BACKGROUND GUIDE

AIMUN 2011
IAEA

MESSAGE FROM THE EXECUTIVE BOARD Distinguished Delegates, The intent with which we gather here today is not unknown. Our gaiety at witnessing the birth of this new decade, although immense and amazing in its very magnitude is not immaculate. The gratification that has come our way-ladies and gentlemen- from being able to successfully deliver to our duties is unfortunately soiled by the ever-growing threat of the mishandling of the most powerful form and source of energy, alike, known to man-Atomic Energy. It is with great heartache that I am compelled to report, that as we proceed in this newborn decade, as we attest the developments of science and technology, we may also be approached by an imminent threat, the threat of nuclear war; the prevention of which is amongst the principle duties of the IAEA. It wont be disputed by many if one were to consider the IAEA amongst the most important agencies in the present day world. This for the simple reason that the IAEA will play an influential stakeholder in determining the face of our world tomorrow, the world our future generations will not only live in but also work with. Will our coming generations live a life of discomposure, of angst, and fear or will they walk free alongside their brothers and sisters in complete calm and serenity will be determined by what we make out of our negotiations at this conference. There lies no room for error; the world lays their blind faith in us. Faith that we a united block shall extirpate the consequences of past tribulations and author an era of armistice.

COMMITTEE BACKGROUND The end of the Second World War was brought about by the bombing of Hiroshima-Nagasaki (6th and 9th August 1945 respectively). The celebration of cessation was however, short- lived. Twelve years and one day after the "date that will live in infamy," the world was indeed a very scary place with many private citizens building backyard bomb shelters and children practicing "duck and cover" drills at school. Mention the word "nuclear" and people would finish it in their mind with the word "bomb." The situation of Cold War between the United States and USSR, the
Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference 2

knowledge of development of nuclear arsenal in other parts of the world made it a fact of the obvious that tensions were peaking and that the culmination of such distrust would be catastrophic. Fortunately or not, after the Cuban missile Crisis in 1962 both the USA and the USSR began to seek common ground in nuclear arms control. To hasten the day when fear of the atom will begin to disappear from the minds the people and the governments of the East and West, there are certain steps that can be taken now. I therefore take the following proposal. It was with these words by Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, commenced his proposal to ease out the tension, in whatever minor ways that it would. And so the world community observed the inception of the International Atomic Energy Agency. Almost a year later, on 4 December 1954, the General Assembly unanimously passed an Atoms for Peace resolution expressing the hope that such an agency would be established without delay. And on 29th July 1957, the IAEA was set up as an independent wing of the UN. The IAEAs affiliation to the UN is guided by way of its own treaty, The IAEA Statute under which it is obliged to report annually to the UN General Assembly and to the Security Council, if and when it wishes to highlight the non-compliance of its safeguards in addition to other matters relating to international peace and security. As pertains to structure the IAEA comprises three interdependent bodies, namely the General Conference, the Board of Governors and Secretariat. The General Conference comprises all 151 member states of the IAEA and usually sits in September, annually. Its main functions are: Approval of applications for membership; Approval of reports to the UN organs Election of members to the Board of Governors The Board of Governors is constituted of 35 member states, elected from within and at the General Conference. It functions as the executive organ of the agency. Its main activities are visible in the way of:

General Conference

Setting IAEA programs and budgets along with the General Conference; Approval of safeguard agreements, significant projects, safety standards; Election of the Director General.

The Secretariat is led by the Director General who is assisted by 6 Deputy Director Generals, each head of a department. It is basically a team of 2200 multi-disciplinary professional and
Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference 3

support staff from over 90 countries. The present Director General of the Secretariat is Mr. Yukiya Amano of Japan, holding this post since 1 December 2009 onwards. The Deputy Director Generals are: David Waller Head, Department of Management Daud Mohamad Head, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications Kwaku Aning Head, Department of Technical Cooperation Herman Nackaerts Head, Department of Safeguards Alexander Bychkov Head, Department of Nuclear Energy Denis Flory Head, Department of Nuclear Safety and Security

Mr. Yukiya Amano

The Agency shall seek to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world. It shall ensure, so far as it is able, that assistance provided by it or at its request or under its supervision or control is not used in such a way as to further any military purpose.-Article II (Objectives) of the IAEA Statute. BUDGETING The IAEA budget is two-part. The regular budget funds most activities of the IAEA and is assessed to each member nation (296 million in 2009). The Technical Cooperation Fund is funded by voluntary contributions with a general target in the $85 million range. In March 2002, the IAEA Board of Governors approved a three-year plan of activities in the area of nuclear security and the creation of a voluntary funding mechanism, the Nuclear Security Fund (NSF), to which Member States were called upon to contribute. It is imperative that the delegates bear in mind the funding procedure of the IAEA if they intend to propose the concoction of any new committee at the conference also they need to consider the economic status of their own nation and the willingness of other nations to contribute to such endeavors prior to making any recommendations involving hefty funding. ACHIEVEMENTS The IAEA has been accepted, recognized and lauded for its dedicate d efforts towards nonproliferation, disarmament and international peace and security throughout the world, may it be the significant role played by it in the establishment of NWFZ around the globe (Tlatelolco Treaty, Pelindaba Treaty, Rarotonga Treaty, Treaty of Bangkok) or mobilizing support for treaties as crucial as the CTBT, NPT, EURATOM. Amongst the most noticeable actions of the IAEA with regards to the Chernobyl Disaster-to be studied by delegates interested in discussing the second agendum- was the setting up of the IAEA Nuclear
Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference 4

Safety Advisory Group (INSAG) to investigate the causes of the disaster and the organization of the Chernobyl Project ("Radiological Consequences in the USSR of the Chernobyl Accident: Assessment of Health and Environmental Effects and Evaluation of Protective measures) on request by the USSR government. The most recent and comprehensive source of internationally accepted information on the radiological consequences of the Chernobyl Accident is the UNSCEAR 2000 Report (Annex J) to the General Assembly on Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation.
Effects of the Chernobyl Disaster

NOTE: It goes unsaid that the delegates need to be well versed with the publications of the IAEA and its wing committees to be able to participate in an ensuing and fruitful debate. Also adequate knowledge of the IAEA, particularly about its mandate, it funding, membership, prior achievements (/failures) and come up with absolutely ingenious ideas; however, one can always try to fill up existent gaps in the system while forming a resolution.

INTRODUCTION

In 1939, Hahn and Strassman showed that fission not only released a lot of energy but that it also released additional neutrons which could cause fission in other uranium nuclei and possibly a self-sustaining chain reaction leading to an enormous release of energy. This suggestion was soon confirmed experimentally by Joliot and his co-workers in Paris, and Leo Szilard working with Fermi in New York. It was, thus, 44 years after the discovery of Ionization Radiation by Wilhelm Rontgen in 1895 that the atom came to be recognized as source of energy. The historical timeline of Nuclear Energy has been marked by regular and remarkable developments. One may underline the Frisch-Peierls Memorandum, which fuelled research on the Atomic bomb or the development of the EBR-1, the first nuclear reactor to produce electricity in 1951. One wont be wrong in stating that some of these advancements have been lauded much more than

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

certain others which came to pass, merely, to satiate some of the primitive needs of humans-power and recognition. But today, ladies and gentlemen, in the face of climatic inconsistencies and disappearance of traditional resources, nuclear energy proves more important to us than it ever has before. Nuclear Energy is harnessed in a fair majority of countries and is gaining popularity at lightnings pace. It is however, an unfortunate reality that technology cannot be immunized against failures, inefficiencies, vagaries and so its resultant repercussions on society and environment cannot be completely done away with. BACKGROUND Your first agendum, delegates, stems from such rear-enders. The Rehabilitation of Regions Affected by Radioactivity is a self explanatory agendum and seeks delegates from around the world to put their mental faculties to play in order to suggest ways and means to undo the damage done by way of nuclear mishaps and also punch in a few proactive preventive measures. Nuclear Disasters have borne face in various countries and varying magnitudes, leading to the cataclysmic consequences. A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency as "an event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or the facility. Examples include lethal effects to individuals, large radioactivity release to the environment, or reactor core melt. The prime example of a "major nuclear accident" is one in which a reactor core is damaged and ruinous quantities of radiation are released, the Chernobyl Disaster, for instance. Other Nuclear Power Plant accidents include the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (2011), Chernobyl disaster (1986), Three Mile Island accident (1979), and the SL-1 accident (1961) The in-depth study of these misfortunes can help the delegates reinforce their knowledge about the nature, extent and type of Nuclear Accidents.

CAUSES OF NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS All nuclear accidents cannot be attributed to any one factor in particular. Upon close study it can be confirmed that different nuclear disasters took place due to difference reasons, ranging from equipments problems, non-compliance with safety standards and natural vagaries to reactor explosions, core meltdowns to Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) attacks.

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

The following section shall give you a brief introduction to the wide array of causative factors. These causes need to paid due heed while formulating active and preventive measures. 1. Anomalies These include those causative factors which are internal to the functioning of the NPP and are usually controlled. Under normal circumstances they are contained and do not lead to radiation leakages, and ergo deaths. Electrical errors-They lead to malfunctions, primarily fires. They can lead to severe monetary losses but no loss of lives if appropriate and immediate action is taken. For instance in Greifswald, East Germany, 1975. Corrosion of reactors-corrosion may lead to leakage of radioactive substances. Deaths can be prevented if preventive action is swift. An example would be that of the Jaslovske Bohunice incident in 1977 wherein the entire plant had to be decommissioned, costing the government approximately $1700 million. Safety Violations-If dealt with at an early stage, can prevent adverse consequ ences, in the form of loss of life and radiation leaks. Monetary losses are relatively contained. An apt example would be that of the Browns Ferry Unit 2 mishap, Athens, Alabama, 1984. Also a leaking valve forced the shutdown of Millstone Nuclear Power Plant Units 1 and 2, Waterford, Connecticut, US in 1996. Instrumental Malfunction- On March 9, 1985, systems malfunction led to the suspension of operations at all three Browns Ferry Units, Athens, Alabama, burning a hole of $1830 million in the US Governments pocket. Experimental Smash Ups- Experimental Browns Ferry THTR-300 reactor released small th amounts of fission products to surrounding area on the 4 of May 1986.

2. Nuclear Power Plant Attacks There has been instances, one too many wherein, NPPs have been subjected to attacks by the forces of other nations. Such attacks are fuelled primarily by Political and Military Motives. Some noteworthy instances follow: In September 1980, Iran bombed the Al Tuwaitha nuclear complex in Iraq. In June 1981, an Israeli air strike completely destroyed Iraqs Osirak nuclear research facility.

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

Between 1984 and 1987, Iraq bombed Irans Bushehr nuclear plant six times. In Iraq in 1991, the U.S. bombed three nuclear reactors and an enrichment pilot facility. In 1991, Iraq launched Scud missiles at Israels Dimona nuclear power plant. In September 2007, Israel bombed a Syrian reactor under construction.

It is also imperative to understand that such attacks can be the brainchild of terrorist groups as well. An archetype Dimona NPP presented itself when, In his January 2002 State of the Union speech, President Bush said that U.S. forces found diagrams of American nuclear power plants in al-Qaeda materials in Afghanistan. An al-Qaeda training manual lists nuclear plants as among the best targets for spreading fear. In February 2002, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) issued an advisory to the nations 103 nuclear power plants that terrorists might try to fly hijacked planes into some of them. And eight governors have independently ordered the National Guard to protect nuclear reactors in their states. 3. Radiation Accidents The term Radiation Accidents, is self explanatory. It is also necessary to dwell upon the fact that radiation accidents do not lead to immediate deaths. Radiation accidents are generally dealt with, through evacuation and Medical Tests to ascertain contamination, in which case, Decontamination an expensive process is undertaken. The effects of Radiation Accidents may not necessarily be short term. The Hiroshima-Nagasaki regions contaminated by nuclear radiation still shows signs of mutation and deformity. Serious radiation accidents include:

1952 - AECL Chalk River Laboratories, Chalk River, Ontario, Canada. Partial meltdown, about 10,000 Curies released. September 1957 Mayak nuclear waste storage tank explosion at Chelyabinsk. Two hundred plus fatalities, believed to be a conservative estimate; 270,000 people were exposed to dangerous radiation levels. Over thirty small communities had been removed from Soviet maps between 1958 and 1991.[23] (INES level 6).[16] October 1957 - Windscale fire, UK. Fire ignites plutonium piles and contaminates surrounding dairy farms.[24][4] An estimated 33 cancer deaths.[24][4] 1962 Radiation accident in Mexico City, four fatalities. March 1984 Radiation accident in Morocco, eight fatalities.[10] August 1985 Soviet submarine K-431 accident. Ten fatalities and 49 other people suffered radiation injuries.[25] December 1990 Radiotherapy accident in Zaragoza. Eleven fatalities and 27 other patients were injured.[7] 1996 Radiotherapy accident in Costa Rica. Thirteen fatalities and 114 other patients received an overdose of radiation.[9] September 1999 - Criticality accident at Tokai nuclear fuel plant (Japan)
8

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

April 2010 - Mayapuri radiological accident, India, one fatality.[12] March 2011- Fukushima I nuclear accidents, Japan (current event). March 2011- Fukushima Daichi Power Station - radioactive discharge [26]

NOTE: Reactor Meltdowns and Explosions will be explained in the following sections.

TYPES OF NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS 1. Loss of coolant A loss-of-coolant accident (LOCA) is a mode of failure for a nuclear reactor; if not managed effectively, the results of a LOCA could result in reactor core damage. Each nuclear plant's emergency core cooling system (ECCS) exists specifically to deal with a LOCA. 2. Criticality accidents A criticality accident (also sometimes referred to as an "excursion" or "power excursion") occurs when a nuclear chain reaction is accidentally allowed to occur in fissile material, such as enriched uranium or plutonium. The Chernobyl accident is an example of a criticality accident. 3. Decay heat Decay heat accidents are where the heat generated by the radioactive decay causes harm. In a large nuclear reactor, a loss of coolant accident can damage the core: for example, at Three Mile Island a recently shutdown (SCRAMed) PWR reactor was left for a length of time without cooling water. As a result the nuclear fuel was damaged, and the core partially melted. The removal of the decay heat is a significant reactor safety concern, especially shortly after shutdown. Failure to remove decay heat may cause the reactor core temperature to rise to dangerous levels and has caused nuclear accidents. 4. Transport Transport accidents can cause a release of radioactivity resulting in contamination or shielding to be damaged resulting in direct irradiation. In Cochabamba a defective gamma radiography set was transported in a passenger bus as cargo. The gamma source was outside the shielding, and it irradiated some bus passengers. In the United Kingdom, it was revealed in a court case that in March 2002 a radiotherapy source was transported from Leeds to Sellafield with defective shielding. The shielding had a gap on the underside. It is thought that no human has been seriously harmed by the escaping radiation.[30]

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

5.

Human error Two types of mistakes were deemed most serious: errors committed during field operations, such as maintenance and testing, that can cause an accident; and human errors made during small accidents that cascade to complete failure. 6. Lost source Lost source accidents, also referred to as an orphan source are incidents in which a radioactive source is lost, stolen or abandoned. The source then might cause harm to humans. For example, in 1996 sources were left behind by the Soviet army in Lilo, Georgia.

IMPACT OF RADIOACTIVITY The impacts of radioactivity are multifarious and multidimensional. Also one needs to call to mind the fact that the effects of radioactivity are not immediate. Radiation occurs when unstable nuclei of atoms decay and release particles. There are many different types of radiation. When these particles touch various organic material such as tissue, damage may, and probably will, be done. Radiation can cause burns, cancers, and death. The standard unit used for measuring radiation is rem or roentgen equivalent in man. More is the rem count, more damage a person is likely to suffer. It is amusing to learn that although only 25 rems trigger perceptible changes in blood, an exposure to upto 100 rems usually has no immediate harmful effects. It is only when this count exceed 100 rems that the initial signs of radiation sickness begin to emerge including-nausea, vomiting, headaches, loss on WBCs. This loss of WBCs leads to a worrisome fall in the immunity of the victim. Beyond 300 rems. The victim begins to suffer hair loss and intense internal damage viz. nerve cell damage and damage to the cells that line the digestive tract. A fair majority of the people exposed to about and over 450 rems die and exposure to over 800 rems are always fatal. Mutation of course is a long term effect as can be seen in Hiroshima-Nagasaki. Action needs to be taken in haste, because death can occur anytime between 2 days to 8 weeks from exposure to the radiation. What affects the mortality rate under such circumstances is the medical care available to the victim. However, as one would learn after going through the following table, the probability of death increases with increased radiation being as low as 0-5% if the exposure is within 200 rems (2Gy).

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

10

A more detailed account of the ill-effects follow in the table drawn below. 1 Gy=100 rems Phase Symptom Exposure (Gy) 68Gy 830Gy 75100% 1060 min 90100% < 10 min

12Gy

26Gy 50100% 12h

>30Gy 100%

Nausea and 550% vomiting Time of onset 26h Duration Diarrhea < 24h None

Time of onset Immediate Headache Slight

Time of onset Fever None

Time of onset CNS function Latent period No impairment 2831 days

Minutes N/A 2448h < 48h < 48h (patients die in < 48h) None to mild Heavy Heavy (>10%) Heavy (>95%) (<10%) (100%) 38h 13h < 1h < 1h Mild to Moderate Severe (80 Severe moderate (80%) 90%) (100%) (50%) 424h 34h 12h < 1h Moderate Moderate to Severe increase (10Severe (100%) severe (100%) (100%) 100%) 13h < 1h < 1h < 1h Seizures, Cognitive Cognitive Rapid Tremor, impairment 6 impairment > incapacitation Ataxia, 20 h 24h Lethargy 728 days Moderate to severe Leukopenia Purpura Hemorrhage Infections Epilation after 3 Gy 5100% 550% 46 wks < 7 days Severe leukopenia High fever Diarrhea Vomiting Dizziness and disorientation Hypotension Electrolyte disturbance 95100% 50100% 24 wks None Nausea Vomiting Severe diarrhea High fever Electrolyte disturbance Shock 100% none

Illness

Mild to moderate Leukopenia Fatigue Weakness

N/A (patients die in < 48h)

Mortality

Without care With care Death

05% 05% 68 wks

100%

100% 100% 2 days2 wks 12 days

11

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

A LOOK AT THE PAST The Chernobyl accident in 1986 was the result of a flawed reactor design that was operated with inadequately trained personnel. The resulting steam explosion and fires released at least 5% of the radioactive reactor core into the atmosphere and downwind. Two Chernobyl plant workers died on the night of the accident, and a further 28 people died within a few weeks as a result of acute radiation poisoning. UNSCEAR says that apart from increased thyroid cancers, "there is no evidence of a major public health impact attributable to radiation exposure 20 years after the accident." Resettlement of areas from which people were relocated is ongoing.

Area under Immediate Impact

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

12

The accident caused the largest uncontrolled radioactive release into the environment ever recorded for any civilian operation, and large quantities of radioactive substances were released into the air for about 10 days. This caused serious social and economic disruption for large populations in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. Two radionuclides, the short-lived iodine-131 and the long-lived caesium-137, were particularly significant for the radiation dose they delivered to members of the public.

PAST UN RESOLUTIONS RES45/190 RES46/165 RES48/206 RES/50/134 RES/52/172 RES/62/9

The CRDP developed by the UNDP which aims at ensuring return to normal life is a realistic prospect for people living in regions affected by the Chernobyl disaster.

RECENT ACTION Rehabilitation after the Chernobyl accident continues to be in the focus of the UN, actively carrying out studies/conferences and implementing long-term plans. In February 2002, a report commissioned by UNDP, UNICEF & WHO perhaps the most comprehensive study of the situation and required actions outlined A Strategy for Recovery. As suggested by the report, a shift in approach was brought about from humanitarian assistance to development aid, and UNDP assumed responsibility for UN-wide coordination of Chernobyl issues in 2004, along with IAEA and WHO. In 2001, the 15th anniversary of the accident, the IAEA set up the Chernobyl Technical Cooperation (TC) Programme with the affected countries for technological assistance.

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

13

In 2003, the creation of the Chernobyl Forum was set up to accumulate existing and promote further knowledge on all aspects of the Chernobyl heritage. As part of the Forum, several initiatives have been taken up by the IAEA and WHO. The Forums first Organizational Meeting was convened at the Agency headquarters in 2003, and has been at the centre of many initiatives. In 2008, the UN Action P lan till 2016 was finalised. Though the primary involvement of the UN has been with the directly affected countries Ukraine, Belarus and Russian Federation NGOs and other non-state actors have also been actively involved, especially the Red Cross Societies. The main focus of these efforts has been to address the health concerns, resettlement of people, radiation control/monitoring, economic restoration, and general redevelopment. More recently, a need is being felt to move on from addressing what had its roots in the emergency response to long term restoration and moving back towards a sustainable environment. This includes development of industrial and agricultural production, increasing inward investment, reinstating cultural heritage and refurbish the general way of life in the affected areas where the contamination issues had become routine. Also, many have argued that the lessons learnt from Chernobyl be translated to actions. Though this has also been another priority of the IAEA, the recent events in Japan have put to doubt whether much has been taken from the incident.

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

14

POINTS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THE RESOLUTION A resolution can be rightly understood as the summation of all the deliberations that youve been party to, throughout the course of the conference. It not only states all the factors, ideas and fervors which have guided your debate but even suggest innovative and novel solutions to the problem at hand. It is arguably said that the quality of a resolution determines the success of the committee. Keep these questions in mind while formulating your resolution. 1. What is the stand of your country on usage of nuclear energy, what are its distinctions, inter alia? 2. Has your nation been victim to a nuclear tragedy; what were the causes and what were steps taken thereafter? 3. Are you proposals overlapping in any manner, the previous proposals which have been rejected by the House?

4. Is your resolution work efficiently in the face of demographic variations? 5. What steps have been taken to prevent any future nuclear accidents, have these measures been approved a body of authority? 6. Which technologies have been used in the nuclear plants in your country and which one of them portrays a greater vulnerability to radiation leak? 7. Are the rehabilitation strategies proposed by you feasible in the light of the variable financial standings of the member countries? 8. If you intend to concoct any new committees in this regard, how shall you provide for its funding and how shall it be distinct from the ones already established? 9. Are your proposals in sync with the IAEA Mandate? 10. How does your resolution tackle the existent loopholes in the IAEA Safeguards-if any- or how does it reinforce and strengthen those safeguards?

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

15

REFERENCES IAEA: http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/focus/chernobyl/ WHO: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2009/chernobyl_anniversary_20090424/en/inde x.html http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/chernobyl/en/ http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/chernobyl/Overview_WHO_past_involvement.pdf UNDP: http://chernobyl.undp.org/english/index.html Chernobyl Forum: www-ns.iaea.org/meetings/rw-summaries/chernobyl_forum.htm www.hko.gov.hk/radiation/tidbit/200709/chernobyl_4e.htm www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html ICRIN: http://chernobyl.info/en-US/Home.aspx Red Cross Societies: http://www.ifrc.org/docs/appeals/annual11/MAA6700211p.pdf Some Helpful Reports: http://www.ifrc.org/docs/appeals/annual11/MAA6700211p.pdf (www.ifrc.org) http://chernobyl.undp.org/english/docs/belarus_23_anniversary.pdf (chernobyl.undp.org) www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/teachers/09.pdf www.unscear.org/unscear/en/chernobyl.html www.iaea.org/Publications/Booklets/Chernobyl/chernobyl.pdf

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

16

PROMOTION OF THE PEACEFUL USES OF NUCLEAR ENERGY Energy in all its forms has always driven human development. New technologies in energy production, starting from the use of fire itself, have driven economic and social development. In the mid-1950s, nuclear energy created new hope for an abundant source of that energy for the world.

Road to International cooperation in the Peaceful applications of Nuclear Energy

To promote this groundbreaking technology, and to host a neutral ground for substantive scientific debate, the United Nations in 1955 organized the first of a series of conferences in Geneva on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. Providing an opportunity for scientists from all countries to showcase their research, these conferences came to be recognized as essential platforms for the further development of nuclear energy. International co-operation in the peaceful uses of atomic energy began with multi-national arrangements for the exchange of scientific information and the procurement of source materials. The success of the first Scientific Conference in Geneva in 1955 was both the result of the first large scale declassification of scientific information and the stimulus for further declassification. With it begins the post-war era of a freer exchange of scientific information in atomic energy. The United Nations General Assembly, upon reviewing the report submitted to it by the IAEA, condensed its aspirations on the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy into UNGA resolution A/RES/32/50, passed in 1977.

Role of the IAEA

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is the worlds foremost forum for scientific and technical cooperation in the peaceful use of nuclear technology. Established by the United Nations as an independent organization in 1957, the IAEA serves 151 Member States.

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

17

Peaceful application of nuclear energy is the primary statutory function of the IAEA and it works to foster the role of nuclear science and technology in sustainable development. This involves both advancing and employing knowledge to tackle pressing worldwide challenges: ensuring access to food, water and energy, fighting poverty and disease, and adapting to climate change. The IAEA works to maximize the safe operation of nuclear facilities that generate power, support industry, deliver health care and serve research. The IAEA promotes the responsible management and disposal of waste, while verifying that nuclear technology is used only for peaceful purposes.

Through research and technical cooperation projects, the IAEA facilitates the transfer of nuclear technology to Member States for use in medical, agricultural, industrial, water management and other applications. This contributes to the goals of sustainable development and protection of the environment. The IAEAs laboratories provide training and conduct research.

Note: The primary concern regarding the practical applications of nuclear energy to meet various social and economic needs is the issue of nuclear safety. The world has not forgotten the disasters of Chernobyl, Three-mile Island and Fukushima Daichi, which have been discussed in the first agendum of this guide. Peaceful applications of Nuclear Energy

Below, are mentioned some the upcoming applications of Nuclear, however, feel free to extend the scope of your research to other applications as well. 1. Production of Electricity Nuclear power plants are primarily used for electricity production. Currently, 439 reactors are operating in 30 countries and are contributing approximately 14% to global electricity generation. The share of nuclear in global electricity generation has declined slightly in recent years. However, the total amount of nuclear electricity generation is increasing as plant availability, power uprating, and new plants offset the loss from older plants that are being shut down Case Study -1 On 28 September 2011, a new nuclear power plant launched in Lima, Argentina. In his congratulatory message to the Argentine President Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner, IAEA Director General Yukiya Amano commended the technological skill shown by the Argentine engineers and technicians in mastering the challenges presented by the plant's construction. The Director General assured President Fernandez de Kirchner of the IAEA's continued support
18

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

for Argentina's plans to build additional nuclear reactors to provide the needed electricity for the country's fast-growing economy. Nuclear power has been used to produce electricity for public distribution since 1954. Ever since, power plants have been operated in 32 countries. (Argentina, Armenia, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, the Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, India, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, the Republic of Korea, Lithuania, Mexico, Netherlands, Pakistan, Romania, the Russian Federation, South Africa, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Ukraine, and the United States of America ) Currently, 30 countries operate 439 plants, with a total capacity of 372 GW(e). Further, 34 units, totalling 28 GW(e), are under construction (as of 26 June 2008). During 2007, nuclear power produced 2608 billion kWh of electricity. The industry now has more than 13 000 reactor years of experience. Nuclear energy production after the Fukishima Disaster On the 26th of July 2011 , IAEA chief Yukiya Amano said that nuclear energy production shouldnt be hampered because of the Fukushima Disaster, Quote: "There are some countries like Germany that have revised (their energy policy). But many countries still believe nuclear power generation is necessary given global warming, The head of the U.N.'s nuclear monitoring agency said Thursday that global use of nuclear power will continue to grow, despite the shock waves sent through the industry after a massive earthquake and tsunami caused an accident at a Japanese nuclear power plant earlier this year. At the United Nations, there was a special high-level meeting on the safety and security of the world's nuclear power plants. Challenges for nuclear expansion Continued diligence in achieving safety and reliability of nuclear plants; Improving economic competitiveness; Achieving and retaining public confidence in nuclear power; Retaining and developing the necessary workforce competences; Continuing successful management of spent fuel and radioactive waste; Demonstrating the successful ultimate disposal of spent fuel and high level waste

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

19

2. Medicine Diagnosis Nuclear scans are safe and painless. Small amounts of radiopharmaceuticals are introduced into the body by injection, swallowing, or inhalation. Radiopharmaceuticals are substances that are attracted to specific organs, bones, or tissues. The amount of radiopharmaceutical used is carefully selected to provide the least amount of radiation exposure to the patient but ensure an accurate test. A specialised camera then detects the radiopharmaceutical in the organ, bone or tissue and forms images that provide data and information about the area in question. Nuclear medicine differs from an x-ray, ultrasound or other diagnostic test because it determines the presence of disease based on biological changes rather than changes in anatomy. Treatment of Disease Radiation is widely used in the treatment of diseases, such as hyperthyroidism and cancer. To control the disease, or to prevent recurrence through spreading of loose cancerous cells which can lead to secondary cancer, all malignant cells in a tumour must be completely destroyed. Radiotherapy accomplishes this by focusing radiation to a specific tumour, most often using cobalt60 gamma rays. Being effective, simple to operate, and relatively inexpensive, brachytherapy, a type of external nuclear treatment is helping to save the lives of hundreds of cervical cancer patients in Egypt alone through work supported by the IAEA, the WHO, and the Government of Italy. Only recently developed, another procedure using radiopharmaceutical monoclonal antibodies is valuable in the treatment of cancer. Monoclonal antibodies, which are disease fighting proteins, seek out and bind to a specific tissue or cancer cell. A radionuclide, chemically bonded to these monoclonal antibodies, can deliver a large dose of radiation to a specific area without affecting the surrounding tissue. Safety Nuclear medicine procedures are among the safest diagnostic imaging exams available. To obtain diagnostic information, a patient is given a very small amount of a radiopharmaceutical. Because such a small amount is used, the amount of radiation received from a nuclear medicine procedure is comparable to, or often times less than, that of a diagnostic x-ray.

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

20

The History of Nuclear Medicine One of the earliest instances of nuclear medicine occurred in 1946 when radioactive iodine, via an atomic cocktail, as first used to treat thyroid cancer. The thyroid gland took up the radioactive iodine and the radiation eradicated the cancer cells, curing the patient. In addition to curing thyroid cancer, radioactive iodine, in much smaller doses, was used to measure the function of the thyroid and to diagnose thyroid disease. Physicians began to use nuclear medicine for the treatment of hyperthyroidism, a condition where the thyroid over-produces thyroid hormones.

As more knowledge was gained about basic biochemical processes, using radioactive versions of certain elements to trace these metabolic processes led to dramatic breakthroughs in diagnostic medicine. (Unlike a diagnostic X-ray where radiation is passed through the body, nuclear medicine tracers are injected into the patients body, while external detectors measure the radiation that they emit.)

Timeline

1950s: Widespread clinical use of nuclear medicine began. 1960s: Techniques developed to identify cancer hot-spots. 1970s: Radiopharmaceuticals were designed for such critical diagnoses as heart disease and cancer. 1990s: PET (Positron Emission Tomography) became an important diagnostic tool, largely due to its ability to image the metabolic abnormalities associated with disease.

3. Desalination Water related problems are numerous. They are so diversified that there is no single solution to meet the water demands in a given country. All alternate solutions of water supply, notably water recycling, more efficient use of water, modernisation of water distribution networks to avoid leakages and the desalination of brackish or seawater, are thus required to meet the ever increasing
21

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

water demands. It has been generally recognised in most international circles, dealing with water related problems, that seawater desalination could be an attractive, non-conventional water resource to meet the rising water demands.

Since nuclear energy is nearly carbon free generation and is long-term sustainable solution and potentially competitive with fossil fuels, it is necessary to consider it as a choice for desalination projects. Particularly in cases when power and heat for desalination is generated from using heavy crude oil or coal, which requires significant cost for pollution control and is an inefficient generation solution, resulting in significant increase of the penalty for CO2 emission and greenhouse impact.

In a nutshell, the advantages of nuclear powered desalination: Nuclear desalination is economically competitive, as compared to desalination by the fossil energy sources. Nuclear reactors provide heat in a large range of temperatures, which allows easy adaptation for any desalination process. Some nuclear reactors furnish waste heat (normally evacuated to the heat sink) at ideal temperatures for desalination. Desalination is an energy intensive process. Over the long term, desalination with fossil energy sources would not be compatible with sustainable development: fossil fuels reserves are finite and must be conserved for other essential uses whereas demands for desalted water would continue to increase. Unlike nuclear desalination power and heat for desalination generated from using heavy crude oil or coal requires significant cost for pollution control and is an inefficient generation solution, resulting in significant increase of the penalty for CO2 emission and greenhouse impact.

Location Kazakhstan (Aktau) Japan (Ohi, Takahama, Ikata, Genkai) Rep. of Korea, Argentina Russian Federation

Present state w.r.t. Nuclear desalination In service till 1999 In service with operating experience of over 125 reactor-years. Under design Under consideration
Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference 22

Japan (KashiwazakiKariva)

India (Kalpakkam) Pakistan (KANUPP) China France, The Netherlands, South Africa, USA 4. Nuclear Applications in Space

Never in service following testing in 1980s, due to alternative freshwater sources; dismantled in 1999. Under commissioning Under construction Under design Under development and design

Solar energy supplies most of power in spacecraft nowadays. Although the efficiency of solar cells has grown substantially recently, they can supply electricity only in near-Earth orbits and for satellite-borne equipment Large-scale projects such as exploration of the shadowed sides of mars, require nuclear power plants. These plants are independent of sunlight. They can provide power not only for life support and equipment, but also drive electric or nuclear rocket engines. Estimates made by researchers over recent years show that nuclear power, if used in longdistance space voyages, will save considerable funds and shorten interplanetary journeys. In a Mars mission a nuclear-powered engine would cut flight time almost by two thirds, compared with a jet engine using ordinary chemical fuel. The rim of the solar system could be reached within three, rather than 10, years. Nuclear plants can be used not only as sources of electric power, but also as sources of heat to support life and productive activities at bases beyond Earth. In the past, research and development on space-based nuclear plants was halted for considerations of radiation safety. Today nuclear energy is more reliable and is having a rebirth. It is facing ambitious and energy-consuming objectives both in near-Earth orbits and in deep space. The application of Nuclear energy in space is closely checked by the Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space, adopted on 14 December 1992 (resolution 47/68).

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

23

POINTS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THE RESOLUTION Compatibility with the NPT. Economic feasibility of peaceful applications of nuclear technology. Needed advancements in nuclear safety. International trade of radioactive materials Compatibility with Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space. KEY DOCUMENTS Statute of the IAEA IAEA Primer UNGA Resolution A/RES/32/50 Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space

REFERENCES http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/TRS400_scr.pdf http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/te_1524_web.pdf http://www-tc.iaea.org/tcweb/publications/factsheets/FoodIrradiation.pdf http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/P_1354_web.pdf http://interactive.snm.org/docs/whatisnucmed.pdf http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/hqlibrary/pathfinders/nuclear.htm http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/nps.html http://world-nuclear.org/info/inf82.html http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Booklets/Safety/safetyframework1009.pdf http://www.ne.doe.gov/pdfFiles/NPSPACE.PDF

LINKS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH http://iaea.org This site provides essential knowledge on the structure and existing protocols the IAEA uses.

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

24

http://www-ns.iaea.org/ This is an article that involves the security and safety of nuclear materials. You can use this as a starting point for your research on current security measures in place.

http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Treaties/npt.html This article provides the fundamental purposes of the treaty, as well as various links regarding the treaty, as well as the text of the actual treaty itself.

NOTE: The references stated above serve as links for research as well.

Copyright 2011 Amity International Model UN Conference

25