Role of Water and Soil parameters in Pond productivity

Dr. Subhendu Datta

Sr. Scientist
CIFE, Kolkata Centre, India

(A) Need of Water and Soil Analysis for Sustainable Aquaculture

Importance of water in aquaculture: If aquaculture is the rearing of aquatic organisms, it

is important for an aquaculturist to understand the aquatic medium i.e. water, in which
these organisms inhabits. If the water is “bad,” plants and animals won’t grow or
reproduce. Animal stressed because of poor water quality are also prime targets for
pathogens and parasites. Just as people who work in offices or factories that are stuffy and
have smoke or chemical fumes in the air are more apt to be sick, so it is with aquatic
organisms grown in poor quality of water.
Water is the medium in which fish live, and from which they derive oxygen and
nutrients. So the quantity and quality of the water very much affect the prospect of fish
culture. As water is the basic element in fish culture, its specific properties as a cultural
medium are naturally of great significance in the productivity of a pond. Pure water is
unable to support living organisms, but its content of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and
calcium salts, dissolved organic matter and gases like oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide
determine to a large extent the productivity.

Importance of soil in aquaculture: The properties of pond soil are of greater significance
than is generally realised. When soil conditions are not favourable, the production will be
limited. Productivity of fishponds depends on the occurrence of suitable environmental
conditions and abundance of fish food organisms. The first step in the food chain (Fig. 1)
of a fish pond is constituted by primary food organisms e.g. phytoplanktons, which derive
their nutrients from the pond environment and with the help of solar radiation undergo
photosynthetic activities. Occurrence of these nutrients in pond water and maintenance of
its relevant chemical condition depends largely on the nature and properties of the bottom
soil wherein a series of chemical and biochemical reactions continuously take place
resulting in release of different nutrients in overlaying water and also their absorption in
the soil mass. Considering this importance of bottom soil in maintaining the productivity

1
of fish ponds, Hickling (1971) described such soils as the “Chemical Laboratory of the
fish pond.

Fish

Bottom Fauna
------------------------
Zooplankton

Bottom Flora
------------------------------------------
Phytoplankton

Nutrients in water

Nutrients in Soil

Fig. 1: Food pyramid in a pond

The soil fertility is of special importance in the growth of benthic vegetation.

While water fertility will contribute largely to the production of plankton; the pond bed
releases nutrient material into the water and helps in fixation or chemical combination of
such substances released in the pond itself or introduced from outside. Production in ponds
with a bottom rich in fertilising elements is much greater than in those with poor soil. The
colloidal content of the soil, especially of the muddy layer on the top, is of importance in
its capacity to fix or chemically bind nutrients. The productive capacity of the pond
bottom has to be preserved by alternate periods of mud formation and mineralisation – the
practice of regularly draining fish pond.
In view of this importance of overlaying water as well as bottom soil in
determining the productivity of a fish pond, an intimate knowledge about the nature and
properties of these two phases need to be understood thoroughly for developing a clear
idea about the ecosystem and obtaining, thereform, good production of fishes.

Importance of water and soil analysis in sustainable aquaculture: As the fish catch from
all sources of capture fisheries has nearly attained a saturation point, aquaculture has
gained special attention to increase the fish production of the country. To achieve this
goal, with time aquaculture has also shifted from conventional culture practice to semi-
intensive and intensive culture practices. In intensive cultural practices, there is very high
2
load of fish, feed, nutrients and chemicals used for controlling fish diseases (e.g.
antibiotics) per unit area. Therefore, fish excreta, respiratory products, unfed materials;
unutilised nutrients/chemicals and transformed/metabolites of nutrients or chemicals can
severely deteriorate the fish pond/lake environment (i.e. water and soil quality) even in
short run. Every system must be sustainable. Fishery resources are renewable source of
resources i.e. fish stock in an aquatic system are able to reproduce or replace themselves or
increase. The management of renewable resources involves, as a minimum, practices that
will result in a sustained yield. This emphasise the management of human use of fishery
resources so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generation while
maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. In
layman’s language, we should practice the aquaculture in such a way so that present
generation can get the earnings for their livelihood, at the same time, follow the good
management practices and maintain the good fertile condition of the system (i.e. soil and
water) so that it produces fish in the similar way to the future generations. Hence the
importance of water and soil analysis lies for sustaining high yielding aquacultural
practices. Regular monitoring of water and soil quality parameters can give an insight
about the physical, chemical and biological environment of the aquatic ecosystems. This
will assist to take decisions on management practices to be adopted both in terms of better
fish production and maintaining the ecosystem for long run.

References
1. Hickling, C.F. (1971). Fish Culture. Faber and Faber. London. pp.225.
2. Conservation of Natural Resources (2nd ed) Gey-Harold Smith (ed)- John Wiley &
Sons. Inc. Chapt. 19. Fisheries for the future.
3. Environmental Conservation. R. F. Dasman, John Wiley & Sons. Inc. Chapt. 9.
Water and Fisheries.

3
 (B). Role of water parameters in pond productivity

Physical Parameters of Water

The major important physical parameters of water on which the productivity of a pond
depends upon are;
1. Depth.
2. Temperature.
3. Turbidity.
4. Light.

Depth : Depth of a pond has an important bearing on the physical and chemical qualities
of water. On it, but varying with its turbidity, depends the limit of penetration of sunlight,
which in turn, determines the temperature and the circulation patterns of the water and the
extent of photosynthetic activity. Ideal depth for different kinds of fish ponds from the
point of view of congenial biological productivity are as follows;
Nursery Pond : 1 – 1.5 m
Rearing Pond : 1.5 – 2.0 m
Stocking Pond : 2.0 – 2.5 m

Ponds shallower than 1m get over heated in tropical summers inhibiting survival of
fish and other organisms. Depths greater than 5 m are also not suitable for fish culture. In
such ponds along with poor penetration of sunlight, there remains the formation risk of a
permanently deoxygenated layer or the circulation of water is unable to carry oxygen
down to the mud layer. Formation of H2S takes place in reduced layer of pond mud and in
absence of oxidizing surface layer, this poisonous gas diffuse into the water and make the
deepest parts of the pond uninhabitable by fish. In such ponds there must be the provisions
of plenty of breeze flowing which can keep water circulating or arrangement of artificial
water circulation (aerator).

Turbidity (Transparency):
1
Transparency ∝ --------------
Turbidity
Transparency is inversely proportional to the turbidity of water, which in turn is directly
proportional to the amount of suspended organic and inorganic matter. *Turbidity due to
profusion of plankton is an indication of pond’s high fertility but that caused by silt or
mud beyond a limit (up to 4% by volume) is harmful to fish and fish food organisms. *
4
Turbidity due to high concentration of silt, mud or algal growth causes death of fishes due
to choking of gills. Suspended particles may be settled by application of lime and algal
bloom can be restricted by application of Takazine – 50 (Cymazine) @ 2-4 kg / acre. If
the pond water is covered by floating weeds, Wolfia. sp (microweeds) or Lemna minor,
Lemna major, Spirodella for one week then also the algal growth is checked due to lack of
penetration of sunlight.
Euphotic zone is the visible zone of natural water body. *[Turbidity and
transparency both are optical properties of light, turbidity causes light to be scattered
thereby restricts its penetration and reduce photosynthetic activity. Suspended particles
causing turbidity may also adsorb considerable amount of nutrient elements like
phosphate, K, N2 in their ionic form and making them unavailable for plankton
production, while transparency cause light to be transmitted in straight line through the
sample.]*
Secchi disk transparency : 20-60 cm is ideal for good productivity. It is a metallic plate
of 20 cm diameter with four alternate black and white quadrants (to give a sharper end
point but generally at a smaller depth) on the upper surface and a hook at the center to tie a
graduated rope. The procedure in simply to observe the depth at which the disk let down
from the surface just disappear from view. The observation must be made through a
shaded area of water surface. It is usual to determine the point of disappearance as the disk
is lowered (d1) allow it to drop a little further, and then determine the point of
reappearance as the disk is raised (d2). The mean of the two readings is taken as the secchi
disk transparency.
The observation should not be made early in the morning or late in the afternoon,
though both theory and observations show that the result is largely independent or
illumination. Other instrument to measure transparency are photometer, lux-meter.

Temperature:
Variations in temperature in a water body has a great influence upon its
productivity. Temperature influence all metabolic and physiological activities and life
processes such as feeding, reproduction, movement and distribution of aquatic organisms.
Temperature also affects the speed of chemical changes in soil and water. The oxygen
content of water decreases with rise in temperature. Most of the tropical fish cann’t
survive below 100C. Tilapia cann’t survive below 80C. Indian major carps are able to
tolerate a wide range of temperature (20 to 370C), below 16oC and above 400C prove fatal
to them. Many exotic species can’t survive at higher temperature. Fishes native to cold

5
water (e.g. Silver Carp) are unable to survive on the plains due to higher water temperature
in summer months. Both silver carp and grass carp prefers temperature below 30o C.
Hence, a knowledge of the range of temperature variation is necessary before introducing
fishes for culture in a pond.
The thermal stratification namely (i) epilimnion, (ii) thermocline and (iii)
hypolimnion may not be prominent in shallow ponds. Observations conducted in
Indonesia have shown that instead of an annual turnover, as found in temperate climates, a
daily turnover takes place in tropical ponds. During the nights, circulation takes place,
bringing about a mixing of the water. This turnover is of extreme importance in the
circulation of oxygen and nutrients in pond water.

Light:
Light is an important factor influencing productivity. Penetration of light depends
upon the available intensity of the incident light, which varies with the geographical
locations of the pond and turbidity of water. In shallow ponds, light reaches upto the
bottom and causes heavy growth of vegetation. Light controls the flora and oxygen
content of the water of the pond. Shade provided by the surrounding vegetation affects the
incidence of light on the pond. Advantage of shading effect in often taken in pisciculture
effect for the control of algal blooms and submerged weeds.
Among other physical factors, shore conditions, pressure and movement of water
plays some role on productivity of pond water.

Pressure and Movement of Water:

All animals cannot survive in very deep water due to increase in pressure and
variation of percentage of mineral salts. Movement of water causes erosion of soil and
increase turbidity. Movements of water due to waves, currents and breeze favours
productivity provided motion is not too strong to bring about unfavourable changes in the
condition of water.

Shore Conditions:
Longer shoreline enhances productivity due to increase in the production of
vegetation and phytoplankton. But shady shore trees, surface and submerged plants and
turbidity due to silt lowers the productivity by cutting light.

6
 Chemical Parameters of Water

Water pH: Logarithm of the reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration in moles per lit.
1
pH = log = − log [H + ]
[H + ]
pH Range Productivity of Water
<5.5 (Strongly acid) Unproductive.
5.5 – 6.5 (Acid Water) Low Productivity.
6.5 – 7.0 (Neutral Average Productivity.
7.0 – 8.5 (Slightly Alkaline) Most Productivity.
8.5 – 10.5 (Alkaline) Low Productivity.
> 10.5 (Strong Alkaline) Unproductive.

The pH of the water is indicative of its fertility or potential productivity. A slight alkaline
reaction is of great help in the conversion of organic matter into assimilable substance,
such as ammonia and nitrates (mineralization).
The majority of the natural mater are alkaline and alkalinity is mainly due to the
salts of calcium in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate.
Dominated by pH Range
Free CO2 dominates 5–7
HCO3 7–9
CO3 > 9.5
(OH ions arising from hydrolysis of HCO3- and CO3- - ions)
-

Strong acid dominates >4.0

The pH of pond water undergoes a diurnal change, it being most alkaline in mid-afternoon
and most acidic just before daybreak. During night, due to respiration of plants and
animals, CO2 is produced which on hydrolysis produce H2CO3 and make the water acidic.
H2O + CO2 = H2CO3
Concentration of CO2 is highest just before daybreak. So, the water is most acidic. During
daytime, this CO2 is used up for photosynthesis and makes the water alkaline (as in natural
water, HCO3- and CO3-- responsible for basic reaction, are dominated when CO2 is used
up). pH > 9.5 is not suitable as CO2 is absent and photosynthesis does not occur and fish
die.
Acidity reduces the appetite of the fish, their growth and tolerance to toxic substances;
Increase toxicity of H2S, copper and other heavy metal to fish;
7
Impeding the circulation of nutrients by reducing the rate of decomposition;
Inhibit the nitrogen fixation;
Fish gets prone to attacks of parasites and diseases.
Water more acidic than pH 5.5 are not fertilized until they are corrected by liming. In acid
waters, it is desirable to use non-acid forming fertilizers.
pH MANAGEMENT
<4.5 lime with Ca(OH)2 to pH 6-6.5, use basic fertilizers.
4.5 – 7 lime with CaCO3, use alkaline fertilizers
7.0 – 8.5 Most suitable
8.5 – 11 use acid forming fertilizers.
Acidic fertilizers: NH4Cl > (NH4)2SO4 > Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate > Urea > S.S.P
Basic fertilizers: Rock phosphate > CaCN > Sod. Nitrate > Ca-nitrate.
Neutral :Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN).

Dissolved Oxygen
This is the most important factor governing the carrying capacity of pond or lake.
Sources of Oxygen (O2):
(i) Absorption from air at the water surface.
(ii) Photosynthesis of chlorophyll bearing organism inhabiting pond.
Consumption of Oxygen (O2):
(i) Respiration of aquatic animals and plants in day and night.
(ii) Decomposition of organic matter* [Do not stock fish in newly constructed
pond].
The O2 available in pond at a given time is balance of these two processes. Value of
dissolved O2 depends on temperature, partial pressure of O2 and water salinity. When
temperature increases dissolved O2 decreases. Rate of respiration is more and rate of
photosynthesis is low due to high temperature.
When partial pressure of O2 in contact with water at the surface increases amount of
O2 dissolved in water is also increases. When concentrated of dissolved salts (salinity)
increases dissolved O2 concentration decreases. At 00C, fresh water contains slightly over
2.0 mg/l O2 than sea water (35% salinity)
Concentration of O2 Pond Productivity
Below 3.0 ppm Unproductive
3.0 – 5.0 ppm Average productive
6.0 – 5.0 ppm High productive.
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 When heavy infestation of aquatic weed and dense algal bloom (may be because of
over-fertilization of pond) are present a marked diurnal fluctuations and dangerous oxygen
(O2) deficiency may results. During day time, because of photosynthesis, water is super-
saturated with O2, but during night, consumes more O2 than produced, which is severe
during late hours. On cloudy days, the photosynthesis may be reduced due to lack of
sunlight prolonging the night deficit in the O2 budget. But when there is a continuous
cloudy days, most of the O2 fluctuation are below the critical level for fish survival (50%
saturation of O2) and mass mortality of fish may occur.

To Mitigate the oxygen deficiency:

Direct ways or Physical Methods :
i) Beating by stick on all sides of ponds;
ii) Use Aerator
iii) Introduce fresh oxygenated water from other areas to pond.
iv) Pumping of water by water pump
Chemical methods:
i) Apply lime @ 60 – 70 Kg/ha.
ii) Apply KMnO4 @ 4 Kg/ha
iii). Use UltaSil-Aqua (Aqua Zeolite) of Neospark, Drugs and Chemical Private Ltd,
Hyderabad @ 10 to 40 Kg per acre.
iv). Use Aqua Clean of G M Chemicals, Ahmedabd @ 25 – 35 Kg per acre at every 20-25
days.
Oxygen deficiency in lakes and river cause migration of fish, attack of parasites,
fungus diseases and death due to suffocation.

Free CO2
Sources of CO2 in natural water
i) From atmosphere:
a) Through rain water contains 0.3 – 0.6 ppm.
b) Air in contact with water surface.
ii) Respiration of aquatic plants and animals .
iii) Decomposition of organic matter in water body.

9
Consumption of CO2
Photosynthesis by aquatic plants and phytoplankton for production of
carbohydrates. Carbon dioxide is present in three forms bound CO3- -, half bound HCO3
and free state CO2. When CO2 comes in contact with water, it produce carbonic acid
H2O + CO2 = H2CO3
which displays its weak acidic character through dissociation
H2CO3 = H+ + HCO3- + HCO3- -
Just before day-break, concentration of CO2 is highest and water is therefore, most
acidic.
Pond which is on calcareous soil contains free CaCO3. This CaCO3 is helpful to
prevent the water pH to fall below 5.0 according to the following reaction.
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O Ca(HCO3)2
Ca(HCO3)2 is far less acidic than H2CO3, when the pond soil does not contain any
free CaCO3, lime should be applied.
Lime
Corrects acidity - forward reaction.
Ca of Lime acts as buffer
Reserve of CO2
The solution of Ca(HCO3)2 remains stable only in the presence of certain surplus
amount of CO2. Therefore, the CO2 which is necessary to retain the calcium in solution in
the form of Ca (HCO3)2 is called equilibrium or free CO2. 2 to 10 ppm of free CO2 is ideal
for good productivity of pond. 20 – 30 ppm of CO2 can be tolerated provided O2 is near to
saturation. Above 30 ppm CO concentration cause depletion of O but air – breathing fish
may survive at 100 ppm concentration.

Total Alkalinity:
Since most of the organisms thrive and proliferate in alkaline waters, alkalinity is
therefore, an important factor in pond productivity. The total alkalinity of water is mainly
caused by cations of Ca, Mg, Na, K, NH4 and Fe combined either as carbonates and or
bicarbonates or occasionally as hydroxides. Hydroxides alkalinity generally occurs in
polluted water (pH > 11). In other waters it is occasionally encountered during mid
afternoon is surface layers in waters showing intense photosynthesis. A mixture of
bicarbonate and carbonate alkalinity is generally encountered is waters of pH ranging from
8.4 to 10.5. At pH values lies than 8.3 but more than 4.5, partially no carbonate is present,
but free CO2 and bicarbonates may be present.
10
H2CO3 → HCO3- + H+
HCO3- + H2O → H2CO3 + OH-
CO3- - + 2H2O → H2CO3 + 2OH-
Total Alkalinity Pond Qualities
Below 60 mg/lit → unproductive
60 – 100 mg/lit → Average Productivity
100 – 250 mg/lit → Highly Productive
But a range of 4 to over 1000 ppm has been encountered in natural bodies of water. Water
of hilly stream, sandy, rocky or very clayey areas, flooded rivers in rainy season, water in
heavy rain fall areas and water infested with submerged weeds usually have low total
alkalinity values. On the other hand stagnant waters is tropical plains in low rainfall areas
during the summer season are likely to have high total alkalinity value

Total Hardness:
Both total alkalinity and hardness of water is expressed in terms of ppm or mg/l of
CaCO3 but both are not same. Hardness is the total soluble Ca and Mg Salts (in same cases
Fe salts). It includes sulphates and chlorides along with CO3- , HCO3- and OH- salts. In
most natural matters, the predominant ions are those of bicarbonates, associated mainly
with calcium to a lesser degree with Mg, sulphates and chlorides of Ca and Mg
predominate in waters contaminated with ocean salts or from dry land areas. Hardness
may be temporary caused by soluble Ca and Mg bicarbonates, this is also called
carbonates hardness or permanent caused by soluble Ca and Mg carbonates, sulphates and
chlorides. Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling while permanent hardness
cannot be removed by boiling.
Name Total hardness Level (Mg/ L CaCO3)
Soft Water → < 125 – Toxicity of pollutant is high.
Medium Hard H2O → 125 – 250
Hard Water → 250 - 375 Good for aquaculture
Very hard Water → > 375 – cause osmoregulatory stress to fish.

Hardness of Water Significance

< 5 ppm Cause slow growth, distress and eventual death of fish. Such ponds
required liming.
< 12 ppm Require liming for higher production

11
≥ 15 ppm Satisfactory for growth of fish and don’t require addition of lime.

Dissolved Solids:
The total concentration of dissolved solids (both inorganic and organic) in a water
body is a useful parameter in deserving chemical density as a fitness factor and as a
general measure of edaphic relationship that contributes to the productivity of the water.
Electrical conductivity, which gives the total amount of ionized materials is an important
measure of total dissolved solids present in water and is usually expressed as micromhos.
Electrical conductivity above 400 Mmhos does not limit productivity but productivity
does not increase proportionately with conductivity.
Dissolved solids may be organic or inorganic.
Inorganic dissolved solids are: metallic ions (eg. Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe) in combination with
anions like Cl-, SO4-2, CO3-2, HCO3-, OH-, PO4-3, NO3-, NO2- etc. and there may be trace
elements like Ni, Co, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cr, Al, Silica, etc.
Whereas, organic dissolved solids are: organic state of nitrogen, phosphorus and sugars,
acids, fats, vitamin etc. Since, nitrogen and phosphorus are important in the field of
aquaculture, it is explained briefly.

Nitrogen:
Nitrogen is available to plants in three forms Nitrate, Nitrite and Ammonium.
i) Free ammonia NH3 (the fourth form of nitrogen) may be harmful to fishes if it is above
2.5 mg/lit of water. It denotes that pond bottom has become foul due to excessive
decomposition of anaerobic nature. The unionised (NH3) form of ammonia exist in
equilibrium with the ammonium ion in water as per the following reaction NH3 + H2O =
NH3.nH2O =NH4OH +(n-1)H2O. NH3 is also excreted through gills epithelium by fishes
and crustaceans.
Nitrate is very much useful for growth of phytoplankton and vegetations in water.
NH4 and NO3-N may be applied to pond from outside as fertilizers. Certain quantities of
nitrogen maybe taken into soil and water from the atmospheric nitrogen by rain or
lightning.
There ware also soil bacteria (Rhizobium) that can fix atmospheric nitrogen in the
roots of leguminous plants and then make it available to the phytobiota. However, ponds
derive the major supply of nitrogen from the putrefaction of organic nitrogen. Organic
nitrogen forms about 50% or more of the total soluble nitrogen in surface waters of lakes
and ponds. Decomposition of this organic nitrogen by anaerobic bacteria produces NH4-N,
12
the process is called ammonification. Aerobic decomposition of NH4-N by two groups of
nitrifying bacteria produces NO3-N via two steps. In the first step, nitrosomonas produces
NO2-N, the NO3-N is produced by nitrobacter from NO2-N in second step. The immediate
conversion of NO2-N to NO3-N is beneficial as NO2- is toxic to aquatic life. Nitrate (NO3-)
is very much useful for growth of phytoplankton and vegetations in water. NH4 and NO3-
N may be applied to pond from outside as fertilizers. Both NH4- and NO3-N are taken up
by aquatic flora and fauna, which is the major source of organic nitrogen in pond. The
NO3-N is again transformed to elemental nitrogen via oxides of nitrogen (NO, NO2-, N2O
etc.) by denitrifying bacteria (e.g. Pseudomonas).

Free Nitrogen in Air

Nitrogen fixation by Denitrification by

BGA and Azotobacter denitrifying bacteria

Oxides of
Nitrogen
Organic Nitrogen in NO2, NO, N2O
Pond Fauna

Anaeorobic
decomposition Flora
by bacteria and fungi

NO3
NH4

Nitrosomonas Nitrobacter

NO2
Aerobic decomposition by nitrifying bacteria (Nitrification)

Fig. 2: Nitrogen Cycle in ponds and lakes.

The process of tying up nitrogen in organic form from simple elements or inorganic form
is called immobilization, its slow release especially conversion from organic to inorganic
or elemental form is called mineralization.
Nitrogen is a very important element in pond fertility. Presence of available
nitrogen @ 0.2 – 0.5 mg/lit of water is good for production
NH4 – N : 0.2 – 0.5 mg/lit
NH3 – N : 0.02 – 0.2 mg/lit

13
NO2 – N : <0.014 mg/lit
+ [O] 2H 1 [O] − [O]
NH 4 → HONH 2 −→
 HONNOH → NO 2 → H + + Energy
2
− −2
[O] −
→ NO3 + Nitrate
+ NO2  + Energy + → 2NO 3 →
 2NO 2
2[O] [O]
− → N 2O −
→ 2NO   → N2
Nitric Nitrous Elemental
Oxides Oxides Nitrogen

PHOSPHORUS:
Phosphorus is recognised to the most critical single factor in the maintenance of pond
fertility. It occurs in three forms.
1. The soluble inorganic phosphate phosphorus (PO4)
2. Soluble organic phosphorus and
3.The particulate organic phosphorus occurring in plankton, detritus and sedimentation.
Out of these three forms, form PO4 i.e. soluble inorganic phosphate phosphorus or
dissolved phosphorus takes part in production. It is required for cell division, preparation
of fat, protein, high energy compounds (ATP, ADP, AMP) etc in the body. If pond soil is
acidic, phosphorus become unavailable and stays in compound form with Fe, Al, Mn, Zn,
For this reason, phosphate fertilizers are applied with lime in acidic soil. But, if the
condition is highly alkaline, the phosphate again remains in pond soil as a compound form
with Ca and Mg. Availability of phosphorus is highest near neutral pH. Sources of
phosphorus in natural water:
(i) Weathering of phosphorus bearing rocks (apetite)
(ii) Leaching of soils of the catchment area by rain
(iii) (Cattle drop, night soil) organic manure and inorganic fertilizers (SSP,
Nitrophosphate, DAP) added to the pond.
Dissolved phosphate :-
<0.05 ppm – unproductive pond
0.05 – 0.20 ppm – medium to high productivity.
Lack of phosphorus is often the chief cause of poor productivity of water. An amount of
0.2 to 0.4 mg/lit of phosphorus. Phosphorus pentaoxide is good for production in pond
water. Excess of phosphate in open waters is a sign of heavy organic pollution.

14
 Phytoplankton

5 4 2
1 Littoral Veg
Soluble
3
7 6

Sediments

Fig 3. Phosphorus Cycle in Pond

The various phosphorus cycle involve following processes :

Liberation of phosphorus into epilimnion due to decay of littoral vegetation by microbial
degradation;
Update of phosphorus by phytoplankton;
Update of phosphorus from water by littoral vegetation, during the periods of their rapid
growth.
Loss of phosphorus as a soluble compound. Less assimilable then ionic phosphate, from
phytoplankton, followed by show regeneration of ionic phosphate;
Sedimentation of phytoplankton and other phosphorus – containing seston, perhaps largely
faecal pellets, into the hypolimnion;
Liberation of phosphorus from the sedimenting seston in the hypolimnion when it reaches
the mud – water interface;
Diffusion of phosphorus from the sediments into the water at those depths at which the
superficial layer of mud lakes on oxidized microzone – like many other ions in presence of
O2, phosphorus ions are absorbed on colloidal ferric hydroxide in the oxidized microzone
of the bottom of mud, and in absence of O2, the ferric ion is reduced to ferrous from and
phosphorus in a soluble form is released in the water, thus indicating that the presence or
absence of oxygen in the critical factor for release of phosphorus. Even when it is released
in water in soluble form, its availability will be determined by water pH and presence or
absence of soluble Al, Fe, Mn and Ca and minerals containing these cations.

15
PHYSIO – CHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF FISH POND
PARAMETERS POND QUALITIES
UNPRODUCTIVE AVERAGE HIGHLY OTHER REMARKS
PRODUCTIVE PRODUCTIVE
WATER
1. p.H <6.5 6.5 – 7.5 7.5 – 8.5
>8.5
2. D.O (Mg/lit) >3.0 3.0 – 6.0 6-10
3. Free CO2 (or nil) Traces – 3.0 5.0 – 15.0 20-30 ppm can be
(Mg/lit) tolerated provided O2 is
near saturation, >30 ppm
cause depletion of O2 and
mortality of fish, air
4. Total <60.0 60-100 100-250
Alkalinity
5. Temperature 20-30 C for nursery pond
& 20-35 C for stocking
pond.
6. Colour Greenish
7. Turbidity 20 – 60 cm
8. NH4 – N 0.2 – 0.5
(Mg / Lit)
NH3 – N 0.02 – 0.2
(Mg/Lit)
NO2 – N <0.014
(Mg / Lit)
9. Phosphorus 0.02-0.2 for nursery /
(P2O5) rearing pond and stocking
(Mg/Lit) pond.
10. Hardness 5 5 – 12 > 15
(ppm CaCO3)
11. Transparency Optimum Range in
production ponds is
between 20 cm – 60 cm.
SOIL
1. PH < 5.5 5.5 – 6.5 6.5 – 7.5
> 8.5
2. Available <25.0 25 – 50 50 – 75
Nitrogen
(Mg/100 gm
soil)
3. Available <3.0 3.0 – 6.0 6.0 – 15.0
Phosphorus
(Mg/100g)
4. Free CaCO3 <1.0 1.0 – 2.0 2.0 – 5.0
(%)
5. Organic < 1.0 1.0 – 2.0 2.0 – 5.0
Carbon(%)
6. Carbon < 0.5 0.5 – 1.5 1.5 – 2.5
Nitrogen Ratio <5 5 – 10 10 – 15

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 ROLE OF SOIL PARAMETERS IN POND PRODUCTIVITY

A thin layer of soil covers most of the earth’s land surface. This layer, varying from a few
centimeters to 2 or 3 meters thickness, might appear insignificant relative to the bulk of
the earth. Yet it is in this thin layer of soil that the plant and animal kingdoms meet the
mineral world and establish a dynamic relationship. Plants obtain water and essential
nutrients from the soil. Animal depends on plants for their lives. Plant and animal residues
find their way back to the soil and are decomposed by the teeming microbial population
living there. Life is vital to soil and soil is vital to life.
The soil is a very complex system. A given volume of soil is made up of solid
liquid, and gaseous material. The solid phase may be mineral or organic. The mineral
portion consists of particles of varying sizes, shapes, and chemical compositions. The
organic fraction includes resides in different stages of decomposition as well as live active
organisms. The liquid phase is the soil water, which fills part, or all of the open spaces
between the solid particles and which vary in its chemical composition and the freedom
with which it moves. Te gaseous or vapour phase occupies that part of the pore space
between the soil particles that is not filled with water; its composition may change within
short intervals of time. The chemical and physical relationships among the solid, liquid
and gaseous phases are affected not only by the properties of each but also by temperature,
pressure and light. The different types of soil found in Indian are alluvial soil, black
(regur) soil, red soil, laterite soil, forest soil, desert soil, saline and alkaline soil, and peaty
soil.
Soil plays an important role in determining the fertility of fish ponds. The basic
criterion for selection of a site for construction of ponds is that the soil should not be
porous. The soil condition is an important environmental factor influencing water quality
and controlling various production processes. Banerjea (1967) classified pond productivity
into three categories – low, medium and high – based on status of available nitrogen and
phosphorus and organic carbon as below: -

Pond Productivity Available N Available P2O5 Organic Carbon

(mg/100 g soil) (mg / 100 g soil) (%)
Low Less than 25 Less than 3 Less than 0.5
Medium 25 – 30 3–6 0.5 – 1.5
High Above 50 Above 6 Above 1.5

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 Physical parameters of soil
Pond mud
While water fertility contribute largely to the production of plankton, the pond bed
releases nutrient material into the water and helps in fixation or chemical combination of
such substances released in the pond itself or introduced from outside. Pond productivity
is increased only when the pond mud is rich in nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen, organic
carbon etc.). The colloidal content of the soil especially of the muddy layer on the top, is
of importance in its capacity to fix or chemically bind nutrient. The productive capacity of
the pond bottom has to be preserved by alternative period of mud formation and
mineralisation – the practice of regular draining of fish ponds.
Clayey soil is most suitable for pond construction, as it has maximum water
retentivity and can easily be compacted and made leak proof. However, well compacted
loamy soil may also be used. Pond mud should be loose and well aerated. To achieve this,
the pond mud is normally dried up after the harvesting of fish crop. Pond soil differs from
field soil in many respects. Pond soil is water logged and gas phase is absent. Only the top
2 to 5 cm of soil is concerned with nutrient-ion exchange and below this, soil is unaerated
and has negligible involvement in the production cycle. Pond having large catchment area,
where from it receives dissolved nutrient and sedimentary particles by precipitated rain
water. The sedimentation of organic matter on the pond modify its properties.Besides,
production and decomposition of minute plant and annual organisations in pond also
modify the properties of pond bottom to a great extent.
A true pond mud (rich in nutrients) is made up of fine soil particles, which contains
deposits of certain amount of organic matter derived from the bacterial breakdown of plant
and animal material present in a water body. The broken – down organic matter may exist
as humus (derived from acid and peaty soils) and it is a mixture of colloidal acids. Humus
acid is made up of 32% of protein – like material in firm combination with about 68% of
another complex containing no nitrogen and its acts as a weak base which results in high
adsorption capacity.

Chemical parameters of soil

The major chemical factors of importance are:
(a) pH
(b) Nitrogen
(c) Phosphorus
(d) Organic carbon and C/N ratio
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 (e) Calcium and potassium
A production pond soil should have a total and available quantity of raw material
along with the requirements of the organisms as to the suitability of conditions of
existence and supply of nutrients.
(a) Hydrogen-ion-concentration( pH):
The pH of a soil is closely related to the relative amounts of acidic cations (H+ and
Al+3) and bases on its cationic – exchange sites. The pH rise when the concentration of
bases increases and drops when the concentrations of acidic cations increase. The Al+3 ion
is much less common than H+ at pH values above 5 but becomes the dominant ion in
extremely acid soils.
The acidity of soil is formed by formation of H2S gas, methane and short chain
fatty acids by the process of decomposition of organic matter due to absence of sufficient
oxygen in the bottom of pond. So, the pond soil should be buffered naturally or else it may
reduce the rate of bacterial action, which influences productivity. The pH of soil helps in
transformation of soluble phosphates and controls the adsorption and release of ions of
essential nutrients at soil-water interface.
pH range Soil Condition Lime (CaCO3) dose/Kg/hac
4.0-4.5 Highly acidic 1000
4.5-5.5 Moderately acidic 700
5.5-6.5 Slightly acidic 500
6.5-7.5 Near neutral 250
7.5-8.5 Slightly alkaline 100-200
> 8.5 Highly alkaline Nil

However, pH range of soil from 7.5-8.5 (slightly alkaline) has been considered
favourable for fish ponds.
(b) Nitrogen:-
About 99% of the combined nitrogen in the soil is contained in the organic matter
(humus) in the form of amino acids, peptides and easily decomposed proteins. It may also
be in the form of inorganic compounds such as NH4+ and NO3 which are utilized by green
plants (phytoplanktons) Anaerobic organisms (bacteria) helps in the decomposition of
organic matter into simple inorganic forms forming products such as CO2, water and
ammonia which influences directly or indirectly in pond productivity.
The range of available nitrogen 50 – 75 mg/10 gm of soil is relatively more
favourable for pond productivity. Though nitrogen are mostly available from organic
matter, it can also be made available by fixing atmospheric nitrogen into organic nitrogen

19
with the help of nitrogen – fixing bacteria present n the soil and water, blue green algae
and some micro-organisms.
(c) Phosphorus:
Phosphorus has been called “the key to life” because it is directly involved in most
life processes. It is second only to nitrogen in frequency of use as a fertilizer element. One
or both of these elements are nearly always included when a fertilizer is applied.
Phosphorus occurs in the soil in both inorganic and organic forms. The inorganic
phosphorus are calcium phosphate, aluminium phosphate, iron phosphate and reductant
soluble phosphate whereas organic phosphorus may occur as phytin or phytin derivatives,
nucleic acids and phospholipids. The organic form constitutes about 35 – 40% of the total
phosphorus content of the soil.
The availability of phosphorus is important to aquatic productivity owing to the
fact that PO4 ions in soil form insoluble compounds with iron and aluminium under acidic
conditions and with calcium under alkaline conditions, rendering the phosphorus ion
unavailable to water body. Experiments show that alkaline soil adsorbs more phosphorus
than acidic soil. However, phytoplankton helps in uptake of available phosphorus, which
is stored for use in their cells, and as a result it helps in production of their population,
which may directly or indirectly affect pond productivity.

Soil Phosphorus (P2O5) Pond Productive

< 3 mg / 100 gm (30 ppm) Poor Productivity
3 – 6 mg/ gm (30 – 60ppm) Average Productive
6 – 12 gm (60 – 120 ppm) High Productive
> 12 gm (120 ppm) Poor Productive

(d) Organic carbon and C/N ratio:

Organic compounds present in the soil exert a profound influence on almost every
facet of the nature of soil. Organic compounds are usually broken up by bacteria into
inorganic compounds, which are consumed by phytoplanktons and are passed on to fish
crop. Microbiologist believe that the bacterial activity depends both on the carbon content
and the ratio of C/N in the parent organic substance. The significance of organic fertilizers
lies in their carbohydrate content. The nitrogen fixation stops when carbohydrates are
absent in the organic compound. The bacterial activity is low when C/N ratio falls below
10 : 1 and high when the ratio is 20 : 1 or higher.

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Organic Carbon Content Pond Productivity Raw cowdung to be
applied (Kg / Hac)
20.5 % Law Productive 20,000
0.5 – 1.5 % Average Productive 1000 – 10000
1.5 – 2.5 % Highly Productive No Need.

On the other hand, when the C/N ration is <5, the pond shows poor production.
Better production is found in the ratio 5 to 10 and 10 to 15 (ideal conditions). However,
the ratio above 15 appears to be less favourable for pond production.

(e) Calcium and Potassium

Calcium is generally present in the form of CaCO3 (Calcium Carbonate). It helps
in translocation of carbohydrates, acts as an integral component of plant tissue, increase
the availability of other ions and reduces the toxic effect of single salt solution of other
elements. It was however, noted that no marked influence of exchangeable calcium upon
productivity could be noted.
On the other hand, potassium also helps directly or indirectly in pond production
though its optimal concentrations in soil are not known. It is taken up readily by
submerged weeds for growth. During rapid plant growth period, potassium from the water
and soil is stored in the tissues. Ponds with sandy and non-absorptive soils have poor
potassium content and respond most markedly to fertilization.

CHEMISTRY OF POND MUD

When pond is flooded with water, the first effect of flooding is to drive out the air
from the soil.Then the aquatic bacteria in the soil become active, decomposing the organic
matter in the newly water logged soil and using up the oxygen. This lead to anaerobic
conditions and the pond mud is in a reduced state and the flooded soil comes to contain
carbon dioxide (CO2) but no oxygen (O2). Under such conditions, sulphates are reduced to
sulphides (SO4 to S) nitrogenous substances to ammonia (NH3), Iron occurs in the reduced
form (Fe2+) and some of the organic matter to methane (CH4). Because of ammonia, the
soil becomes alkaline and because of presence of ferrous ion complex, the colour of the
soil becomes a more or less intense blue-black. The water overlaying the mud becomes
oxygenated partly because the water dissolve oxygen from the air and partly due to the
oxygen (O2) release during the photosynthesis by the aquatic plants presents in the pond
phytoplankton, which soon develops there.

21
 This oxygen will oxidize the surface skin of the pond mud (1 to few mm thick
only) and develop on oxidized microzone. Where ferrous iron (Fe2+) becomes ferric (Fe3+),
sulphides (S) becomes sulphates (SO4) and ammonia (NH3) becomes nitrate and nitrite.
Because of disappearance of ammonia (NH3) and the appearance of acid, this layer
becomes acidic and the surface of the pond mud turned from blue – black to yellow to
brown in colour due to the presence of ferric compounds (Fe). This phenomenon can
almost always be seen when the mud of a pond is exposed, for example when it is drained
to take the crop of fish, the foot prints of men working in the mud are deep blue or black,
the undisturbed mud is yellow. But almost as one looks, the exposed black reduced soil
takes up oxygen from the air and turns yellow.

MECHANISM OF RELEASE OF NUTRIENTS :

The yellow ferric iron compound chiefly the hydroxide at the oxidized surface
layer are usually in a very finely divided or colloidal state and this colloidal ferric
hydroxide together with colloidal humic substances make a mud which has highly
absorptive properties for both acid and basic radicals. As long as the iron compound on the
surface layer of the mud were in ferric state, the surface was strongly adsorptive of
positive ions, such as ammonia, calcium, manganese and of negative ions such as
phosphates and silicates. But nitrate and nitrite were not adsorbed.
During temporary cutting of oxygen from the surface layer of the mud (which may
be caused by excessive respiration at night, or by lack of circulation of water or it may be,
in deep ponds, a longer term phenomenon due to layering of water), the adsorbed ions are
released into the water often in considerable quantities. The reduced iron has no power to
hold, then diffuse up into the pond water and are taken up by plants and then by fish.

DRY PERIOD
During the water – logged period where the pond mud is under anaerobic
conditions and alkaline in reaction, oxidation processes of organic matter cannot be
completed and oxygen (O2) debt is built up of these partially oxidized products of
fermentation. Exposure to air completes this oxidation after resulting in the release of
carbon dioxide (CO2) making the soils slightly acidic.
The completion of oxidation releases the contained nutrient materials by
mineralization and acidic condition cause these materials to remain adsorbed in the soil,
ready for release when the pond is refilled and the oxidation – reduction system sets itself
up again.
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 The chief advantage of dry period is the restoration of the fertility of the pond.

REDOX POTENTIAL:
When the oxidation taking place in surface of the mud and reduction at lower
levels, the electrical charges on the molecule of electrolytes and ions in these two soil
layers are responsible for differences in potential i.e. Redox potential.
Reducing conditions prevails when potential is below +350 millivolts and above
it, oxidising conditions occur. Therefore, the values of redox potential in the pond mud.
Binding or releasing the ions of nutrient materials from pond mud.

FATE OF ADDED FERTILIZERS:

The finding and releasing by adsorption on the pond mud applies not only to the
nutrients naturally occuring in the soil, but also to fertilizer added to the pond. The
phosphate in the fish pond remained in the soil, adsorbed on the oxidising layer of the mud
on colloidal ferric hydroxide and in absence of the oxygen (O2). Ferric ion is reduced to
ferrous ion and phosphorus is released in soluble form in the water. Phosphate is also
incorporated in the bodies of micro–organisms. These two factors account for the residual
effect of phosphatic fertilizers and subsequent release under suitable condition even after 4
years of application.

H2S TOXICITY

The hydrogen sulphide gas which is frequently detected in the mud during the
construction of the ponds could poison the fish. But so long, as the surface layer of the
mud is oxidizing, this very poisonous gas, deadly to fish, could not possibly diffuse into
the water, for the sulphide could soon be oxidized to harmless sulphate. If a free
circulation of the pond water is impeded, as for example by dense vegetation, then the
smell of the gas appears. Clearance of vegetation will minimize the chance of H2S toxicity
in this case.
Due to all these fact described above the pond mud has been described as the
“Chemical laboratory’ of pond.

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