5. a) What is DD?

Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. Etiologic classification of diabetes mellitus : I.Type 1 diabetes (-cell destruction, usually leading to absolute insulin deficiency) A. Immune mediated B. Idiopathic

II. Type 2 diabetes (may range from predominantly insulin resistance with relative insulin deficiency to a predominantly secretory defect with insulin resistance) III. Other specific types IV. Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) Type 1 diabetes mellitus (1) - only 510% of those with diabetes - previously encompassed by the terms insulin-dependent diabetes, type I diabetes, or juvenile-onset diabetes - Autoimmune disease, markers: ICA, autoantibodies to insulin, antiGAD, autoantibodies to the tyrosine phosphatases - HLA-DR/DQ alleles - Some patients, particularly children and adolescents, may present with ketoacidosis as the first manifestation of the disease - At this latter stage of the disease, there is little or no insulin secretion,

as manifested by low or undetectable levels of plasma C-peptide - These patients are also prone to other autoimmune disorders such as Graves disease, Hashimotos thyroiditis, Addisons disease, vitiligo, celiac sprue, autoimmune hepatitis, myasthenia gravis, and pernicious anemia Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) GDM is defined as any degree of glucose intolerance with onset or first recognition during pregnancy The definition applies regardless of whether insulin or only diet modification is used for treatment or whether the condition persists after pregnancy It does not exclude the possibility that unrecognized glucose intolerance may have antedated or begun concomitantly with the pregnancy Deterioration of glucose tolerance occurs normally during pregnancy, particularly in the 3rd trimester b) What is working diagnose? Type 2 diabetes mellitus Accounts for 9095% of those with diabetes Previously referred to as non-insulin-dependent diabetes, type II diabetes, or adult-onset diabetes ranging from predominantly insulin resistance with relative insulin deficiency to predominantly an insulin secretory defect with insulin resistance

Although the specific etiologies are not known, autoimmune destruction of cells does not occur

Most patients with this form of diabetes are obese, and obesity itself causes some degree of insulin resistance

Ketoacidosis seldom occurs spontaneously in this type of diabetes; when seen, it usually arises in association with the stress of another illness such as infection

c) How to diagnose? Criteria for the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus: 1. Symptoms of diabetes plus casual plasma glucose concentration > 200 mg/dl (11.1 mmol/l). Casual is defined as any time of day without regard to time since last meal. The classic symptoms of diabetes include polyuria, polydipsia, and unexplained weight loss or 2. FPG > 126 mg/dl (7.0 mmol/l). Fasting is defined as no caloric intake for at least 8 h or 3. 2-h postload glucose > 200 mg/dl (11.1 mmol/l) during an OGTT. The test should be performed as described by WHO, using a glucose load containing the equivalent of 75 g anhydrous glucose dissolved in water d) What is pathophysiology ?

Pathophysiology of DM

Insufficient insulin
Reduced tissue uptake of glucose

Intracellular hypoglycaemia Glucogenesis and gluconeogenesis Breakdown of fats High levels of ketones Diabetic ketoacidosis Decreased protein synthesis
- cachexia - lethargy - polyphagia

Extracellular hyperglycaemia

Hyperosmotic plasma

Blood glucose > renal treshold

Dehydration of cells

Glucosuria Osmotic diuresis

-polyuria -polydipsia -hyponatraemia -hipokalemia

Decreased gamma globulins - susceptibility

to infections - impaired wound healing

Hyperglycaemic coma

e) What is the treatment? 1. SULFONILUREA - Stimulate insulin secretion - Cause hypoglycaemia stimulate appetite and leads to weight gain - Only effective if -cells are functional - Block ATP-sensitive K + channels in -cells SIDE EFFECTS Hypoglicemic reactions including coma Particularly, elderly patients with impaired hepatic or renal function Glyburide=chlorpropamide > glipizide > tolbutamide Nausea and Vomiting Aplastic and hemolytic anemia

Hypersensitivity and dermatological reactions

CONTRAINDICATIONS Hypersensitivity Diabetic keto acidosis

DRUG INTERACTION Clofibrate, dicumarol, salysilates displace the sulfonyl ureas from binding site 2. Metformin Muscle and adipose tissue : Glucose uptake . Metformin glucose utilization. Liver : Hepatic , Glucose Output. Metformin HGO.

f) What is the complication? Diabetes complications: Acute complications Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) Hiperosmolarity non-ketotic (HONK) Hypoglycaemia (BS <60 mg/dl) Chronic complications Angiopathy - Macroangiopathy (CVD, CAD, PAD, ED, DF) - Microangiopathy (retinopathy, nephropathy) Neuropathy - Autonomic neuropathy (gastropathy, silent MI) - Peripheral neuropathy (paresthesia, DF) g) What is the prognosis?

Cant be treated. Only can control the blood glucose.