematics.
on-Routine Problems
on-routine problems can be used to encourage logical thinking, reinIorce or extend pupils'
understanding oI concepts, and to develop problem-solving strategies which can be applied
to other situations. The Iollowing is an example oI a non-routine problem:
What is my mystery number?
O II I divide it by 3 the remainder is 1.
O II I divide it by 4 the remainder is 2.
O II I divide it by 5 the remainder is 3.
O II I divide it by 6 the remainder is 4.
Real Problem Solving
Bohan, Irby and Vogel (1995) suggest a seven-step model Ior doing research in the
classroom, to enable students to become "producers oI knowledge rather than merely
consumers" (p.256).
Step 1: hat are some questions you ould like ansered.
The students brainstorm to think oI things they would like to know, questions
they would like to answer, or problems that they have observed in the school or
community. Establish a rule that no one is to judge the thoughts oI another. II
someone repeats an idea already on the chalkboard, write it up again. ever say,
"We already said that," as this type oI response stiIles creative thinking.
Step 2: Choose a problem or a research question.
The students were concerned with the amount oI garbage produced in the school
caIeteria and its impact on the environment. The research question was, "What
part oI the garbage in our school caIeteria is recyclable?"
Step 3: Predict hat the outcome ill be.
Step 4: Develop a plan to test your hypothesis
The Iollowing need to be considered:
O Who will need to give permission to collect the data?
O ourtesy - when can we conveniently discuss this project with the
caIeteria manager?
O Time - how long will it take to collect the data?
O ost - will it cost anything?
O SaIety - what measures must we take to ensure saIety?
Step 5: Carry out the plan:
ollect the data and discuss ways in which the students might report the
Iindings (e.g. graphs)
Step 6: Analyse the data: did the test support our hypothesis?
What mathematical tools will be needed to analyse the data: recognising the
most suitable type oI graph; mean; mode; median?
Step 7: Reflection
What did we learn? Will our Iindings contribute to our school, our community,
or our world? How can we share our Iindings with others? II we repeated this
experiment at another time, or in another school, could we expect the same
results? Why or why not? Who might be interested in our results?
"The Iinal thought to leave with students is that they can be researchers and
producers oI new inIormation and that new knowledge can be produced and
communicated through mathematics. Their Iindings may contribute to the
knowledge base oI the class, the school, the community, or society as a
whole. %heir fin/ings m, ,ffect their school or their worl/ in , ver 5ositive
w," (Bohan et al., 1995, p.260).


Mathematical Investigations
Mathematical investigations can Iit into any oI the above three categories. These are
problems, or questions, which oIten start in response to the pupils' questions, or questions
posed by the teacher such as, "ould we have done the same thing with 3 other numbers?",
or, "What would happen iI...." (Bird, 1983). At the beginning oI an investigation, the pupils
do not know iI there will be a suitable answer, or more than one answer. Furthermore, the
teacher either does not know the outcome, or pretends not to know. Bird suggests that an
investigation approach is suitable Ior many topics in the curriculum and
encourages communic,tion, confi/ence, motiv,tionand understanding as well as
mathematical thinking. The use oI this approach makes it diIIicult Ior pupils to just carry out
routine tasks without thinking about what they are doing.
Bird believes that investigational problem solving can be enhanced iI students are
encouraged to ask their own questions. She suggested that the teacher can introduce a
"starter" to the whole class, ask the students to work at it Ior a short time, ask them to jot
down any questions which occurred to them while doing it, and pool ideas. Initially it will be
necessary Ior the teacher to provide some examples oI "pooled" questions, Ior example:
O oes it always work?
O Is there a reason Ior this happening?
O How many are there?
O Is there any connection between this and.....?
The pupils can be invited to look at each other's work and, especially iI they have diIIerent
answers, to discuss "who is right".
Conclusion
This article has suggested some reasons why problem solving is an important vehicle
Ior e/uc,ting stu/ents for life by 5romoting interest, /evelo5ing common sense ,n/ the
5ower to /iscrimin,te. In particular, it is an approach which encourages flei-ilit, the ,-ilit
to res5on/ to une5ecte/ situ,tions or situ,tions th,t /o not h,ve ,n imme/i,te solution, and
helps to develop 5ersever,nce in the f,ce of f,ilure. A problem-solving approach can
provide a vehicle Ior students to construct their own ideas about mathematics and to t,ke
res5onsi-ilit for their own le,rning. While these are all important mathematics skills, they
are also important liIe skills and help to expose pupils to a values education that is essential
to their holistic development.
References and &seful Reading
Bird, M. (1983). ener,ting M,them,tic,l Activit in the Cl,ssroom. West Sussex, U.K.:
West Sussex Institute oI Higher Education. ISB 0 950858 0 6.
Bohan, H., Irby, B. & Vogel, . (1995). 'Problem solving: dealing with data in the
elementary school'. %e,ching Chil/ren M,them,tics 1(5), pp.256-260.
The ideas presented in this article suggest some ways in which teachers can explore the
integration oI values education into the existing mathematics program without needing to
add anything extra. Further ideas have been presented in a book written by the author
(Taplin, 1988). As well as giving teaching ideas, the book summarises recent research and
suggests some questions Ior action research or discussion that teachers can use in their own
classrooms.

Problem Solving is very important but problem solvers oIten misunderstand it. This report
proposes the deIinition oI problems, terminology Ior Problem Solving and useIul Problem
Solving patterns.
We should deIine what is the problem as the Iirst step oI Problem Solving. Yet problem
solvers oIten Iorget this Iirst step.
Further, we should recognize common terminology such as Purpose, Situation, Problem,
ause, Solvable ause, Issue, and Solution. Even onsultants, who should be proIessional
problem solvers, are oIten conIused with the terminology oI Problem Solving. For example,
some consultants may think oI issues as problems, or some oI them think oI problems as
causes. But issues must be the proposal to solve problems and problems should be negative
expressions while issues should be a positive expression. Some consultants do not mind this
type oI minute terminology, but clear terminology is helpIul to increase the eIIiciency oI
Problem Solving. Third, there are several useIul thinking patterns such as strategic thinking,
emotional thinking, realistic thinking, empirical thinking and so on. The thinking pattern
means how we think. So Iar, I recognized Iourteen thinking patterns. II we choose an
appropriate pattern at each step in Problem Solving, we can improve the eIIiciency oI
Problem Solving.
This report will explain the above three points such as the deIinition oI problems, the
terminology oI Problem Solving, and useIul thinking patterns.
Definition of problem
A problem is decided by purposes. II someone wants money and when he or she has little
money, he or she has a problem. But iI someone does not want money, little money is not a
problem.
For example, manuIacturing managers are usually evaluated with line-operation rate, which
is shown as a percentage oI operated hours to potential total operation hours. ThereIore
manuIacturing managers sometimes operate lines without orders Irom their sales division.
This operation may produce more than demand and make excessive inventories. The
excessive inventories may be a problem Ior general managers. But Ior the manuIacturing
managers, the excessive inventories may not be a problem.
II a purpose is diIIerent between managers, they see the identical situation in diIIerent ways.
One may see a problem but the others may not see the problem. ThereIore, in order to
identiIy a problem, problem solvers such as consultants must clariIy the diIIerences oI
purposes. But oItentimes, problem solvers Irequently Iorget to clariIy the diIIerences oI
purposes and incur conIusion among their problem solving projects. ThereIore problem
solvers should start their problem solving projects Irom the deIinition oI purposes and
problems
Terminology of Problem Solving
We should know the basic terminology Ior Problem Solving. This report proposes seven
terms such as Purpose, Situation, Problem, ause, Solvable ause, Issue, and Solution.
Purpose
Purpose is what we want to do or what we want to be. Purpose is an easy term to understand.
But problem solvers Irequently Iorget to conIirm Purpose, at the Iirst step oI Problem
Solving. Without clear purposes, we can not think about problems.
Situation
Situation is just what a circumstance is. Situation is neither good nor bad. We should
recognize situations objectively as much as we can. Usually almost all situations are not
problems. But some problem solvers think oI all situations as problems. BeIore we recognize
a problem, we should capture situations clearly without recognizing them as problems or non-
problems. Without recognizing situations objectively, Problem Solving is likely to be narrow
sighted, because problem solvers recognize problems with their prejudice.
Problem
Problem is some portions oI a situation, which cannot realize purposes. Since problem
solvers oIten neglect the diIIerences oI purposes, they cannot capture the true problems. II the
purpose is diIIerent, the identical situation may be a problem or may not be a problem.
Cause
ause is what brings about a problem. Some problem solvers do not distinguish causes Irom
problems. But since problems are some portions oI a situation, problems are more general
than causes are. In other words causes are more speciIic Iacts, which bring about problems.
Without distinguishing causes Irom problems, Problem Solving can not be speciIic. Finding
speciIic Iacts which causes problems is the essential step in Problem Solving.
Solvable Cause
Solvable cause is some portions oI causes. When we solve a problem, we should Iocus on
solvable causes. Finding solvable causes is another essential step in Problem Solving. But
problem solvers Irequently do not extract solvable causes among causes. II we try to solve
unsolvable causes, we waste time. Extracting solvable causes is a useIul step to make
Problem Solving eIIicient.
Issue
Issue is the opposite expression oI a problem. II a problem is that we do not have money, the
issue is that we get money. Some problem splvers do not know what Issue is. They may think
oI "we do not have money" as an issue. At the worst case, they may mix the problems, which
should be negative expressions, and the issues, which should be positive expressions.
Solution
Solution is a speciIic action to solve a problem, which is equal to a speciIic action to realize
an issue. Some problem solvers do not break down issues into more speciIic actions. Issues
are not solutions. Problem solvers must break down issues into speciIic action.
Thinking patterns
This report lists Iourteen thinking patters. Problem solvers should choose appropriate
patterns, responding to situations. This report categorized these Iourteen patterns into three
more general groups such as thinking patterns Ior judgements, thinking patterns Ior thinking
processes and thinking patterns Ior eIIicient thinking. The Iollowing is the outlines oI those
thinking patterns.
%inking patterns for judgements
In order to create a value through thinking we need to judge whether what we think is right or
wrong. This report lists Iour judging patterns such as strategic thinking, emotional thinking,
realistic thinking, and empirical thinking.
Strategic tinking
Focus, or bias, is the criterion Ior strategic thinking. II you judge whether a situation is right
or wrong based on whether the situation is Iocused or not, your judgement is strategic. A
strategy is not necessarily strategic. Historically, many strategists such as SonIucis in ancient
hina, aplon, M. Porter proposed strategic thinking when they develop strategies.
motional tinking
In organizations, an emotional aspect is essential. Tactical leaders judge whether a situation is
right or wrong based on the participantsI emotional commitment. They think that iI
participants can be positive to a situation, the situation is right.
Realistic tinking
O Start Irom what we can do
O Fix the essential problem Iirst
These two criteria are very useIul. "Starting" is very important, even iI we do very little. We
do not have to start Irom the essential part. Even iI we start Irom an easier part, starting is a
better judgement than a judgement oI not-starting in terms oI the Iirst part oI realistic
thinking. Further, aIter we start, we should search key Iactors to make the Problem Solving
more eIIicient. Usually, 80 oI the problems are caused by only 20 oI the causes. II we
can Iind the essential 20 oI the causes, we can Iix 80 oI problems very eIIiciently. Then
iI we try to Iind the essential problem, what we are doing is right in terms oI the second part
oI realistic thinking.
mpirical tinking
When we use empirical thinking, we judge whether the situation is right or wrong based on
our past experiences. Sometimes, this thinking pattern persists on the past criteria too much,
even iI a situation has changed. But when it comes to our daily lives, situations do not change
Irequently. Further, iI we have the experience oI the identical situation beIore, we can utilize
the experience as a reliable knowledge data base.
%inking patterns for tinking processes
II we can think systematically, we do not have to be Irustrated when we think. In contrast, iI
we have no systematic method, Problem Solving Irustrate us. This reports lists Iive
systematic thinking processes such as rational thinking, systems thinking, cause & eIIect
thinking, contingent thinking, and the ToyotaIs Iive times WHYs method .
Rational tinking
#ational thinking is one oI the most common Problem Solving methods. This report will
brieIly show this Problem Solving method.
1. Set the ideal situation
2. IdentiIy a current situation
3. ompare the ideal situation and the current situation, and identiIy the problem
situation
4. Break down the problem to its causes
5. onceive the solution alternatives to the causes
6. Evaluate and choose the reasonable solution alternatives
. Implement the solutions
We can use rational thinking as a Problem Solving method Ior almost all problems.
Systems tinking
Systems thinking is a more scientiIic Problem Solving approach than the rational thinking
approach. We set the system, which causes problems and analyze them based on
systemsIIunctions. The Iollowing arre the system and how the system works.
System
O Purpose
O Input
O Output
O Function
O Inside cause (Solvable cause)
O Outside cause (Unsolvable cause)
O #esult
In order to realize Purpose, we prepare Input and through Function we can get Output. But
Output does not necessarily realize Purpose. #esult oI the Function may be diIIerent Irom
Purpose. This diIIerence is created by Outside ause and Inside ause. We can not solve
Outside ause but we can solve Inside ause. For example, when we want to play golI,
Purpose is to play golI. II we can not play golI, this situation is Output. II we can not play
golI because oI a bad weather, the bad weather is Outside ause, because we can not change
the weather. In contrast, iI we cannot play golI because we leIt golI bags in our home, this
cause is solvable. Then, that we leIt bags in our home is an Inside ause.
Systems thinking is a very clear and useIul method to solve problems.
Cause & effect tinking
Traditionally, we like to clariIy cause and eIIect relations. We usually think oI Iinding causes
as solving problems. Finding a cause and eIIect relation is a conventional basic Problem
Solving method.
Contingent tinking
Game Theory is a typical contingent thinking method. II we think about as many situations as
possible, which may happen, and prepare solutions Ior each situation, this process is a
contingent thinking approach.
%oyotafs five times WHYs
At Toyota, employees are taught to think WHY consecutively Iive times. This is an
adaptation oI cause and eIIect thinking. II employees think WHY and Iind a cause, they try to
ask themselves WHY again. They continue Iive times. Through these Iive WHYS, they can
break down causes into a very speciIic level. This Iive times WHYs approach is very useIul
to solve problems.
%inking patterns for efficient tinking
In order to think eIIiciently, there are several useIul thinking patterns. This report lists Iive
patterns Ior eIIicient thinking such as hypothesis thinking, conception thinking, structure
thinking, convergence & divergence thinking, and time order thinking.
Hypotesis tinking
II we can collect all inIormation quickly and easily, you can solve problems very eIIiciently.
But actually, we can not collect every inIormation. II we try to collect all inIormation, we
need so long time. Hypothesis thinking does not require collecting all inIormation. We
develop a hypothesis based on available inIormation. AIter we developed a hypothesis, we
collect minimum inIormation to prove the hypothesis. II the Iirst hypothesis is right, you do
not have to collect any more inIormation. II the Iirst hypothesis is wrong, we will develop the
next hypothesis based on available inIormation. Hypothesis thinking is a very eIIicient
problem-solving method, because we do not have to waste time to collect unnecessary
inIormation.
Conception tinking
Problem Solving is not necessarily logical or rational. reativity and Ilexibility are other
important aspects Ior Problem Solving. We can not recognize these aspects clearly. This
report shows only what kinds oI tips are useIul Ior creative and Ilexible conception.
Following are portions oI tips.
O To be visual.
O To write down what we think.
O Use cards to draw, write and arrange ideas in many ways.
O hange positions, Iorms, and viewpoints, physically and mentally.
We can imagine without words and logic, but in order to communicate to others, we must
explain by words and logic. ThereIore aIter we create ideas, we must explain them literally.
reative conception must be translated into reasonable explanations. Without explanations,
conception does not make sense.
Structure tinking
II we make a structure like a tree to grasp a complex situation, we can understand very
clearly.

Upper level should be more abstract and lower level should be more concrete. ividing
abstract situations Irom concrete situations is helpIul to clariIy the complex situations. Very
Irequently, problem solvers cannot arrange a situation clearly. A clear recognition oI a
complex situation increases eIIiciency oI Problem Solving.
Convergence & divergence tinking
When we should be creative we do not have to consider convergence oI ideas. In contrast,
when we should summarize ideas we must Iocus on convergence. II we do convergence and
divergence simultaneously, Problem Solving becomes ineIIicient.
%ime order tinking
Thinking based on a time order is very convenient, when we are conIused with Problem
Solving. We can think based on a time order Irom the past to the Iuture and make a complex
situation clear.