Popular Prospecting

A Field Guide for the Part"time Prospector

INCLUDES DATA FOR
THE GEM HUNTER, URANIUM SEEKER, and the PROSPECTOR

FOR STRATEGIC METALLIC and NON-METALLIC MINERALS.

By
H. C. DAKE
Editor - THE :MINERALOGIST MAGAZI~E

FIRST EDITION -1955

Price $2.00

Copyright 1955

By The

Mineralogist Publishing Componr

329 S.E. 32nd Avenue Portland IS, Oregon
 r

Books for Prospectors, Uranium Hunters,

Gem Cutters and Collectors

THE FOLLOWING BOOKS will be found useful for data in related fields of interest.
For the convenience of the reader these books are available from most supply
firms, book sellers and journals in this field, or may be had direct from THE
MINERALOGIST, 329 S. E. 32nd Avenue, Portland 15, Oregon.
ARIZONA GEM TRAILS - By Ransom. New guide book, for gem hunters and
mineral collectors. Describes many localities in Arizona, including new and little
known regions, where valuable gems and minerals are available. \Vritten by one
who has been there. Includes data on uranium in Arizona. Tours and localities
described in detail. Price $2.00.
HANDBOOK URANIUM MINERALS- New issue. Intended for the uranium pros­
pector, and collector of fluorescent gems and minerals. Describes in detail, use of
Geiger counter, formations in which uranium is likely to occur, localities through­
out the United States, and the world. Describes in detail all the important com­
:dercial uranium minerals. The "bible" for the uranium prospector. Combined in
one volume, is a complete listing of all known fluorescent gems and minerals.
Describes a!! popular ultra-violet lamps used, filters, and equipment. Price $2.00.
THE AGATE BOOK - For t4e agate hunter, cutter and collector. Describes in de­
tail all varieties and sub-varieties of agate. The first complete book on agate, with
50 photos, showing numerous types of agate, localities where found included. By
H. C. Dake. Price $2.00.

NORTHWEST GEM TRAILS - Describes hundreds of localities in Oregon, Wash­

ington, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming. Illustrated with maps and photos. For
the gem hunter and mineral collector. Only book of its kind ... Price $2.00.
ART OF GEM CUTTING - By Dake, (Complete) new 5th edition, 128 pages . . .
Completely illustrated showing all types modern gem cutting equipment. Most
complete work ever written on modern met!lOds of gem cutting, specimen finish­
ing, cabochon and facet cutting. Includes sections on gem identification, use in­
struments, special lapidary technic, and other helpful information, for the begin­
ner, and the advanced technician. Price $2.00.

CALIFORNIA GEM TRAILS - New enlarged and revised second edition. Describes
in detail, gem and mineral localities throughout the state. 'With detail maps and
photos. Price $2.00.

GUIDE TO ROCKS AND MINERALS - By Pough. The ideal book for beginners,
as well as the more advanced. Aids in the identification of minerals and rocks. There
is none better. Illustrated with' 254 fine photos, with 72 in full color. Price $3.75.
THE MINERALOGIST MAGAZINE - Since 1933, this monthly (except July and
August) magazine has pioneered in featuring articles of general interest in the
field of fluorescent gem and minerals, and the uranium minerals. Features are
also printed for the gem cutter, many localities throughout the United States are
described. Subscription $2.00 per year, for ten issues. The Mineralogist Publish­
ing Company, 329 S.E. 321ld Avenue, Portland 15, Oregon.

Tile Mineralogist Magazine

[Book Department]
329 S. E. 32nd AVENUE PORTLAND 15, OREGON

..

 Contents

Page

FOREWORD ............._..._........_......_........._._ ....__.._..................... , .................... _. __ .__ . 4

CHAPTER

I WHERE TO PROSPECT .._._. _____ ..._....... _....._...._...___ .___ .____ ._______ .__.__ .___ 7

Occurrence of Ores ...._....______ ._____ .._.._..__~. ____ ._ ... __ ._ ......................_....___ .. 7

Gem Stone Placers ...__ ._.... _......_..................... ,...._............................_..... 13

Lode Deposits ........_.................................... _......................................... 15

II THE GEM MINERALS ....................................................................... 19

The Jade Fields ...................................................................................... 24

III THE METALLIC MINERALS ...................................................._..._ 29

Chromium ........................................_..............................____ ................._.. 29

Lead ........................................................._.._.._.......................................... 30

Mercury .................................................................................................... 31

Rare Earth Metals ....._...._...._..............._.....................____ ........... """""" 32

Tungsten .................................................................................................. 33

IV THE NON-METALLIC MINERALS ................................._............ 35

Abrasives .................................................................................................. 35

Building Stones .............................. _............._........._.,............................. 36

Phosphate Rock ................. _........_........................................................... 31

V THE URANIUM MINERALS ............................................._._._._. 39

Gieger Counters, Scintillometers ...................................................... 40

Uranium Hunting _..................,.............................................................. 41

Uranium Minerals ................................................................................., 47

Uranium Dis,coveries .................._......................................................... 52

VI NOTES ON PROSPECTING .......................................................... 61

Seismic Methods ......................_._ ..__ ._.__ ........_...................................... 62

Metal Detectors ..............._......_......._......_......._...._......_.............. _............. 64

Salting A Min'e .............................._...._......_._ ...._........__ ................ _........... 66

Pegmatite Prospecting .......................................................................... 68

Lost Min.e Fables ................................................................... _..._._._ .. _.. _ 72

Great Diamond Hoax ............................................................................ 74

Foreword

DURING THE PAST DECADE the
avocation of part time prospecting has
developed into a National leisure time oc­
cupation - with profit to many who en­
gage in this pleasant activity. There are
a number of reasons for this remarkable
development. The demand for certain
minerals, which a few decades past were
only scientific curiosities, has brought
about wide public interest in prospecting.
Uranium is a good example. The gevelop­
ment of the jet engine, and various elec­
tronic instruments, has also brought about
a wide demand for minerals which pre­
viously had little value and only limited
uses in the arts and industries.
Previous guides for the prospector
have devoted little attention to the
possibilities of the gem and ornamental
stones. With the recent development of
the gem cutting hobby, on a National
scale, the demand for gem cutting min­
erals has increased enormously.
In the field of non-metallic minerals
the scope of possibilities for the prospec­
tor has increased enormously. For ex­
ample, the development of the use of
perlite (a variety of obsidian) as a build­
ing material, has brought this previously
worthless rock into the money group.
The discovery of small amounts of ura­
nium in phosphate rock has changed the
status of the possibilities of this old
source of fertilizer and chemicals. There
are millions of acres of phosphate rock
scattered throughout the United States.
These deposits are of utmost present and
future importance. The development of
the H-bomb brought about an added need
for lithium minerals, an essential ingre­
dient in this destructive monster.
History is replete with many examples
of where a prospector searching for and
recognizing only one mineral (usually
gold) passed by bonanzas. The Comstock
Lode of Virginia City, Nevada, is a clas­
sic example. The first party of prospec­
tors, searching for gold, passed by this
billion dollar property, when they failed
to recognize the heavy black silver min­
erals that cluttered up the sluice boxes.
The "richest hill on earth" at Butte,
Montana, was at one time considered
worthless by prospectors, when the rich
surface silver-copper ores were first en­
countered. Many similar instances could
be cited, as a matter of historical record.
It is obvious that the day of the pros­
pector, searching solely for gold, is gone
forever. The remaining gold pockets that
await discovery are few, and the fabu­
lous "lost" mines of fact and fiction are
still more elusive.
I t will be seen that the modern day
prospector will do well to become in­
formed on the appearance and occurrence
of various minerals, to enable recogni­
tion in the field. The prospector without
this knowledge will be working under a
handicap, and will be likely to pass by
a valuable deposit solely through lack of
knowledge. How may this knowledge be
acquired?
One of the easiest and most simple
ways of becoming familiar with the com­
mon economic minerals is by handling
them, noting their color, form, "heft,"
and general appearance. This is not at all
as difficult as it may sound. Every min­
eral, ore, and gem material has certain
characteristics, just like every human be­
ing has certain characteristics that may
be difficult to describe. However, by
seeing and handling typical minerals and
ores, we soon become familiar with them,
enabling recognition instantly, on
For example, "hefting" of a sample a
good practice to develop early in the
game. The skilled .jade hunter in Wyo­
ming, searching through a maze of com­
mon rocks, all similar in outside appear­
ance, will soon develop skill in "hefting."
Jade is about twice as heavy, bulk for
bulk, as common rock, hence with a little
practice, the valuable jade can be readily
sorted from the common rock. This same
practice is applicable to any mineral dis­
tinguished by a high specific gravity.
Many times we have observed a pros­
pector searching for some mineral, the
typical appearance of which he was not
familiar. Only blind luck would help here.
Few prospectors searching for uranium
are familiar with the typical and common
uranium minerals other than yellow car­
notite--there are yellow colored minerals
other than carnotite. All too often the
prospector will waste a lot of time and
energy working on a false trail, when an
inexpensive set of economic minerals
would have put him right to begin with.
Sets of this kind are available at a low
cost from the many mineral supply houses
throughout the country. A little study of
these typical ores and minerals will be of
great value to any prospector.
We might cite the case of the prospec­
tor searching for sapphire in Rock Creek
 FOREWORD
in Montana. He panned out, among other
items, a number of water worn, beautiful­
ly colored, cornflower blue stones. They
were without doubt flawless and perfectly
colored. He assumed, in fact he insisted,
these were valuable sapphires, since they
were found in the stream gravels. This
was only a natural assumption, ·but not
a correct one. A simple test for hardness,
using a common file, would have indicated
otherwise, and saved the prospector a
lot of time and excitement. These fine
cornflower blue pebbles were nothing
more than water worn glass, from a
Bromo Seltzer bottle, cast into the stream
by an earlier day prospector who had
celebrated his good fortune too well.
Judging by color alone may be decep­
tive in many other ways. The yellow of
limonite iron may be taken by the unini­
tiated to be carnotite uranium. The dull
green color of some iron stains may be
mistaken for copper or nickel. The yellow
green, or blue stains of uranium, copper,
or nickel are never dull in color, but
always vividly bright. Once these are
seen in a typical sample they will not be
forgotten, and will be instantly recog­
nized on sight.
No attempt will be made here to enter
into the legal aspects of filing mining
claims. Laws differ in various states,
while most parts of the great Public Do­
main are open to mining entry, other
regions, like National Parks and Monu­
ments are closed to mining entry. Infor­
mation relating to filing mining claims
on a specific area are available at the
County court house, or nearest U.S. Land
Office. The U. S. Atomic Energy Com­
mission, field office at Grand Junction,
Colorado, has information on the adja­
cent regions where uranium occurs. A
mineral discovery made on private prop­
erty can often be shared by arranging
with the owners, filing on a 50-50 basis.
During the past 100 years, many of the
great mineral deposit discoveries have
been made by the prospector. In some
cases these discoveries were made in a
more or less accidental manner, like Kel­
logg's mule in the Coeur d' Alene of
Idaho, and the lads building a mill race
for Sutter in California. Pure luck, with­
out any knowledge has also revealed some
important deposits. But these are the
exception rather than the rule, and are
not to be depended upon.
Before LaBine set out for the wilder­
ness of Northern Canada, he made a study
of all the old geological reports avail­
able for this region. LaBine was search-
5
ing for cobalt-silver deposits, popular at
that time. He dusted off some old for­
gotten reports, and read of a likely place
and set forth with a partner. LaBine
found no valuable cobalt deposit, but he
did stake out a valuable silver property,
and what eventually proved to be the
second most fabulous uranium 'deposit
in the whole world. He was well reward­
ed for his study and effort. LaBine was
familiar with mineralogy, hence he was
enabled to recognize a potentially valu­
able mineral outcrop. when he saw one.
In prospecting certain areas for some
specific mineral, the reports of the U. S.
Geological Survey and the state mining
bureaus will often prove invaluable. Geo­
logical maps of these regions are also of
considerable value.
Almost anyone able to walk, and get
out into the field may engage in this
pleasant part time prospecting. Anyone
may make a valuable find, but it is true
that those with at least an elementary
knowledge of minerals, and some geology
will stand a better chance of making a
new discovery.
The prospector of a few generations
past was generally interested only in gold.
No mineral knowledge was required to
recognize gold nuggets appearing in the
pan.If there was any question of their na­
ture it was only necessary to flatten them
out on an anvil. History does not record
how many very valuable mineral deposits
these old timers passed by, but they were
numerous. The day of gold "pocket"
hunting is almost a thing of the past, and
little reference to same will be made here.
The large gold dredge properties have
long since been taken up. The last "boom"
in gold prospecting was during the de­
pression days, when many idle hands took
to the hills. Most of them were enabled
to wash out anywhere from 50c to $2.00
per day in placer gold-enough to keep
one off the relief roll. Weare assured
these days will never return.
Along with the developments in science 1
and industry, we find new uses for min­ -,1i
erals and metals previously regarded only
as scientific curiosities. Uranium is a
typical example. Only a few years ago
this metal had only limited use in the
field of ceramics, and only a few tons a
year were in demand. When the great
Uranium deposits of Belgium Congo and
Great Bear Lake, Canada, were first
worked, the rich uranium ores were treat­
ed to remove only the radium, and then
run out on the waste dumps. At present,
thorium is in little demand, but it is likely

6 POPULAR PROSPECTING
that this element will eventually be in
demand for nuclear fission, same as ura­
nium.
Along with the developments in new
uses for old metals, technical advances
enable us to utilize lower grade ores. Ore
deposits that are today regarded as too
lean for economical exploitation, may to­
morrow be in wide demand. This should
be kept in mind by the prospector. Very
low grade copper deposits are being
worked today, that a few decades past
were regarded as worthless. Prior to the
invention of cyaniding for gold, any gold
deposit funning less than about $50.00 a
ton was passed by. Today, practically all
the gold mined in the world is derived
from ores running at best only a few dol­
lars per ton. One of the chief require­
ments for any low grade mineral deposit
is that there must be a large quantity
available. This being the case, sooner or
later a way will be found to handle the
ore in a profitable manner.
In the case of vital strategic metals,
economy need not be a factor in commer­
cial utilizatiop. If a metal is vital for our
economy or for war use, financial aid will
become available. There are a number of
these mineral needs. Tin is one. Any low
grade tin deposit discovery would likely
hold considerable potential value, if large
enough, regardless of economic factors.
During the past war there was a vital and
immediate need for suitable quartz crys­
tals for use in electronic instruments.
Brazil was practically the only source for
..
this most vital need. We had transport
planes waiting at the mines to fly back
the valuable crystals, soon as they were
dug. The cost must have been consider­
able.
Before a mineral deposit can be of any
immediate value, and readily salable there
are a number of factors that must be
given consideration. These factors in­
clude such items as location of the' de­
posit. This may include nearness to rail
or water transportation. Water for use in
milling may also be a factor. Transporta­
tion costs are always important. The size
and nature of the deposit is also impor­
tant. In general a small but very rich
deposit would be of little value, except in
the case of uranium where Federal aid
becomes available. The nature of the ores,
which involves the cost of treatment, is
important. The size of the deposit is per­
haps all important. Enormous deposits,
situated even in remote parts of the
world, may be feasible for commercial
development. The fabulous iron deposits
of Labrador, known for many years, are
a good example. Many millions of dollars
were spent here for development work
and transportation, before a ton of ore
was shipped.
In short, you find a suitable deposit,
science will find the way for commercial
utilization.
H. C. DAKE
329 S. E. 321ld Avenue
Portland IS, Oregon
February 1955
. \
 CHAPTER ONE
Where To Prospect
In answer to the question of where to
prospect, the answer can well be, any­
where, for it has long since been learned
f'
that no part of the world is wholly devoid
ri of mineral wealth. Even the forbidding
desert and arctic regions have been prov­
en to produce fabulous wealth in oil,
uranium, and iron.
The part time prospector will likely
engage in prospecting during vacation
time, and week end tours of a few days.
The latter tours will be limited to dis­
tances within easy reach. The prospector
residing in the more heavily populated
parts of the Country will likely not find
good nearby possibilities. Those who re­
side in the Western states may find good
prospecting areas within a short distance.
Certain metallic minerals, and some
gem minerals are most likely to be found
associated with certain types of rocks, and
the prospector would do well to be en­
abled to recognize the more common rock
types when seen in the field. For example,
the pegmatite formations have produced
a great host of valuable economic min­
erals. Pegmatites are nothing more than
granitic rocks which have cooled very
slowly at depth, and present very coarse
single mineral crystals.
In fact these single pegmatite crystals
may be of enormous size and weighing
many tons. Ordinary granite is compara­
tively composed of small crystals. A con­
trasting rock is obsidian, the volcanic
glass that was cooled quickly on the sur­
face, and here the rock appears homoge­
neous, with no individual crystals visible.
Yet both of these types of rock are of the
same essential chemical composition. The
same molten liquid that at great depth
solidifies as granite or a pegmatite gran­
ite, would if it cooled more rapidly at or
near the surface, form common obsidian,
perlite, pumice or one of the several types
of roek classed as rhyolite. It may be well
to remember that the rhyolite type of
rock is the home of valuable vein agate
and agate filled thunder eggs, common
to many Western states.
We have spoken of chance as a factor
in valuable discoveries. Ore bodies and
gem deposits have often been exposed in
the excavations made for buildings, roads,
trails and railways. These have often
proved to be bonanzas for gem and min­
eral prospectors.
In this little book we will not go into
instructions pertaining to grub and camp­
ing equipment. This information has been
previously presented hundreds of times.
Nor do we dwel1 at length upon the mat­
ter of remedial treatment for snake bites.
In all the voluminous literature on, and
references to, mining and prospecting we
have yet to read of an authentic case of
a miner or prospector meeting his end
through an encounter with a poisonous
insect or snake, in the United States, Can-·
ada or Alaska. History does reveal the
fact that many prospectors who encoun­
tered fabulous bonanzas hastened their
end celebrating their good fortune. In
these matters we will assume that the
reader is endowed with common sense
and good judgment.
Regarding the filing of mining claims,
the U. S. General Land Office has issued
an excellent booklet, which gives perti­
nent and salient information on the sta­
tus of various lands where claims mayor
may not be filed. Send for Infonnation
Circular 1278, U. S. Land Office, Wash­
ington, D. C.
It has been previously stated that the
prospector will find it a great advantage
to acquire at least an elementary knowl­
edge of mineralogy, and at least a basic
knowledge of geology. Without these the
prospector might make valuable discov­
eries, but he is working under a distinct
handicap. All the large oil and mineral
exploration corporations employ trained
geologists and mineralogists. There must
be a reason. In many cases the field pros­
pector will make the original discovery,
and after that development work will de­
pend upon scientific prospecting, includ­
ing the use of valuable geophysical equip­
ment and in most cases a considerable
amount of costly diamond drilling to fol­
low and prove or disprove the ore body.
If the reader is interested in acquiring
an elementary working knowledge of
mineralogy and geology, he is referred to
that recent and excellent book by Pough,
Field Guide To Rocks And Minerals,
appearing in the book list on page 2.
OCCURRENCE OF ORES
The prospector should have a basic.
knowledge of what types of rock are most
likely to carry a given ore of metal. It
has been said that "gold is where you
find it." This is true in the case of gold,
8 POPULAR PROSPECTING
r

Part time Chicago prospectors. Members of the Chicago Rocks and Minerals Society re­
turning from a field trip to the Thornton Quarry, near Chicago. This club is one of some
500 similar clubs scattered throughout the United States. Most of them sponsor guided field
trips to engage in prospecting, gem hunting, mineral collecting, and geological studies in
the field. It is estimated that some 40,000 persons are members of these societies and clubs.
News of their activities in various parts of the country appears regularly in the journals in
this hobby field. (Photo courtesy of CHICAGO TRIBUNE.)

but not so in the case of many other
metallic and non-metallic minerals. For
example tin is frequently found associated
with coarsely crystalline granite rocks,
and is a common minor constituent of
pegmatites. The great tin placers of Ma­
lay, Nigeria, and Bolivia, that produce
the bulk of the world supply, are all asso­
ciated with disintegrated granitic rocks.
Tungsten and molybdenum are nearly
always found in or associated with coarse­
ly crystalline volcanic rocks. These may
or may not be of a granite type. As a
contrast, chromium, platinum, and nickel
are usually found in or associated with
fine grained volcanic rocks, like serpen­
tines and peridotite rocks, often greenish
in color. This does not necessarily follow
that wherever these rocks appear the
minerals will also be found. Quite to the
contrary. But their presence is an indica­
tion that valuable metals might be pres­
ent.
It is weI! to understand that the valu­
able ores are usually not deposited at the
time the molten rock came forth. The ex­
ception to this is in the case of the peg­
,matite formations, often called pegmatite
"dikes." In this case the individual min­
erals and metals had an opportunity to
separate or "segregate," owing to the
very slow cooling of the mass at some
depth. This is technically known as mag­
matic segregation, or separation of each
mineral by itself. There are many im­
portant mineral deposits in this class.
However, in most deposits we find the
rock, either volcanic, sedimentary, or
metamorphic (volcanic or sedimentary
that has been altered) previously in place.
The valuable metallic ores are then
brought in by various means of trans­
portation, including percolating waters,
(hot or cold) and gasses from the cooling
lavas. The percolating waters (including
steam), are by far the most important,
and usually they are heavily charged
with various chemicals, especially when
they originate from depth. A huge mass
of any type of lava rock, cooling at depth,
will for many centuries give off heated,
and chemically charged waters. These are
what is known as "juvenile" or magmatic
waters, and represent water which was
originally locked into the rock in chem­
ical combination.
It is these magmatic waters that ac­
count for the hot springs and geysers in
Yellowstone Park. Gradually, over a
riod of many years, the lava magma
off less water, and the hot springs and
geysers will eventually cease to flow, as
has long been noted in Yellowstone.
These magmatic waters are highly im~
 WHERE TO PROSPECT
portant in the formation of valuable ore
bodies. As these percolating waters pass
through various rock formations on their
way towa'"d the surface, they will dissolve
various minerals and carry them in solu­
tion for at least a short distance. Even­
tually these mineral laden waters will
reach an open space in the rock, and here
they will deposit their valuable burden.
These spaces. May be an open space
formed by an earth movement (earth­
quake), or a large open "vug", or some
other type of open space, or an open
space may be created dissolving out other
rock, like limestone. In open fissures, we
find the great "vein" deposits. Or the
percolating waters may drop their min­
eral load into porous formation like a
sandstone, to form "disseminated" de­
posits.
By no means does this complete the
list of possible types of mineral deposits.
Volumes have been devoted to their tech­
nical descriptions. The purpose here is
merely to indicate the manner in which
some well known mineral deposits have
formed. It may be of interest to note that
even metallic gold can be carded in solu­
tion by these superheated, chemically
charged waters. The spectacular speci­
mens of native gold in quartz are good
examples of this mode of ore deposition.
The great gold nuggets of history, some
of them weighing 100 pounds or more,
were formed in this manner, when con­
ditions were right.
Gold is one of the least soluble of all
metals, yet under conditions of high tem­
peratures, and no doubt high pressures,
plus the presence of various chemicals,
water is enabled to carry gold in solu­
tion. This being true, it will be seen that
far less resistant metals like uranium,
copper, lead, zinc, antimony, silver, man­
ganese, and many others, may be readily
gathered by percolating waters in their
passage through any rock formation. The
great lead-zinc deposits of the Tri-State
district surrounding Galena, Kansas, are
a· good example. Here the percolating
waters likely mainly ground '.vaters, were
acid in their composition, and as they
penetrated the limestone rock, they dis­
solved and carried away the limestone
(calcite), and dropped their burdens of
lead, and zinc, along with small amounts
of copper and iron, and minor amounts
of lesser metals. These great deposits
have been an important source of lead
and zinc for many decades, and still con­
tinue to produce. Most of them are ncar
the surface.
9
Huge opalized logs are sometimes found in
the Western states. This specimen weighs
2,450 pounds and was found in the opalized
forest of Central Washington, by Charles
Simpson of Quincy, Washington. This speci­
men is from the Middle Miocene forests of
some 15 million years ago. Specimens of pet­
rified wood, when of good color and quality,
are valuable, and find a ready market.
It will be seen that many conditions
must be met with in order to produce a
rich and extensive mineral deposit. either
metallic or non-metallic. At a compara­
tively few places in the world are
occurrences quite exceptional in their
nature. These resulted in the fabulous de­
posits of copper at Butte and Bisbee; the
billion dollar silver lode of the Comstock;
the enormous deposition of uranium at
Great Bear Lake in Canada, and the Bel­
gian Congo, the mountains of iron ore
in Labrador; the low grade copper at
Bingham; unique Broken Hill, Australia;
the wealth of gems in Ceylon; the gold
of the Rand; the enormous phosphates
(and uranium) of Idaho; and the Home­
stake with its unbroken dividend record
of some 75 years. These are a few of the
great mineral deposits of the world that
have made and broken many men.
The prospector interested in reading
will find the many books dealing with
the history and development of these
great mining districts more interesting
than any work on fiction, they are strang­
er than any fiction. It is not expected that
the hobby-prospector will find bonanzas
of this kind. Yet it is possible and has
10 POPULAR PROSPECTING
been done. In September, 1954, A. P.
press reports throughout the Country
carried the story of a lad by the name of
Pick. Pick, according to the press reports
had some hard luck in his home town in
Minnesota. He took what funds he had
in hand, and journeyed to Colorado, and
according to press reports, bought a Gei­
ger counter, and the Handbook of Ura­
nium Minerals (by H. C. Dake, price
$2.00).
The news stories relate that this lad
went out into the field, worked hard,
covered a lot of ground, lost considerable
weight, made some fabulous uranium dis­
coveries, and sold out to a large corpora·
tion for $9,000,000 cash. The possibilities
of the amateur prospector appear to be
unlimited.
PLACER DEPOSITS
In the earlier days of gold mining, the
placers were the main producers. The
gold from the original veins or lodes had
gradually disintegrated through the ages.
Gold being heavy and quite resistant to
weathering, the heavy metal was con­
centrated at various places in sand and
gravel, known as placer ground.
First came the prospector working
with a hand pan, or other hand operated
equipment like rockers, sluice boxes, and
long toms. The white man took the
cream and went on to better grounds
(presumably). Then came the Chinaman
to clean up after the white man. Then
came a long period of idleness, when
along came the huge dredges, that again
worked over the same ground to win ad­
ditional riches, and to work the ground
too lean for any hand operations. Under
ideal conditions, a dredge could often
work ground at a profit, carrying as little
as eight cents a cubic yard in gold.
Today, placering for gold, as a possible
one-man operation, is practically through
from an economic standpoint. It is true
that at times one may find an isolated
pocket, or some ground here and there
that will still yield a profit, but these are
few and remote. Few of them were over­
looked by the Chinaman of an earlier day.
Placer deposits, formed by the mechan­
ical concentration of valuable minerals,
are still important to the prospe'ctor for
values other than gold. By mechanical
means, heavier minerals may be deposited
in concentrates that are of great com­
mercial value. Usually the minerals that
may be expected in commercial concen­
trations will include only those having
resistance to wear, weathering, tough­
ness, and they must be heavy (high
specific gravity). These minerals include
platinum, gold, cassiterite (tin), chromite,
magnetite, ilmenite, rutile, monazite, zir­
con, native copper, and a number of
others. Gem stones are often found in
placers, like the sapphire of Montana,
first noted and mined as a by-product
from the gold dredges some decades past.
The great alluvial gem placers of Cey­
lon have been known for centuries. To­
paz occurs with the tin deposits of Ni­
geria, and these large and superb gem
crystals are well known. The gem placers
of North Carolina were important pro­
ducers for many years, but have now
been largely mined out, at least in the
more profitable ground. Agate is often
won from what may be regarded as plac­
er formations, notably the gravels of the
Yellowstone river in Montana, and the
Oregon beach deposits. In short, in any
region where a hard and resistant mineral
or gem has been found in place, it was
often first found in placers. This is true
in Montana where sapphire was first
discovered in the gold placers, and later
traced to its origin.
At the present time considerable at­
tention is being devoted to placers yield­
ing ilmenite, monazite and zircon. New
uses have been found for the metal zir­
conium, especially in the field of high
fusing alloys. used in the jet engine. The
U. S. Bureau of Mines has conducted a
considerable amount of research work in
the production and refinement of this
metal, long regarded only as a laboratory
curiosity.
Many of the world's placers carry vary­
ing amounts of monazite, and this min­
eral is important for its content of rarer
elements cerium. Some monazite is radio­
active, carrying as much as 18% thorium
and will respond actively to the Geige;
counter. Monazite varies considerably in
composition, and in addition to thorium
it may carry valuable rare-earth element~
like didymium, cerium. lanthanum, and
others of this series.
Monazite is commonly found in granite
(gneiss) type of rocks throughout the
world. Deposits in the United States in­
clude those of Virginia, Oregon, North
Carolina, N ew York and Connecticut.
Huge deposits are known in India and
Malay.
Ilmenite is a titanium mineral, long
used as a white pigment in house paint.
More recently new uses have been found
 WHERE TO PROSPECT
Jade hunter in the Lander. Wyoming. jade fields finds two large and valuable masses
of green Jade. Herds of antelope also roam this region. ranging far to the south in the great
Red Desert. along with the uranium hunters.
for this very high fusing metal. Details
of its use in the jet engine remains classi­
fied. but highly important.
Placer grounds are comparatively easy
to prospect and assay in a qualitative
manner. A shovel and a gold pan will
usually suffice to determine if possible
values are present. Sample ground may
be washed and concentrated in the gold
pan. The heavy concentrates are collected
and subjected to close scrutiny. The heavy
black sand magnetite may be readily re­
moved with a strong hand magnet. The
remaining concentrated material should
be closelv examined with a hand
fier. and' subjected to chemical and
ger counter tests. If values appear,
including those enumerated here, the
concentrates mav then be submitted to
a competent co~mercial assay.
Placer ground may be found almost
anywhere in or adjacent to a live stream
of water. Ground far removed from water
may have been originally worked over by
running water. ocean or lake waves, or
bv the wind. In either case there may be
c~mmercial ground possible of standard
placer treatment.
In parts of Nevada and elsewhere in
the desert regions of the \Vestern states,
there are considerable areas comparative­
II
ly rich in alluvial gold, but no available
water to work then. There are large
areas of t!;lis nature surrounding Sulphur
and Jungo in Nevada. During the De­
pression Days when there was wide in­
terest in gold placering, considerable at­
tention was given to the possibilities of
working these great areas. The cost of
bringing in water from a distance was
prohibitive, so attention was turned to
the recovery of the gold from the sands
by the use of wind and an air blast.
This method has proven quite successful
in the highly arid regions of interior Aus­
tralia. Many of these devices were tried
in Nevada, and elsewhere in the Ameri­
can desert regions, but none of them
proved feasible or profitable. The present
writer saw a number of these contriv­
ances in action. In some cases they
yielded tailings that were richer than the
concentr<ttes. Gas engine operated shak­
ers were popular, but not a success. The
prospector with a small hand rocker, haul­
ing barrels of water some 10 miles by
truck, working in the same ground ad­
jacent to the "whirlwinds", would aver­
age about $2.00 per day. No colors ever
came from the concentration end of the
wind blowers.
Other contraptions were freely tried
12 POPULAR PROSPECTING
in this Nevada gold region. Among them
were devices charged with a flask or
more of mercury. The theory was to
shovel in the gold bearing sands, and stir
the mass with the quicksilver, with the
idea that the finely divided gold would
amalgamate. One device the present writ­
er saw in action was apparently working
beautifully, until the sand started to pack
in the drum. The iron paddles tore the
machine apart, spewing forth the flask of
mercury, said sand, and all. All of these
inventors arrived charged with enthu­
siasm and high hopes, all of them re­
turned home, sadder but wiser men.
Some day this problem may be resolved.
Values in gold or any other metal may
be found almost anywhere and in almost
any placer formation, but in order to
qualify for commercial value they must
be of a reasonable extent and quantity.
Small and isolated pieces of ground, how­
ever rich they may be, usually do not
warrant any great development expendi­
ture. Grounds of this kind are the "one­
man" placer operations, operated by pick,
shovel, wheelbarrow, and a suitably de­
signed sluice box for the material at
hand. Many have profited well from small
operations of this kind.
The nature of the ground, said size par­
ticles, material being recovered, and a
number of other factors will determine
the nature of the best suited equipment.
These are dealt with in mining volumes
devoted to placering. An excellent book
t1nder title Gold in Placer, price $2.50,
is available from Jack Douglas, "The
Old Prospector," Box 729, Lodi, Cali­
fornia.
An interesting type of sluice box is
used in Nigeria, Africa, in working the
great tin (cassiterite) placers. The ground
is first cleared of trees and brush, and
then attacked with high pressure giants.
The ground cut down by the water is
washed into large sluice boxes ZOO or
more feet in length, with low wooden ob­
structions at frequent intervals. A great
deal of ground is poured into the sluice,
and native workers constantly rake the
debris in the sluices to keep it moving
along. The cassiterite, being considerably
heavier than the waste material accumu­
lates on the up stream side of the low
obstructions. The cassiterite is scooped
out at frequent intervals, and during the
dean-up the water and ground is turned
into a duplicate adjacent sluice. Fine to­
paz crystals are also recovered in the
sluices, topaz being about twice as heavy
as ordinary rock, it will lodge in the rif­
fles, and is recovered as a by-product.
In the Nigerian tin placers we have a
good example of where a once worth­
less mineral was eventually turned into
greater profit than the original product. A
considerable amount of tantalite and col­
umbite is found in most of the cassit­
erite placers. At one time the tin con­
centrates were penalized if they carried
over a small percentage of tantalite-col­
umbite minerals. Hence before shipping
the tin concentrates to the British smelt­
ers, it was necessary to remove them by
electro-magnetic treatment.
The waste concentrates were thrown
to one side. Then the tin buyers noted
that the tin concentrates brought in by
the natives carried more and more of the
discarded waste. Pits were dug and the
waste was then buried deeply, to pre­
vent the natives salting their concen­
trates. Some years later new and impor­
tant uses were found for tantalum and
columbium. The original waste by-prod­
uct became far more valuable than tin.
The old waste pits that had accumulated
for decades were sought out and worked
as valuable bonanzas. Here history re­
peats itself many times in the mining in­
dustry. The classic example being urani­
um, which we once threw over the dumps
and tailing waste piles. The lesson we
learn is that no matter how lean a pres­
ent day deposit may be, or how little, if
any, value a mineral may have today,
tomorrow it may graduate into the com­
mercial money -group. Perlite is another
good example. All Western prospectors
have walked past these mountains of
volcanic glass and given them 110 thought
whatsoever.
Placer grounds may be found high up
on the side of a mountain, or on a high
bench far removed from any body of
water. These are ancient water deposits,
left by a flowing stream, or perchance
the beach of a prehistoric lake or ocean.
Formations of this kind are not always
easy of recognition. They may be covered
with a heavy forest growth, or debris
from above may have wholly or partly
covered the original ground. Some of
these deposits have proven valuable once
they were recognized and prospected.
Some small but fabulously rich gold plac­
er grounds have been located high on a
mountain or hillside. For obvious physi­
cal reasons deposits of this type are
invariably of small and limited extent.
Some of these small placers have been
enormou~ly rich. In mining terms, values
 WHERE TO PROSPECT 13

Part time prospectors. The Zeitner family of the ,

South Dakota, collecting chalcedony gebdes in the Bad Lands of South Dakota. The large
geodes are erroded from the sedimentary formation, seen exposed here. Various good quality
gem minerals have a wide and ready market.

in placer grounds are usually stated at
so much per cubic yard of ground. The
early day gold placers of Californ'a and
Alaska were often rated in values of
dollars per pan. Individual small pockets
would vield thousands of dollars. In the
Klondike, values ran as high as $5'0.0'0 or
more per cubic yard in spots, when gold
was priced at $20.65 an ounce. In many
parts of the world gold placer ground
has been known to run as high as $200.'0'0
per yard, at old gold prices. Henc" it will
be seen that these old timers, using only
hand labor, had no difficulty washing out
fortunes. A dollar a today would be
a great bonanza for a or hydraulic
operation.
GEM STONE PLACERS
Diamond is perhaps the most impor­
tant gem won from placers. Prior to 1871,
when the diamond "pipes" were first
found in South Africa, the entire world
supply came from the placers of India
and Brazil. Diamond bearing placer
grounds are stil1 worked in many parts
of the world, but they are gradual1y being
worked out.
In India it was at one time thought
that diamonds actually "grew" in the
placer grounds, this statement appears in
all the older books on gems, and was
even copied as a fact by some quite mod­
ern textbook writers. The reason for this
eJ.r1y day supposition was that placer
grounds in India would be worked over
by native hand labor, and a certain re­
covery made. Then the ground was al­
lowed to rest for a few decades, presum­
ably to give time for diamond growth.
Then the ground was again worked over
and another crop of diamonds recovered.
Some grounds were worked over many
times, and in each case a recovery was
made, often due to improved methods or
more diligent and careful labor.
Isolated diamonds have been found in
placers in almost every part of the world
including the United States. Almost every
state records some of these finds. In the
Mid-west region, the diamonds found
found were no doubt originally brought
down from the far North by the Glaciers
of the Ice which covered a sub­
stantial part the Mid-west region. A
goodly number are reported to have been
found in the gold placers of the Western
states in the earlier days. Perhaps many
went over the sluices or. if noted, were
not recognized at such. A diamond in
the rough, appearing in a sluice box or
gold pan, would not attract attention of
the untrained eye. We have authentic
record:t of only a very few being ac­
tually recovered. Nearly all the reported
recent finds have proven to be either
water worn topaz or quartz crystal. If
you think you have found a diamond.
 .. ,

14 POPULAR

just go to the nearest garage or machine

shop, and touch the suspect to a spin­
ning grinding wheel. If its real, a cloud
of dust will come from the grinding
wheel. Any other known gem or diamond­
like material will instantly show a flat
spot which the wheel has removed. Your
diamond will wear down the whole wheel,
and still remain intact. There is no need
to send the stone to Tiffanys or any other
place. Make the test yourself and be con­
vinced. "Soft" diamond is unknown to
science or anyone else.
Attention may be called to the fact
that a sapphire would grind away rather
slowly on the grinding wheel. But the
wheel would readily leave its flat mark
on the stone. Sapphire' and grinding
wheels (silicon carbide, carborundum)
are of about equal hardness.
Many fine sapphires of commercial
value have been found in the gold placers
and stream beds of Montana. In fact for
many years, gold dredges operating in
some parts of the state, recovered sap­
phires as a valuable hy-product. Com­
mercial operations for sapphire are also
conducted in Montana, with gold as a
by-product. For many years these op­
erations were conducted by British in­
terests, and all the gem quality stones
were shipped to the gem cutting centers
of London. For this reason we have no
accurate records of the value of sapphire
found in the state. However, the valuable
and well colored cornflower blue sap­
phire from Montana is widely known and
highly rated in the gem trades. Like in all
gem deposits over the whole world, only
a small part of the sapphires found in
Montana are of valuable gem grades.
The great bulk of them are either off
color, badly flawed, filled with inclusions
or other imperfections to render them
worthless for gem cutting. At one time
these were widely utilized in the watch
making industry as jewel bearings, until
the synthetic sapphire industry was de­
veloped to largely replace the natural
stone. A few decades past, gem and min­
eraI supply houses had boxes filled with
Montana of non-gem grade, but show­
ing the typical six-sided crystal charac­
teristic of sapphire. The larger ones av­
eraged about y,; inch in size, and it was
your pick at 10 cents each.
There are stilt many areas in Montana
today where you may pan for sa~hires.
The best known of these regions include,
the gravels of Clark river at Missoula;
Y ogo Gulch in the northeastern part of
the state; Pole Creek, Elk Creek, and
A typical Montana sapphire and gold placer
operation. A giant, as shown, is used to
wash down the debris into sluice boxes
where the values may be recovered.
Bear Trap Creek, west of Bozeman. Per­
haps the best sapphires have been found
along the Missouri River, north and east
of Helena, on American Bar, Dana Bar,
Eldorado Bar, French Bar, and several
other localities on a long stretch of the
river.
We have seen many colorful parcels of
sapphire panned from various streams by
Montana gem hunters. Few of the stones
found have been of high gem value, but
they come in many colors including blues,
greens, browns, yellows, orange and near­
ly colorless. Those who are interested in
extensive prospecting for Montana sap­
phire wilt be interested in U. S. Geologi­
cal survey Bulletin 983, available from
the Government Printing Office. Wash­
ington, D. C.
Most gem prospectors visiting Mon­
tana are in search of agate, found mainly
along the Yellowstone River, and in the
adj acen t hills north of the river. Over a
period of more than 75 years this area
has produced millions of dollars worth of
valuable gem grade agate, perhaps more
valuable than all the sapphire ever found
in the state. For many years this region
was almost the sole commercial producer
of gem moss agate widely used in the
gem trades.
Despite the fact that thousands of tons
of this agate has been gathered during
 WHERE TO PROSPECT 15

A typical Southwestern desert prospect. Thousands of these "showings" are scattered

throughout the Country. Some will develop into valuable properties, others will be abandoned.
The prospect shown here may develop Into a valuable tungsten producer. Prospect of this
type are usually explored by open cuts and pits, or by shafts, as shown here. Deeper and
more extensive exploration may be conducted by more costly diamond drilling, if indica.
tions warrant the expenditure.

the past 75 years, prospectors still make
valuable finds in this region. Where in
the past, a days hunt over the hills and
along the river gravel bars would be
}'eckoned in wagon loads, today a few
hundred pounds is a good days work.
Values depend on quality found. Like all
other gem regions, many of the water
worn agate pebbles and boulders are de­
void of attractive moss-like inclusions,
and are thus worthless duds.
Almost any type of mineral may be
found in placer ground. For this reason
alluvial deposits are a good indication of
what might exist in the region drained
by a stream. Tracing the source of min­
erals found in placers have often led to
the lode - the original source. Soft and
less resistant mineralS are not likely to
long survive water transportation or to
be carried far.
With a little practice, some skill will
be acquired in handling a gold pan. At
the outset do not load the pan too heavily.
The larger fragments may be tossed out
by hand. The pan may also be used to
test various types of rock, suspected of
carying values. The rock is· first broken
and powdered in an iron miners mortar.
The material is then panned in the usual
manner. This method of testing is ap­
r !
r'
plicable only to instances where the min­
eral element is considerably heavier in
specific gravity than the mother matrix
rock, like gold or heavy metallic sul­
phides carried in rock.
LODE DEPOSITS
As a rule mountainous and volcanic
regions are more favorable for ore de­
posits, especially the metallic minerals.
In these regions we find faults and frac­
tures in the rocks which are favorable
for the deposition of various minerals.
Moreover, in a hilly or mountainous re­
gion conditions are generally more favor­
able for the exposure of outcroppings,
indications of values below the surface.
These may be lacking in a flat or ievel
desert region.
Hence in most prospecting work the
prospector will first look for possible
surface indications, outcrops as they are
generally known. These are places where
the vein or ore body below may be ex­
posed on the surface through weathering
or other agencies. In regions of exten­
sive glaciation, like Central Canada, great
ore bodies have been discovered where
prominent outcroppings are lacking. Many
of these ore bodies were located by vari­
ous methods of geophysical prospecting,
and similar technical means. Some of
.\
16 POPULAR PROSPECTING
them were located by keen eyed and ob­
serving practical prospectors.
Surface indications also include frag­
ments of ore, mineral or vein matter,
broken loose from the ore body and
found resting on the surface as "float."
These float pieces can usually be traced
to their source when found on a slope
or in a wash. On a hillside, an outcrop
may be covered with surface debris and
not readily located, or it may be weath­
ered to such an extent to lack prominence.
In this case the float may be traced up
a slope or up a wash, until no more
appears, when it is assumed that the ap­
proximate outcrop has been reached and
digging is indicated. The steeper the slope
or wash, the further the float may mi­
grate. In arid regions and on nearly level
ground, float is not likely to travel far
from its point of origin.
Outcrops will vary in size and appear­
ance. Some may be great bodies of resist­
ant silica rocks, standing boldly above
the surface. Others may be small and ob­
scure, lacking in prominence, but may be
rich. The zinc-lead deposits surrounding
Galena, Kansas, show no surface indi­
cations, but are extensive, rich, and rest
near the surface. On the other hand the
great lead-silver deposits of Broken Hill,
Australia, comprised an outcrop that was
a land mark to be seen from miles around.
These, however, are two wholly different
types of ore depositions. The former are
of ground water origin, while the latter
are associated with volcanic activity.
Many notable copper mines have a
large outcrop of iron oxide or gossan,
and were originally worked as gold and
silver properties. This was true in the
case of Butte, the "richest hill on earth."
Not much gold was found in the thin
gossan capping, and at the outset little
hope was held for Butte as a mining
camp, by those who first worked the
ground.
There are a few general rules that may
be kept in mind. A silicious rock in lime­
stone will form a conspicuous outcrop
since the silica is much more resistant
to weathering. Pyrite and similar heavy
metallic sulphides weather readily,hence
where these are present in large amounts,
the outcrop may actually be in the form
of a depression covered by gossan. Sili­
cious veins in volcanic rocks usually
stand out on the surface in an irregular
manner due to lack of uniform weather­
ing. In all cases the most resistant ma­
terial (like quartz) in an outcrop will sur­
vive weathering the longest, and often
monopolize the outcrop, even long after
most of the values are weathered away.
This may be the case on rich silver de­
posits.
For this reason an outcrop mayor may
not carry values representative of the
rock below. Resistant minerals like gold,
platinum, cassiterite, scheelite, and a num­
ber of others are likely to remain in the
outcr9P along with the resistant quartz
or similar matrix rock, but a great host
of minerals will be subject to weathering,
including the copper and silver minerals.
For these reasons many mines are found
,yhich are fabulously rich near the sur­
face, that is in what is known as the zone
of oxidation, that portion of the ground
above the local ground water level. The
zone of oxidation, will vary, depending
upon the terrain and climate. In level, non­
arid regions it may be several hundred
feet below the surface. The minerals found
in the outcrop, and in the zone of oxida­
tion near the surface may be wholly dif­
ferent from the values and ores found at
depth. There may also be considerable
enrichment in the zones of oxidation, de­
rived from the values above. As the sur­
face ores weather, leaching and percolat­
ing waters carry these values downward,
enriching the lower bodies. This continues
down to the groundwater level where oxi­
dation ceases, and the sulphide ores are
encountered. The latter ores are usually
of. lesser value.
Many of the early days silver-gold
mines were of this type. Enormous wealth
was encountered in the zone of oxida­
tion, where for eons of time values were
siowly concentrated as they were re­
moved from above. This was true at all
the mines in the Couer 'd Alene; at Butte;
at Silver City, Idaho; in the Comstock;
at Bisbee; and at practically every other
similar deposit. All went well while the
workings were in the zone of oxidation.
Suddenly the sulphide zone was reached,
where the values were often greatly de­
preciated, compared to what was first
mined. Some of the great workings were
enabled to carryon by improved milling
methods, others like those of Silver City,
Idaho, soon ceased operations.
When prospecting, every physical sur­
face is worth noting. Odd or unusual col­
ors appearing on the surface should be
investigated, for many ores when weath­
ering break down into minerals having
bright or characteristic colors,· like the
green and blue of copper, malachite and
azurite. Sandstones and clays may be also
stained by various minerals. Any unusual
 WHERE TO PROSPECT 17

Part time prospector H. F. Mack of Project City, California, makes a lucky and valuable
find - a huge water worn bnulder of Jade, weighing 1,350 pounds. This mass was found in
Shasta County, California. This mass rates along with the other large masses found in
Wyoming anti elsewhere. California and Wyoming are the only two states where jade has
been found insau. There are several known producing jade fields in California, described
in some detail in the book CALIFORNIA GEM TRAILS. The finest quality, apple-green,
American jade ranges in value at $50.00 per pound in the rough:

color appearing may be an indication of common and include a number of com­

mineralization below and adjacently.
While color in an outcrop is no certain
criterion of values present, some color
generalizations may be made. It can be
stated that some mineral colors are always
bright and vivid, like the green and blue
of copper and nickel. Chromite in an out­
crop may also present a vivid green color,
but more rarely than copper or nickel. Co­
balt sulphides in an outcrop may also
weather to a beautiful pink colored cobalt
mineral.
Pitchblende, a primary uranium mineral
is notorious for its production of vividly
colored secondary u ran i u m minerals,
formed by weathering and alteration in
the outcroppings and near the surface
ores. These include some 75 or more dif­
ferent secondary uranium minerals, most
of them rare ones seldom seen outside of
collections, but others are much more
mercial uranium minerals. Reference to
those will be made elsewhere, but suffice
to state here these bright colors include
canary yellows, blues, greens, and green­
ish-yellow, orange and several mixed
shades. While carnotite is usually not re­
garded as a primary uranium mineral, it
presents, when pure a bright yellow color
not to be forgotten when once seen. The
more impure carnotite ores will tend to­
ward dull or muddy yellow or even
brownish colors.
Iron stains are common ones, seen al­
most anywhere and every where, however,
they may appear in many colors and many
shades of colors, they are never vivid as
stains in outcrops on and in rocks. The
more common iron stains are yellowish
and reddish, but always on the dull side.
Iron stains and iron minerals may also
appear as black in color. Ferrous iron
 PROSPECTING

may account for green stains that to the

untrained eye may be taken as a copper
stain, but these green stains of iron are
invariable a dul1 and muddy green, never
bright and vivid like those of copper.
More rarely iron may appear in the form
of a blue stain, the iron phosphate vivi­
anite. Or the color may be a bluish-green,
but again Iilot the vivid copper color. Iron
mineral stains probably mislead more
prospectors than any other mineral stains.
Mineral stains appearing in outcrop~
pings can lend valuable information and
the prospector will do well to take note
of these. Even silver may cause a brightly
colored stain in an outcrop. The silver
chlorides and bromides, may present
bright stains in green, yellow or blue,
easily mistaken for some other mineral.
It is difficult to specifically tell the
reader where to prospect. We may cite
a few anecdotes. Years ago a greenhorn Large and good quality quartz crystals as
ventured into an Australian mining camp, shown here held high value for use in many
electronic instruments, including radio broad­
and innocently asked a party of opal cast control. Few suitable crystals of this
gougers where to dig for opaL As a joke, kind have been found in the United States.
they directed the novice to a barren knoll During the last war, great quantities were
where no experienced miner had ventured flown from Brazil mines at a high cost.
to work For days the amateur sunk his
shaft deeper and deeper, until the experts over, Stoddard knew that his frying pan
were about to reveal the hoax. Without was intact, yet the partners did not sus­
warning he suddenly struck one of the pect silver.
richest finds in the whole field. Shafts
A few of the slugs were taken by the
were sunk all around him, he had struck
partners to an assayer in Boise. The as­
a new bonanza.
sayer placed one of the small slugs into
Some years ago, an old timer, ]. L. nitric acid, watched it dissolve, and then
Stoddard, at Silver City, Idaho, related precipitated white silver chloride from the
to us how he discovered the fabulous clear solution, by the addition of common
silver camp. Stoddard was what may be salt. Yes, it most certainly was pure sil­
called a part time prospector. A t the ver. Stoddard had accidentally set his
time of his discovery he was not prOS­ fire against a rich outcropping vein of
pecting, but he and two other men were silver. This was in the early 1870"s. Dur­
running a band of horses from Nevada ing the next several decades some $300,­
to sell in Boise. No, they were not horse 000,000 in silver and gold was won from
thieves. the mines of Silver city. The mines of
Stoddard was rather a handy man with Silver City are rated as the richest the
the frying pan so he was delegated as world has ever known for their size. As
camp cook, while the other two were mines go most of them were small and of
busy wrangling horses and bringing in limited depth, when the sulphide zones
game. It was cold weather, so Stoddard were encountered. This was before the
built his camp fire against a rock wall, income tax days, and several notable
to provide a better heat. Next morning present day family fortunes were founded
while scratching around in the embers, on the wealth of the mines of Silver City
he noted some bright looking metal slugs, -a ghost town today, still more or less
too hard to be lead as revealed by the intact as when some 5,000 miners and
knife test, and too hard to be iron. More- 500 Chinamen trod its main street.
 CHAPTER TWO
The Gem Minerals
Twenty years ago there was little popu­
lar interest in gem cutting as a hobby,
and we found few gem hunters in the
field. Most of the gems used in the jewelry
trades were mined and cut in foreign
countries. Most of the domestic gem min­
ing was confined to gem pockets en­
countered in pegmatite formations, and
non-metallic mineral quarries, where gems
were not the primary interest, When a
gem pocket was encountered in these
mining and quarrying operations, it often
proved a bonanza.
Commercial gem d e p 0 si t s may be
placed in two different groups, the placers
and the lode deposits. For more than
75 years western stream gravels have
supplied the gem markets with agate, and
while these continue to produce, ,they
have been largely depleted in most sec­
tions of the country. Now most of the
value gem grades of agate are dug from
veins, seams and pockets. Often a pocket
of agate will yield heavily and if the
material is of good gem grade, a single
small pocket will produce as much as
$5,000.
The home of agate is in the volcanic
rocks. and as these rocks weather and
disintegrate the much more resistant agate
is released to find its ways into stream
IJeds or in arid countries it will accumu­
late at the foot of slopes, or remain rest­
ing on the surface. Usually when a new
agate field is discovered, a great quantity
of material is found on the surface or
mixed with the surface debris. This is the
picture in an arid or semi-arid area. The
lack of surface plant growth makes re­
covering the agate masses easy. \Vhere
brge streams are adjacent to lode agate,
the gem will then be found in the streams,
as water worn material.
This was the case of the celebrated
moss agate of the Yellowstone River in
Montana. Over a distance of more than
75 miles in the eastern part of the state,
agate was recovered in considerable quan­
tity. by merely searching the gravel bars
during summer low water periods. It is
related that in the earlier days, a wagon
load of agate could be gathered in a day,
searching the gravel bars.
Like all other placer deposits, these
have become depleted, and now the masses
of agate are found strewn along the
slopes and in fields, miles back from the
river. The best hunting is in the hills
north of the Yellowstone. Apparently the
agate originally occurred in the lava rocks
over a great area, but mainly in the rocks
north of the river. For this reason they
are found scattered over large areas in
the present day.
In many cases the gem placers have
served, like in the case of gold, to trace
the values to their source or origin. In a
hilly country, where gem materials may
bt: found in dry washes, canyons, ravines,
and stream gravels and sands, by search­
ing upwards the source can often be found
in the form of a lode. In a gem country,
the debris, for example at the mouth of a
canyon or ravine, may reveal the presence
of small fragments of the material sought
for. One may have to make a close search,
but if even sman fragments appear, one
may be reasonably sure that following
the material upwards will rev e a I its
source. Many valuable pockets of opal­ I
ized wood have been found in this maimer
in the Horse Heaven hills and in the .!
Saddle Mountains of central Washington.
This method of prospecting for any
type of mineral can not be stressed too
often. It is a time worn method that has
been in effective use for centuries. A
method that nearly always leads to values.
The debris referred to may even be sub­
jected to panning to learn more of its
nature. If fluorescent minerals, like tung­
sten, scheelite, are suspected, the ultra­
violet lamps should be used, and if urani­
um minerals are being sought, the pan­
ned concentrates may be tested Vlrith the
Geiger counter. In short, these water car­
ried alluvials can reveal a great deal of
valuable information, and mean a lot of
labor saving. In some regions, many of
these washes are noted dissecting steep
slopes, hence a lot of ground may be ef­
fectively prospected at a small amount of
effort.
While most of the former rich alluvial
agate ground in Montana, Oregon, Texas,
California, Wyoming, and other western
states has been largely depleted, present
day lode workings are the rich producers.
Some of these in situ deposits have been
brought to light by construction work,
like highway excavations, digging wells,
dam construction and similar activities.
Not so long ago a slide on a highway in
central Oregon revealed an agate pocket
20 POPFLAR PROSPECTING
comprised of high grade gem agate. The
discoverers, in a matter of hours cleared
out the open exposed pocket of vein
agate, material that sold readily for from
$5.00 to $6.00 per pound in the rough.
One single mass from the pocket weighed
165 pounds and was sold to a commercial
gem cutter for $1,000. This was the largest
single piece found, but all the material
was in fairly large pieces. At values of
from $5.00 to $6.00 per pound, a pocket
would not have to be large to yield sev­
eral thousand dollars in values.
Agate was gathered on a commercial
scale in Montana and Oregon for more
than 75 years before attention was di­
rected to other agate deposits in the west.
The great agate deposits of Texas, Ari­
zona, and New Mexico appear to have re­
mained unknown or at least untouched
until the last two decades. Since then
through active prospecting, the great Big
Bend of Texas agate fields have become
well known, and important producers.
Commercial agate diggings in Arizona
and New Mexico have also been revealed
by prospectors, during the past 20 years.
III Oregon, agate mining and agate cut­
ting has become an important part of the
mines products of the state. Gem min­
ing and gem cutting, has become a million
dollar annual industry in the state, with
scores of well known producing prop­
erties. Nearly all these new deposits, re­
vealed during the past 20 years, were
originally found by gem hunters. All the
producing grounds are lode deposits.
Some are operated by hand labor, but the
better known ones are worked by power
machinery.
There are millions and millions of acres
in the great Public Domain of the West­
ern states. Here the gem hunter may
roam at will, dig, and gather material
with no restrictions whatsoever. Upon
this great Public Domain many new lo­
calities have been found, and still more
await discovery. It seems needless to call
attention to the fact that private property
is generally surrounded by a fence - in
the Western states it is usually a barb
wire fence. The Public Domain is not
fenced. Those who are brash enough to
barge into fenced land, cut wire fences,
tear down gates, will likely find them­
selves in more or less difficulties - if the
land owner happens to be in the vicinity.
Only in rare cases will permission be
denied those who seek permission from
the land owner. And where this is refused,
or where signs are posted, there is always
a good and sufficient reason for same.
A good quality agate "nodule." The rough
mass has been sawed in the middle, and this
shows the flat sawed surface. This type is
called banded or fortification agate. A good
market exists for specimens of this type and
quality.
But even in these limited instances, it is
often possible to gain entry by proper
approach and technic. It is likely that as
time goes on, more and more private
property will be posted against entry or
trespass. Many of these postings are pri­
marily aimed at the flesh hunter armed
with a shotgun or high powered firearm,
and not the gem hunter armed with pick
and r.ammer. As a general rule when
your business is made known to the prop­
erty owner, you will be made welcome in
the true Western fashion, and no one
would dream of taking advantage of or
violating this courtesy.
If you wish to spend a vacation in the
field on an extended tour, it is suggested
that you plan your tour in advance and
with specific routes and localities on
schedule. An aimless wandering over the
region will likely yield very little, and not
enhance the recreational value of the jour­
ney. In addition to the information pro­
vided here, there are other sources of
helpful data. Various books will provide
additional information pertinent to lo­
calities, and their general geology and
mineralogy. Many of the state mining
bureaus have bulletins of a helpful na­
ture and while these are not intended
primarily for the gem hunter, they are
usually of value in field work.
. ,.­
 THE GEM MINERALS 21

Gem hunters at work at the noted Ochoco carnelian agate thunder egg deposit in Central
Oregon, operated by Herbert Wm. Lawson of Terrebonne, Oregon. One of the several open
to the public commerc!al diggings in the Central Oregon region. Diggings of this kind have
proven widely popular with visitors from distant places. The Ochoco deposit, situated high
up In the cool of the Ochoco Mountains, is celebrated for its rare and large carnelian agate
filled thunder eggs. Power operated equipment is used to clear away the waste overburden
materials to render digging easier.

The various journals in this field also
publish locality data at frequent intervals.
The journals will also enable you to visit
supply houses en route, as practically all
supply firms, and individuals who sell,
carry advertisements in one or more of
the magazines devoted to your hobby.
The silver pick will always enable you to
return home with fine material, regard­
less of your luck in the field.
It may be just as well not to attempt
to visit too many localities in a limited
time. T hurried or superficial visit to a
locality will seldom be worthwhile. After
all, the specimens generally have to be
searched for, dug out, gleaned from some
dump at an old mine, or perhaps won
from the hard rock matrix in a quarry. A
visitor may read of some 10caFty and
after a visit will complain "there is noth­
ing there." This is usually not correct.
The stranger has failed to find the best
spots, or has failed to spend enough time
in diligent search, or for many other rea­
sons. Many of the superb specimens we
see from some noted locality were col­
lected by persons who had perhaps visited
the region dozens of times. It is better to
spend a full day at one locality than a few
hours at several places. Remember, when
you are sitting at the wheel of the car,
bowling along at 50 per, the scenery may
be excellent, but the trunk is not being
filled. Do not be too hasty to blame the
writer of a locality, or feel that he has
first cleaned out the locality. and then
passed along the information in the form
of an empty sack. This is seldom the
case, Likely, the writer did obtain all the
fine material claimed, but failed to state
bow many hours or days were devoted
to their acquisition.
For the benefit of the inexperienced,
we may add a few words regarding col­
lecting conditions in various parts of the
country. In general, there are two types
of localities, one where the material is
found in its original place of birth, and
the other where it has been weathered out.
The pegmatites of southern California,
South Dakota, North Carolina. and the
New England states are excellent sources
of a great many gems, and valuable min­
erals. The pegmatites of southern Cali­
fornia were for some years worked for
the gems contained plus rare minerals
found, including lithium.
Rock, limestone and various other types
of quarries are plentiful throughout the
Atlantic states. Often "pockets" are en­
countered in quarrying, and these poc­
kets may contain mineral crystals often
superb zeolites. As long as the quarry is
in active operation specimens are likely
22 POPULAR PROSPECTING
to be forth coming, and these commercial
operations remain under the eagle eye of
local collectors.
The locality of Clay Center, Ohio, is
known to collectors far and wide for its
remarkable fluorite and celestite. All Clay
Center specimens come from an enormous
limestone quarry,. a hole in the ground
about the size and shape of Meteorite
Crater of Arizona. One could spend days
and days in the Clay Center quarry and
yet not cover the entire terrain. Tools are
needed here.
The river gravels throughout the United
States are good sources of specimens, usu­
ally hard-water worn material. Since the
high waters each year work over the
river gravels, we may expect a new crop
each year.
Here are localities which will never
be depleted. The Rio Grande River, up
and down stream for over 50 miles from
Laredo, Texas, has yielded great quanti­
ties of good specimens, mainly water­
worn quartz family minerals. Obviously
we would not expect to find soft or fragile
minerals among the river gravels. Gold is
the soft exception to the rule.
Let us go down to Florida and observe
the collectors at work at Ballast Point,
Tampa Bay. Here the collector wears
rubber boots, carries a small crow bar,
and generally a pair of heavy leather
gloves. Coral, which has been petrified
with beautifully colored chalcedony and
agate, may often be obtained in large
masses or fantastic forms. The specimens
are broken off from their attachments in
shallow water and at low tide. Collecting
has been carried on here for years, and
yet the supply does not appear to have
been greatly diminished.
We can cross the country and nearly
all' along the Pacific Ocean beaches fine
agates and other quartz minerals may be
found in the gravel bars along the beach,
with best collecting at low tide. In Ore­
gon a good gravel bar may be suddenly
covered by sand or exposed by a storm
or change in tides or wind. A gravel bar
may remain "sanded" for years and then
suddenly be exposed, to the good fortune
of the first combers. So if you visit along
the Pacific Ocean beaches, do not be sur­
prised to see numerous persons walking
slowly along the beach with heads bowed
down. They are not in silent meditat:on­
merely gem seekers.
It is true that there are great areas ill
the Mid-West that hold little interest for
the collector. Much of this region is level
prairie country. However, there are some
good collecting grounds here. The "strip"
(open cuts) coal mines near Wilmington,
Illinois, produce some of the most beauti­
ful fossil flora to be found anywhere. Col­
lectors glean the waste dumps of the
stripped surface material in search of the
elongated concretions. When split open
lengthwise these frequently reveal the
imprint of some leaf or plant that thrived
millions of years ago.
At numerous places in the Mid-West
there are huge gravel deposits carried
down from the far North by the Pleisto­
cene glaciers. Here one may expect to
find almost any mineral which can sur­
vive water wear, including even native
copper carried down from northern Michi­
gan. Colorful quartz minerals and fossil
wood is common to these gravels. Some
of these gravel deposits are worked in a
commercial manner, which serves to ease
the labors of the collector.
Throughout the western half of the
United States there are large mining re­
gions which offer excellent possibilities.
At many mines it is customary to throw
the waste or lean material removed from
the mine workings on huge dumps. Since
this is waste materi,t1 there are generally
no restrictions on coil e c tin g. Mining
states like Colorado, Arizona, New Mexi­
co, California, Uta h, Nevada, Idaho,
Washington, Oregon, and others, boast
of thousands of these "dumps" ranging
in size from the small dump of the pros­
pect pit, to those containing hundreds of
thousands of cubic yards of material.
Often these dumps contain material
of interest and value as specimens. Some
of these dumps represent material which
may have been removed from the mine
50 to 75 years ago, still waiting for the
collector. Several years ago the writer
spent four successive summer vacations
at the old mining camp of Silver City,
Idaho, some 50 miles from Boise. Here
large and small waste dumps dot the hill­
sides by the thousands.
These old and sleeping mining camps
offer not only excellent collecting possi­
bilities but they are often off the beaten
path, high up in the mountains, and an
excellent place to spend a few weeks
away from the rush of the city and the
busy highway traffic.
Some fine material may be obtained
from old mine dumps. In the early days
of mining when fabulously rich ore was
encountered, it was customary to care­
lessly cast away valuable ores. The op­
erators were waxing rich, and often the
miners were careless. Some of these old
 THE GEM MINERALS 23

While agate and many other gems are found in alluvial deposits, some are being won
from veins. Showing mining valuable gem agate from a vein deposit in Arizona. Huge
masses, weighing hundreds of pounds may be obtained in this manner. Photo by Charles
Hill, Cave Creek, Arizona, agate mines.

mine dumps have long since been re­
worked and run through the maw of the
crushers in the mills, but a very large
number, not large enough, or not con­
veniently situated, still remain intact.
Collecting on a mine dump often re­
quires no more equipment than the cleav­
ing hammer. It is easy and pleasant to sit
at the foot of a dump and rake down and
sort over the debris for specimens. In the
dump of an old silver property, it is not
at all uncommon to retrieve a fine rich
silver specimen originally overlooked or
cast aside through carelessness. Then the
beautiful crystals of the gangue minerals,
and the zone of oxidation minerals, are
always present. Your entire vacation can
be spent with pleasure and profit at one
of these old mining camps.
Depending on where you prospect you
will require an assortment of tools and
packing materials and containers. Work­
ing in hard rock, chisels and hammers are
indicated. If you visit one of the sage­
covered desert localities of the west, you
will want a heavy pick and shovel, as
when surface material is lacking, digging
may be indicated.
If you expect to collect fine crystals and
similar fragile material take along pack­
ing material and suitable containers. Mas­
sive or water-worn materials can be safely
cast into a burlap sack and dumped in
the car. In a\1 cases take along a supply
of labels, and on each container place the
proper label. Your memory may prove
faulty when you return home. You will,
of course, always have your prospector's
pick handy; this is your most universal
single piece of equipment.
The novice at gem hunting will likely
not be enabled to readily recognize good
material when it is seen in the rough in
the field. This is a matter that requires
a little experience, to enable ready "on'
sight" recognition of suitable gem cutting
material. The novice is just as likely as
not to cast away valued pieces and return
with almost worthless material. In some
cases it is difficult for even the more ex­
perienced to recognize a good specimen,
especial\y where the exterior is water
worn and drab in color. Usually chipping
off a small corner of a specimen will
suffice to reveal its true quality, on the
freshly broken surface. Or it may even
be necessary to saw off a section to view
the interior, as is the case with a\1 intact
thunder eggs, nodules, and the like.
In order to gain a good working knowl­
edge in the proper recognition and ap­
praisal of rough gem material, the novice
will do well to view the specimens in ad­
vanced collections. Or typical material
of specific value and quality may be pur­
chased from supply firms, in order to en­
able the novice to separate the sheep from
the goats, as it were.
24 POPULAR PROSPECTING
A great many of the supply firms in
various parts of the country are largely
dependent upon the field worker to re­
plenish their supply of rough gems, min­
erals, fossils, and geological specimens.
The hobbyist coIl e c tor will invariably
obtain more or less duplicate material,
and if this is of suitable commercial qual­
ity it may be readily disposed of in quau­
tity to supply firms.
Many home gem cutters manage to
make the hobby pay its way through dis­
posal of surplus material finished in their
home shops. This income frequently suf­
fices to pay for wheels, saws, and other
necessary supplies. Poor quality material
i, in little demand, it is quite common,
and often hardly worth the cost of lapi­
dary treatment. It costs no more to apply
lapidary treatment to good quality ma­
terial than it does to inferior junk. In
selling to a supply firm, retail prices are
not to be expected, the dealer must meet
the cost of handling, selling, advertising,
and realize a profit in the transaction.
Few other hobbies hold comparable pos­
sibilities and versatility.
The readers who are interested in pros­
pecting for gems in the Pacific Northwest
region are referred to the book Northwest
Gem Trails, listed on page two.
THE JADE FIELDS
For many years the Orient supplied all
the jade used in the American gem trades.
A few pieces of jade float had been found
at various places in the United States,
but little thought w~s given to the exist­
ance of possible domestic deposits.
In 1935, two Lander, \Vyoming pros­
pectors brought in some heavy but drab
appearing w ate r w 0 r n boulders. This
marked the discovery of the great \Vyo­
ming jade fields centered around Lander.
During the next ten years a heavy influx
of gem hunters and prospectors worked
the barren hills in the Lander region.
Few of them failed to find valuable jade.
While jade has been found in position
in the Lander region, alI production to
date has come from what may be termed
placer deposits, since all the masses of
jade found show more or less water wear.
And in nearly all cases the jade (nephrite
variety jade) has been found resting on
the surface, in surface debris, and in dry
washes. Naturally these were soon de­
pleted but jade is still being found in Wyo­
ming comes into the high grade class.
Mu.ch of it is lacking in good green color,
or It may be too opaque or dull, and suit­
able only for carving work, and not for
gem cutting. However, many tons of fine
Tracks across the sage. The prospector in
the Western states, seeking out little known
trails to reach isolated regions, is often con­
fronted with auto tracks branching In vari­
ous directions, with no sign posts to mark
the correct route. This is typical of the Red
Desert region of Wyoming. False tracks may
lead one to a summer sheep camp. The ex­
perienced prospector will generally know
what trail to follow.
apple-green jade has been found in Wyo­
ming. In the earlier days of discovery,
this fine jade was at times sold for as
low as $5.00 per pound in the rough.
Now the same grade brings from $50.00
to $75.00, and the supply is not plentiful.
Some of these valuable masses weighed
as much as 185 pounds, but most of them
ranged fro m 10 to 45 p 0 u n d s each.
Enormous masses were also found, some
weighing as much as 4,000 pounds, rating
among the largest masses of jade ever
found any w her e. One of these large
masses, weighing about 2,700 pounds may
be seen in the Chicago Museum Natural
History.
Several years ago jade was also dis­
covered in California. While California,
including several localities, has produced
a quantity of jade, little of it is of a color
and quality suitable for gem cutting. How­
ever, magnificent ornaments have been
carved from this material. Wyoming and
California are the only two states where
jade has been found in position, or in
commercial qua n tit i e s. Isolated float
p!eces of jade have been picked up from
time to time at various places in the
Country, but nearly always these have
been pieces showing traces of having once
been worked, similar to the jade found in
old Mexico.
A jade boulder or mass found in the
field, may easily passed by as just another
common roc k. 0 r w hen jade occurs
mixed with common rock, it will be dif­
ficult to separate same by outer appear­
ances. The experienced jade hunter will
be enabled to readily distinguish jade
from common rock, solely by hefting.
 THE GEM MINERALS 25

• Alaska Gem hunters en route to the fabulous Jade Mountain in the Kobuk River region
of Alaska. During the summer months, the jade fields can be reached by canoe travel.
Little hunting or prospecting has been done in this notable Jade field, owing to its isolation.
A detailed description of a visit to this region appears in the June 1953 issue of The MIn­
eralogist Magazine.

With a little practice this skill can be
acquired, since jade is about twice as
heavy, bulk for bulk, as common rock.
Sampling a mass of jade for quality, by
breaking off a small fragment. may' also
be deceptive since jade often has a worth­
less outer crust, due to weathering of the
mass. The inner portion or inner core
may be high grade and valuable material.
Due to its fibrous structure. a water worn
mass of jade will be very difficult to
break by ordinary hammering. The mass
should be brought in and diamond sawed
by an experienced rock cutter.
While there have been no spectacular
discoveries in the "Wyoming and Califor­
nia jade fields in recent years, these areas
have continued to produce small quanti­
ties of good material. The reader who is
interested in working the California jade
fields is referred to the specialized book
California Gem Trails, listed on page two.
This book also describes many other Cali­
fornia gem fields other than jade.
Opal Common colored opal, that is
opal which. is colored but now showing
flashes of color as seen in precious 'fire"
opal, is found in many parts of the coun­
try. Common opal, when well colored. and
not too opaque has value in the gem
trades. Some of this opal may be drab
colored, or colorless, and it mayor may
not show a strong yellowish-green fluo­
resence, due to the presence of small
amounts of uranium. The colorless type
i, usually called hyalite. or hyaline opal,
and often found as coatings on volcanic
rocks. Uranium fluorescent opal has been
found, in Georgia, Nevada, Arizona and
elsewhere in the United States. Other
than specimens, it usually has 110 com­
mercial significance.
Fire opal, in commercial amounts has
been found in only a very few parts of
the Country, notably in Virgin Valley,
Nevada, some 30 miles south of the little
town of Denio, Nevada, at the Oregon
boundary line. Here we find the only op­
erating precious fire opal mines in the
Country. Opal prospecting has been car­
ried on here from time to time for many
years. Much of the ground has long since
been filed on and prospected. The cele­
brated Rainbow Ridge Mine, is the main
present day survivor of many former
properties.
26 POPULAR PROSPECTING

Sapphire. SOr.1e sap phi r e has been

found at various places in the Country,
including the gem placers of North Caro­
lina, but these have long since been
worked out. Montana has produced by
far the greatest amount of sapphire, and
some of the old placer and lode pro­
ducers are still in operation. \¥hile not a
great deal of sapphire prospecting is now
being done in Montana, there are still
good possibilities waiting. References to
Montana sapphire have been made pre­
viously.
Diamond: Diamond pipes or diamond
groun'd have been found in only one place
in the Country, near Murfreesboro, Ar­
kansas. This discovery was made in 1906,
and for a time the ground was worked on
a commercial scale with considerable se­
crecy. Apparently the venture was not a
success, for after a time operations ceased.
More recently the ground was opened
to public digging for a small fee, with
the stipulation, "k e epa n y diamonds
found". Elsewhere in the United States,
at various places, isolated and authentic Sketch map of the Hart Mountain opal
fields of Lake County, south central Ore.
diamonds have been found from time to gon. This is one of the very few regions in
time. These have been few and far be­ the United States where "fire" opal has been
tween, we may state. found. A detailed description of this region
appears in the February 1954 issue of The
Garnet. This common gem has been Mineralogist Magazine. An opal valued at
found in many parts of the country, often $400.00 Is reported to have been found here.
in placer grounds, or even in the ant hills
of Arizona. In Idaho, at several localities, gem was once mined in some quantity in
good gem grade garnets of large size Nevada, Arizona, and California, but pro­
have been found in stream gravels. Prob­ duction is now at a low point. Not much
ably the finest star (asterated) garnets high grade was produced at any of these
found in the Un i ted S tat e s occur in early day workings.
Idaho. These have been described in the Rhodonite. This opaque gem of a pleas­
book Northwest Gem Trails, by the pres­ ing pink color, has been found at a num­
ent writer. Good quality star garnet in ber of localities in the western states in­
the rough has a ready market. cluding California and Oregon. It was
Garnet sands are also of value for abra­ also found in the old mine working at
sive purposes like the familiar garnet Butte. This gem may be found in large
paper used in industry. Garnet is often masses and as water worn boulders along
associated with other sands, of detrital stream beds, in southwestern Oregon and
minerals having commercial value. Hence Northern California. In good color qual­
a deposit of this kind of the right quality ity it has value as a gem material.
and quantity could hold considerable com­ Included along with agate in the quartz
mercial value. family minerals, are a number of other
Red garnet, present in large amounts, gems that are worth investigating when
may color beach sands red, and are often encountered on a prospecting tour. These
termed "ruby" beaches, seen at a num­ include the many types of jasper and jasp­
ber of places throughout the world. The agate. The quartz gems are described in
green sand. beaches of Honolulu are due some detail, along with where found in
to the presence of large amounts of the The Agate Book, listed on page two.
gem olivine (peridot). The ruby beaches Gypsum is ordinarily not regarded as a
of Nome are well known. These sands gem material, but the alabaster variety
are usually too finely divided to have any is widely used as an ornamental stone,
value as an abrasive material, however fashioned into various shapes. by carving
plentiful they may be. and turning on a lathe. The alabaster of
Turquoise. This colorful blue and green Wyoming and Montana at one time com­
 THE GEM MINERALS 27
----------------------------- ---------------------------

Some magnificent Montana moss or scenic agates, from the noted Yellowstone River
region in the eastern part of the state. Cut and polished agate gems of the grade and qual.
ity, bring high prices, ranging from about $10.00 to over $50.00 for a single finished piece.
These are by no means common, but the gem prospector never knows when a single large
agate of this quality may be picked up in the fields, north of the Yellowstone River. Aver­
age Montana moss agate sells for around $1.00 a pound, but a single high grade rough agate
may bring anywhere from $100.00 upwards. Phot shows cut agates in natural size. From
the collection of Stanley Twedt, West Glendive, Montana.

prised a sizeable local industry in the been familiar to prospects, but it

production or ornaments and novelties
for sale to tourists. Gypsum is also widely
used in the arts and building industries,
hence any deposit or indications of such
are weI! worth investigating.
In copper mines, various valuable gem
minerals may be found in the upper work­
ings, or in open cuts and trenches dug
while prospecting a copper deposit. These
valuable gem materials include the fine
green chrysocolla, blue azurite and green
malachite. Much of this fine material was
found when the great copper mines at
Bisbee, Arizona were first opened. Later
when the mines reached depth, these gem
materials were no longer found in the
workings. At one time, when plentiful,
chrysocolla had only nominal value, now
since good quality material is scarce its
value in the rough may be $50.00 per
pound and u p war d s. Gem prospectors
have found high grade material on the
old waste dumps in some of the great
copper camps of the West.
A large number of deposits of orna­
mental stones are being utilized in a com­
mercial manner. Many of these have long
remained for some enterprising individual
to promote the development and use of
these materials. These developments in­
clude the utilization on common, but well
colored rhyolite rocks, common to many
parts of the West. The "Wonder Stone"
of Nevada is a good example, and has
been exploited for some years. More re­
cently in Oregon and elsewhere various
types of colored lava rock deposits are
being utilized with profit.
In some cases the rock is used as
mined for applications like ornamental
rock .walls, and in rock gardens. In other
instances the colorful rock is mined, and
sawed into flat sections, and used like
tile or brick, as ornamental fronts on
homes or a business building, or per­
chance as an interior decoration in a
night club. These natural occurring build­
ing materials as usually quite durable and
resistant to weathering, and if they are
of a pleasing color or pattern arrange­
ment, they can often be utilized as a
building or ornamental material.
There seems to be no limit to the utili­
zation of ornamental stones, and the
 28 POPULAR PROSPECTING
present trend in architecture seems to be
turning more and more to natural stones.
We have seen many new ones brought
into use dJriog the past decade. For years
we have driven past a prominent rhyolite
rimrock. Presently we see a large quarry
operation going on. 'vVe hasten on in
chagrin, when we realized we had years
of opportunity to file claims on the
ground, or purchase same for a nominal
price.
It would appear that almost any type
of unusual rock, however common and
prosaic it may appear in the field has
possibilities for utilization in one way or
another. For example some of this color­
ful rock tends to weather and break into
large flat slabs. These large and angular
slabs might make ideal flagstones for out­
. door use. Trucked into a city, material of
this kind will often bring a fancy price
per ton. I t would appear that the pros­
pector in the field would do well to give
these seemingly worthless materials some
thought. 0 f ten the y are situated on
ground that is worthless for grazing or
farming, hence it is likely to be Public Do­
main ground open to mining entry. Any
deposit of this nature, on open ground,
can be protected by filing a mining claim
at only a nominal cost.
Gem Obsidian. While ordinarily ob­
sidian may be best classed as an orna­
mental stone, it does find use as a gem,
when found in suitable quality. The vari­
ous "iridescent" types found in California
and Oregon, have been widely utilized as
a gem material. Obsidian is often avail­
able in large flawless masses, hence this
material is often cut into large ornaments
like, book-ends, spheres, paper weights,
and desk ornaments. Modoc County in
California has produced great quantities
of gem grade obsidian.
The Modoc County locality lies about
five miles east of Davis Creek, California,
in the Warner Range of mountains and
covers an area of about eighty acres. Ap­
parently the iridescent obsidian is re­
stricted to this area as the material found
to the north and to the south shows no
play of colors.
Large flawless masses, weighing up to
150 pounds have been found in Modoc
County.
Glass Buttes, two pro min e n t land
marks, on the south side of the highway,
some 60 miles east of Bend, Oregon, on
the Bend-Burns Highway, has produced
many tons of gem grade obsidian. A very
fine grade of iridescent obsidian is found
here. This locality is also notable for its
Early day prospecting and collecting sam·
pies at the dakelte(schroecklngerlte) deposit
In the Red Desert, 45 miles north of Wam·
sutter, Wyoming. The secondary uranium
deposit Is carried in a thick seam of crude
lIypslte, showing in the horizon between the
two black lines. Partly indurated arkose
above and below the canary yellow uranium
ore. Photo taken in Lost Creek wash, which
ha,s exposed the deposit. The deposit is re­
ported to extend over some 5,000 acres. The
source of the uranium has not been discov­
ered or determined. Photo by Dake in 1936.
interest as an early day munitions fac­
tory, supplying the Indians with arrow
points, knives, and many tools, long be­
fore the white man appeared. The Indian
must have operated this factory for many
centuries. judging by the broken discards
found at Glass Buttes.
Quite an industry was developed. The
Plains Indians had no obsidian, hence
this material was traded widely by the
Western aborigine, for items like buffalo
robes. \Ve find this Western obsidian ill
the Indian Mounds and graves of the
Midwest.
You may be lacking ill experience to
enable your ready recognition of a valu­
able gem material when prospecting. All
you need do is to bring in a sample of
the material that appears to have value
as a gem. A retail jeweler may not be en­
abled to tell you if it has any value or not,
but take the sample to one of the many
gem and mineral supply house, scattered
throughout the Country. Here you may
get a prompt appraisal of the value, if
any, of your discovery. These firms all
carry advertisements in the several gem
and mineral magazines, now being cir­
culated on a National scale, including
The Mineralogist Magazine, 329 S.E. 32nd
Avenue. Portland 15, Oregon.
 CHAPTER THREE
The Metallic Minerals
Various minerals, for convenience of
description, are usually classified accord­
ing to their properties and uses. Those
which are often cut into gem stones are
termed gem min era I s. Minerals from
which we 0 b t a i n metallic metals, like
tungsten, copper, aluminum, beryllium,
lead, zinc, tin, iron, etc. are termed me­
tallic minerals. The non-metallic minerals
include those which do not yield true
metals, like silicon, calcium, boron, sodi­
um, lithium, graphic and a number of
others. The cerium and yttrium elements
comprise a group by themselves, gener­
ally referred to as the "rare earth" min­
erals or elemen ts.
We a;e well supplied with some of the
metallic ores like iron, but a number of
them are regarded as minerals,
and are in good demand at nearly all
times, but more especially' in time of war.
These include the chromium and tungsten
minerals, both found in sizeable deposits
in the United States. We are lacking in
some of the vital strategic minerals, no­
tably nickel and tin. Both of these must
be obtained by importation. Hence any
discovery of a sizeable deposit of either
nickel or tin, within the United States,
would obviously be of great potential
value, even if a low grade nature.
Aluminum Ores. Vas t quantities of
aluminum are used at the present time.
This is a far cry from the day when
aluminum was first manufactured in small
quantities and at great cost, merely as
a laboratory curiosity, when its value was
greater than that of gold. Since then,
manufacturing refinements, and mass pro­
duction has brought down the price to a
point where many items in common use
are cast or fabricated from this light
weight metal.
Aluminium is commonly found in vari­
ous clays, but to meet with commercial
requirements, certain qualifications must
be met with. Bauxite is the common ore
of aluminum, mined in huge tonnages in
Arkansas, Alabama, and Georgia. We
have also imported large tonnages from
British Guinea. Bauxite may be of al­
most any shade of color including red,
yellowish, brownish, and white. It is soft
~nd light in weight. A chemical analysis
is needed to determine its possible com­
mercial value.
High-grade bauxite will not "grit" be­
tween the teeth when bitten upon. Silica
is likely to be one of the chief impurities
of bauxite, and over 8% is likely to ren­
der it unsuitable for treatment. The ore
should carryover 55% aluminium oxides,
equivalent to about 30% of the metal.
Some of the aluminium silicates, like
dumortierite, andalusite, sillimanite, and
kyanite, are valuable ceramic minerals,
finding wide use in the manufacture of
items like spark plugs. Deposits of these
minerals may be of considerable value.
Antimony. There are many deposits of
antimony within the United States, but in
the past few of them were worked for the
antimony alone. Usually the metal was re­
covered as a by-product, in -various base
metal operations, like lead and zinc min­
ing. At one time, much of our antimony
was obtained from the great deposits in
China. It is widely used to harden lead,
and is used in bearings and type metal to
a considerable extent. Stibnite is the chief
source of antimony. The mineral can be
readily fused, in thin slivers in a candle
flame.
,Chromium. This is one of our import­
ant and widely used strategic metals. Its
use in various types of stainless "steel" al­
loys. Some of these alloys carry no iron at
all, but may be referred to as "steel".
However, chromium added to iron, adds
many important properties to iron, in­
cluding a higher fusing point, and resist­
ance to rust. In the development of mod­
ern items like the jet engine, rockets, and
the like, chromium has assumed added
importance, along with nickel, vanadium,
tungsten, titanium, and cobalt.
Chromite is the main ore of chromium.
It is a dark, often nearly black colored
mineral, and quite heavy to the "heft".
Chromite is invariably associated with
green serpentine, and the dark-green peri­
dotite rocks. It is generally found in
pockets, masses, and irregular lenses.
This may make mining costly and un­
certain. Chromite in the United States
appears to be limited to three great ser­
pentine belts, situated in Montana, Cali­
fornia, and Oregon, Chromite is some­
times magnetic, but if not, heating in a
hot flame, like a coal fire, will make it
respond readily to a magnet. Chromite
must be of a specific minimum grade to
qualify in a commercial manner.
 POPULAR PROSPECTING

Columbium-tantalum. These two valu­

able metals are often found associated in
the same deposit, neatly always placer.
No large deposits have been discovered
in the United States. Small deposits have
been found in the Black Hills of South
Dakota. Industry awaits the discovery of
a suitable U. S. source, as we are now
wholly dependent upon foreign sources.
Copper. We need mention little here
about copper, for its many uses and im­
portance is well known. Various cop­
per minerals are found in a great variety
of rocks, including the volcanic, sedimen­
tary, and metamorphic rocks. The chief
ores of copper, are the sulphides, and
these when exposed to weathering in an
outcrop, will bring about extensive col­
orings, with vivid blues and greens pre­
dominating. Even the novice could hardly
miss an exposure of this kind, but it is
well to remember that a small amount of An earlier day prospector with his field
copper can do a lot of coloring. So color outfit. The one with the hat on is the pros­
pector. The day of the prospector with his
alone may not be taken as a criterion of burros, wandering across the Southwestern
value. desert regions, in search of gold, is prac­
Iron. In all probability the prospector tically gone. The modern prospector goes
forth In Jeep or car, equipped with electronic
is not likely to find any new commercial Instruments.
iron deposits within the United States.
These have long since been taken up for
granular or fine compact form, galena
exploitation. Weare now turning to' out­
may be intergrown with various silver,
side regions, like Labrador, for our fu­
zinc, and other minerals.
ture supplies of iron. The great high­
An outcrop of lead is not likely to pre­
grade iron deposits, mined for many
sent unaltered galena. The minerals to
years, in Wisconsin and Minnesota, will
be noted in the outcrop, are likely to be
eventually be mined out. There are a
white or grey in color, and of a non­
number of large, but low grade iron de­
metallic appearance, like anglesite and
posits remaining untouched in the U. S.,
cerussite. Or the outcropping lead min­
but at the present time it is not economic­
erals may be gray, brownish, or green­
ally feasible to work these, when high
ish. The lead phosphate, pyromorphite,
grade ores are available (like Labrador)
may run from white, through gray, green,
in great quantities.
brown and yellow.
Lead. We appear to have no shortages Any of low fusing base metal minerals
of lead, for this soft metal is produced in of lead, and zinc may be readily identi­
a number of mining regions throughout fied by fusing with a blowpipe on a block
the country, including Idaho, and the of charcoal, using a small amount of sodi­
well known Tri-State district. Lead min­ um carbonate flux. A whitish or yellow­
erals are frequently associated with zinc ish powder coating will appear on the
and silver minerals, and it may be recov­ charcoal at the point of fusion, and at a
ered as a by-product in a silver mine. little distance will appear small metallic
Galena is the most important ore of globules of lead or zinc.
lead, and when pure carries 86% of the Manganese is an important metal,
metal. It has a characteristic metallic ap­ widely used to alloy iron for various in­
pearance, and is quite heavy; when once dustrial purposes. The most important
seen and handled it is not likely to be deposits appear to be in foreign countries,
overlooked or confused with some other but large deposits have been found in
mineral. Galena may be found in perfect Montana, Minnesota. Colorado. Alabama,
cubes, of small or large size, but most and Arkansas. Some of these are found as
often it is found in a granular form, likely manganese iron ores.
to carry more or less silver, and often The most important manganese min­
zinc. The cubes are invariably pure gal­ erals are quite black in color and include
ena, not carrying zinc or silver. In the pyrolusite and psilomelane. These usually
 TaE METALLIC MINERALS
A one man mining operation in Arizona. Prospectors often find themselves in rough
country. Here an asbestos and serpentine mine overlooks the Salt River Canyon in central
Arizona. (Photo by Guy Ransom)
occur as an earthy mineral, soft and soil­
ing the fingers when handled. These ores
often accumulate in "bogs" as the result
of weathering of other minerals like man­
ga.nite. The "bog" ores are light in weight.
Rhodonite and rhodochrosite are other
manganese minerals, usually pink in color,
and not ordinarily utilized as a source of
the metal. However, these minerals when
found in good color, and compact form,
are valuable as gem cutting materials.
A good deal of manganese has been re­
covered from the celebrated zinc mines of
Franklin, New Jersey, mainly as a by­
product. Franklinite is one of the import­
ant manganese minerals at this locality.
The ores of Franklin are also widely
celebrated for their powerful fluorescence
under the ultraviolet lamp, and many of
them can be readily identified by this
means alone.
Mercury. This liquid metal is at its
highest price in history at the time of
this writing. Mercury has changed widely
in price from time to time, often render­
ing mining of a speculative nature. In
many mercury mines, there is a minimum
cost of mining the ore, and mining can be
carried on at a profit, only when a cer­
tain price is reached. For this reason most
mercury mining operations have had a
long intermittent history of operation.
The chief ore of mercury is the red col­
ored cinnabar, a. sulphide ore. Even the
novice should have no difficulty in identi"
31
fying this ore. The red colors of hema­
tite and other iron oxides, are wholly dif­
ferent from those of cinnabar, and when
the two are once seen together and com­
pared, they can not be mistaken. Cinna­
bar, even when impure, is very heavy to
the "heft" in a hand size specimen.
If a rock carrying cinnabar is powdered
and rubbed on a clean copper coin, the
coin will become silvered or amalgamated.
One of the most sensitive tests for mer­
cury; is the ultraviolet test, sensitive to
less than one part in a thousand. The test
is simple. The powdered ore is roasted on
a small iron spoon in a bunsen flame, and
held between an ultraviolet lamp (with
filter and short wave length) and a screen
coated with powdered willemite. If even
minute amounts of mercury are present,
same will appear as dark clouds on the
screen. The test is conducted in a dark
room. Screens of this kind are available
from Ultra-Violet Products Company,
South Pasadena, California.
Cinnabar deposits are limited through­
out the world, and in the United States
it is presumed that all the large deposits
have long since been found. The mineral
may be found in almost any type of rock.
Practically all the cinnabar mined in· the
U. S. is from California, Texas, Oregon,
Arizona, and Nevada.
Molybdenum has properties and uses
similar to those of chromium, finding wide
use in special steels and various alloys ·€>f
 POPULAR PROSPECTING
iron. It is sometimes found associated
with tungsten. Molybdenite is the chief
mineral, and the great deposits of Climax,
Colorado supply much of our needs. It
has also been mined in New Mexico, Ari­
zona and Utah. Small amount from Cali­
fornia are recovered as a by-product of
tungsten ore.
Molybdenite usually occurs in granitic
rocks, or in volcanic rocks closely asso­
ciated with granite. The mineral occurs
as small flakes or foliated, often in quartz
veins. It has a shiny silver-grey, metallic
appearance, somewhat similar to flake
graphite. It is quite soft and may be
readily crumbled between the fingers.
Rare Earth Metals. Some 20' different
metals have been termed "rare' earths".
They are not necess-arily rare in their oc­
currence, but rather they are difficult to
separate from their ores. For many years
most of them have found only limited
uses, but with the recent developments in
science and industry, some of them are
finding wide applications and a growing
demand. Some of them are described here.
Thorium has been of little value, but
this radioactive metal, very similar to
uranium, has assumed considerable im­
portance. While so far as can be learned,
it has not yet been used for atomic en­
ergy, but it is assumed that it will be used
in the future. Thorium is a constituent of
monazite sands, found in various parts of
the United States including North and
South Carolina, Idaho, Florida, and Ore­
gon. In Oregon, The U. S. Bureau of
Mines has developed a commercial m<;thod
for the recovery of zirconium from the
beach sands, and it is assumed other
metals are recovered as a by-product.
Zirconium is one of the "rare" metals to
find recent important uses. Some of the
domestic monazite sands carry up to
about 8% thorium oxides. Separation is
made by gravity washing and magnetic
methods.
Selenium and Tellurium, are often re­
covered as a by-product in the treatment
of copper and gold ores. Selenium is find­
ing wide applications in the new minia­
ture tubes used in radio and television
equipment, and many other electronic in­
struments. It is often associated with ura­
nium and vanadium ores in New Mexico
and .the Colorado Plateau region.
Cerium is another member of this group
finding wider applications, and also recov­
ered from the monazite sands. It is used
in the "flints" of cigarette lighters and
radio and electronic tubes.
.--~-~.~---~ ~---~-----~---- ...
A small, light weight, pocket size, battery
operated Geiger counter, suitable for the
casual or weekend prospector. This unit is
fitted with small neon blinker lights, as
shown at top, and with outlet to plug in ear­
phones. It has no meter, regulators, or other
convenient attachments. This type of instru­
ment is in the $30.00 and $40.00 class, and
they are sensitive as instruments go.
Gallium, rhenium, germanium, indium,
rubidium, and thallium may be included
in this group. In all probability history
will repeat itself here, and some of these
elements for which we now find little use,
will in the future assume considerable
importance and value. Chemical and
spectrographical analysis are the only
reliable means of evaluating ores in this
group.
Silver is recovered in considerable.
quantity as a by-product in the mining
of various base metals, including lead,
zinc, and copper. As a rule silver is found
only in volcanic rocks. At the Butte, Mon­
tana copper camp appreciable amounts
of silver were found only in the gossan
capping the copper veins, and for this
reason, Butte at one time was not highly
regarded economically.
Silver is usually found as a dark, nearly
black colored sulphide, argentite and
stephanite. In the outcrop various oxi­
dized ores of silver may be found. includ­
ing cerargyrite. the white "horn silver".
Two of the richest silver camps ever
known were discovered in an accidental
manner when a camp fire was set over
a rich outcrop, and silver nuggets found
in the ashes. Silver City, Idaho, and the
celebrated Barrier lode in New South
Wales. Australia. were discovered in this
manner. It will be seen that the light or
dark colored, clay-like horn silver in an
outcrop can be readily passed by for a
long time, as was the case with many fab­
ulous si1v~r deposits of history.
Silver may be found in association with
many other minerals. In some cases the
 THE METALLIC MINERALS 33

~
..
l

I I
!

A portion of the "Rock Room" of Wayland W. Magee, a retired farmer of Bennington,

Nebraska. Magee is a part time prospector who spends most of the summer making long
field trips into the Rocky Mountain states, prospecting for uranium and thorium. Many of
the samples he gathers on his prospecting tours are given to colleges to be used for teaching
purposes. Magee has a light pick. up truck, fitted for his tours, and which can be used for
sleeping. Many retired persons have become part time prospectors, primarily as a hobby.

silver will predominate, while in other do­
posits the silver is only a by-product.
\Vhen the famous Great Bear Lake, Can­
ada, uranium deposits were first found,
prospector LaBine had only silver and co­
balt in mind. LaBine had a good working
knowledge of mineralogy and he was en­
abled to readily recognize the outcrop from
a description he had read in an old geo­
logical report. For many years, prior to
the invention of the atom bomb, these
celebrated deposits were worked only for
the silver, copper, and radium. The ura­
nium was waste matter and went out with
the tailings. We may regard this dis­
covery made by LaBine as one of the
most classical of them all, rating along
with the more recent uranium discovery
of Vemon Pick in Colorado.
LaBine did have a good working knowl­
edge of mineralogy, and did not start out
to prospect in a "blind" manner. He went
to a public library and dusted off some
old geological reports. In one he read of
a geological exploration made by a field
party some years previously into the
Artic regions of Canada. He read the
printed description of what indicated to
him might well be an outcrop of silver­
cobalt. He set forth and did succeed in 10­
cating and staking out what later proved
to be not only an exceedingly rich silver
property,but still later became the sec­
ond greatest and richest deposit of ura­
nium in the whole world. The lesson here
is obvious, that dependence upon blind
luck is wholly unreliable.
Titanium has in recent years found ever
increasing applications. For a long time
its most common use was as a pigment in
white paint, superior to the oxides of
lead and zinc.
Rutile and illmenite are the two import­
ant titanium minerals, and these are in­
variably found in p I ace r deposits in
greater or Ie sse r amounts, supplying
more than 90% of our commercial needs.
Under magnification, rutile and i11menite,
if present in the placer sands, can be rec­
ognized as dark colored heavy minerals.
Through methods developed by the U. S.
Bureau of Mines, metallic titanium is
now recovered on a commercial basis.
Titanium alloyed with iron and other
metals is finding many important uses, in­
cluding the very hard titanium carbide.
Tungsten is one of our most important
strategic minerals in time of war, but is
also invaluable for numerous peace time
applications. It is unique in that it is not
 POPULAR PROSPECTING

only tougher than ordinary steel, but it All tungsten minerals have a high spe­
will also retain its temper when operated cific gravity, and even lower grade ores
at high speed, and run red hot as a ma­ will be distinctly heavy to the "heft" in
chine tool. Hence this metal in recent hand size' specimens. Scheelite is generally
years has served to revolutionize many light in color, almost cream-white when
machine shop practices. Tungsten car­ pure, but always heavy. The iron tung­
bide for machine tools is also well known,
in addition to the ferro alloys of tungsten. states are very dark in color, ranging
from dark brown to quite black. They
The most important deposits of tung­
sten in the United States are in Colorado, often occur in distinct crystals. A con­
Nevada, California, Arizona, and South siderable amount of the iron-tungsten ores
Dakota. Small and scattered placer de­ were mined in Boulder Coun ty, Colorado
posits have been found elsewhere. Tung­ during World War I. This was before the
sten minerals are invariably found asso­ discovery of many of the present day
ciated with granitic rocks, and since these scheelite deposits. The Colorado deposits'
minerals are tough and resistant, they are are centered around Nederland.
often noted first' in placers, and their Cuproscheelite is usually greenish in
source traced by panning. The chief com­ color, while tungstenite may be noted as
mercial tungsten minerals are scheelite, a bright-yellow powder on other tungsten
ferberite, and wolframite. 'The lesser ones minerals in an outcrop. During the past
include hubnerite, tungstite and cupro­ few decades a number of important scheel­
scheelite. ite discoveries have been made in the des­
Scheelite and cuproscheelite fortunately ert and mountain regions of southern
are both strongly fluorescent under a California, and in all probability there
short wavelengfh ultraviolet lamp. This still remain deposits to be discovered.
property has proven of great utility not To qualify commercially, a tungsten de­
only in prospecting for these minerals, posit need not be "rich", since ores carry­
but also in their recovery from the ores in ing as low as 2% of the oxide are in de­
milling. So characteristic is the bluish mand, and if the deposit is a large one
colored fluorescence of scheelite, that ores of 1% or less can be worked at a
once noted it can hardly be forgotten. profit, as is done at Atolia, California.
Moreover, any minute size fragments of Tungsten is one of our most valuable
scheelite in a placer sands can be in­ common metals.
stantly recognized under the ultraviolet Powellite is one of the lesser tungsten
lamp. Chemical an:llysis for tungsten is minerals. It is an alteration product of
slow and costly. scheelite, with some of the tungsten re­
Unfortuniately, the iron tungstates, fer­ placed by molybdenum. Powellite is seen
berite, hubnerite and wolframite, never as a dull yellow powder, coating ores or
show fluorescence, however they do not filling cracks and seams. It may be noted
appear to be as widely distributed in the with scheelite, especially in the zone of
United States as is the calcium tungstate, oxidation. Powellite has a distinct fluo­
scheelite. Cuproscheelite has part of its rescence and may be readily noted under
calcium content replaced by copper, and the ultraviolet lamp. Its fluorescent color
this tends to change the bluish fluorescent will be dependent upon the amount of
color to a yellowish one. The ultraviolet molybdenum present, and will vary from
lamp is by far the most valuable tool for whitish to a distinct yel1ow. The char­
the tungsten prospector. Portable, battery acteristic strong blue fluorescence of pure
operated lamps are available for field use. scheelite will also be altered by the
Sample testing under the lamp should be amount of molybdenum and copper which
done in darkness, but a heavy blanket will may be present. In fact the molybdenum
serve to offer darkness for daytime test­ content of tungsten concentrates may be
ing in the field. A few small and typical estimated from their fluorescent color.
samples of scheelite and cuproscheelite, Comparison standard color charts are
purchased from mineral supply houses, available for this purpose. Even small
will prove invaluable to familiarize the amounts of molybdenum will suffice to
prospector with these ores. alter the fluorescent color of scheelite.

CHAPTER FOUR
The Non-Metallic Minerals
The non-metallic minerals are those
which carry no metal as such. They are
more commonplace and familiar than the
metallic ores, and most of them are found
rather widely. There are many factors
which enter into the commercial utiliza­
tion of a deposit of non-metallic mineral.
These factors include quality or grade of
the material, size of the deposit, presence
of various impurities, economy of min­
ing, and the matter of transportation to
the point of use. Thus we find many
otherwise excellent deposits of little pres­
ent value owing to one or more of these
factors. Competition with other deposits
also enters into the picture.
Non-metallic minerals include items
like gravel and rock suitable for high­
way construction. In some part of the
country, like the Midwest, these may not
be readily found, or they may be situated
at some distance and involve costly trans­
portation. Limestone rocks suitable for
calcining to make Portland cement is also
a valuable non-metallic. The perlite type
of obsidian has in the past decade found
valuable applications in the building in­
dustry. It is significant that the gross
value of all non-metallic products, mined
annually, exceeds the value of the metal­
lic ores. Coal and petroleum may also be
regarded an non-metallics. Only the non­
metallics within the scope of the part­
time prospector will be considered here.
Abrasives find wide use in many in­
dustries. While huge amounts of manu­
factured abrasive like silican carbide (Car­
borundum) are used, yet great tonnages
of natural ones are mined each year. Pum­
ice, diatomite, tripoli, quartz, and garnet
are among the best known abrasives.
Some of these are also used as polishing
powders in the metal industries. It will
be seen that a deposit of a suitable abra­
sive is likely to have a wide and steady
market. "Sand" papers and garnet coated
papers are widely used in the woodwork­
ing industries. The "sand" type is usually
coated with crushed quartz, graded to
suitable grit sizes.
Diatomite, also known as diatomaceous
earth, is a friable, earthy material, usually
whitish in color, and composed of about
90% silica. Infusorial earth and tripoli are
in this classification. This material con­
'I
I
sists of the silicious skeletons of minute
water plants called diatoms, hence we find
deposits of this nature as a sedimentary
one, originally layed down in water. Some
of the deposits are quite pure and of con­
siderable thickness and extent. A speci­
men of diatomite wiII float on water,
while the tripoli type wiII not float, there
being a slight difference in specific gravi­
ties. These material find many commer­
cial uses, including uses as water filters,
and polishing agents. Tripoli is so soft it
will crumble in the fin g e r s, but the
minute grains are hard enough to scratch
(and polish) steel.
Other abrasives of commercial value in­
clude, high quartz content sands, various
types of compact sandstones, pumice, and
novaculite. The latter material, a com­
pact claystone is widely used as an "oil"
stone for sharpening tools. Common pum­
ice finds many uses as an insulating ma­
terial, and the ground powder as a pol~
ishing agent in the metal industries. Pum­
ice is common to many parts of the West,
where it was originally blown out of vol­
canoes. A chunk of pumice readily floats
on ·water. Only a comparatively few of
the many Western pumice deposits are
suitable for commercial use. Pumice is al­
so used as an aggregate in light weight
concrete.
It would be difficult, if not impossible,
for the prospector to determine the possi­
ble value of any non-metallic deposit
when seen in the field. If a deposit ap­
pears to have value, .and a large quantity
available, typical samples should be taken.
The U. S. Bureau of Mines, Washington,
D. C. has issued a large number of free
"Information Circulars" per t a i n i n g to
mos t of the non -metallics. These excellent
circulars detail some of the commercial
requirements for each specific material.
Possible buyers are also included in most
of the Circulars.
Many of the s.tate mining bureaus issue
similar circulars and bulletins, giving de­
tailed information on the non-metaIlics
found and mined within the state. These
valuable publications also list possible
buyers. A list ~f possible buyers, and
market prices, would soon become obso­
lete, hence they are not included in this
work.
36 POPULAR PROSPECTING
--------------------------------~-------------------------------

The tendency of many prospectors has

been to start a search for a buyer, with­ ,Bit.H.....lai" "? •G~", hUIfit"n
"""",-_ _-....,Clt4lCtd h~.,. right out."
out first learning if the deposit they have
located would hold commercial value. As
a rule, buyers of non-metallics are not in­ /

terested in carrying on exploration or

testing work. This is outside their field.
Hence any work of this kind must be
done by the claim holders, usuaUy at their
own expense. A deposit meeting with all
the commercial requirements, will usually
not go begging for buyers of the property
or the product of the property. Many
times a prospector has come to the writer
with a few hand samples, searching for
a buyer, and not knowing the true nature
of their discovery. This seems like get­
. ting the cart before the horse.
Asbestos is used in great quantities in
the United States, we have few good de­
posits of the fibrous "serpentine" type.
This is the variety that occurs in compact
thread-like form, and may be spun into
threads and woven into cloth. One of its
most familiar uses is in brake band lin­
ings. Most of our supply is imported from
Canada and elsewhere. It brings a high
price. Our best known deposits are in
Arizona. This high tensile strength as­
bestos invariably is found in and closely
associated with green serpentine rocks.
The amphibole type of asbestos is a.1so
found fibrous, but the individual threads
are short and greatly lacking in tensile
strength, and can not he spun or woven.
It is of much less value than the former.
Barium in the minerals barite and with­
erite, are found associated with various
sedimentary deposits, including clays.
The mineral barite is usually white or
light in color, and quite heavy when pure
or nearly so. Various impurities may
render the deposit dark in color.
Building stone including marhle, gran­
ite, sandstone, and various attractively
colored volanic and sedimentary stones
find a diversity of uses, despite active
competition by various artificial building
blocks in the concrete class. These arti­
fical blocks are usually made light in
weight by use of light weight aggregates,
like pumice, in the cement mixture. There
are many deposits of suitable natural
building stones, and more and more of
these are being utilized, hut in all cases
the economic requireml:nts are rather
rigid and close.
Clays are widely used in the ceramic in­
dustry, and include many types for vari­
ous ceramics. Common brick clay is
rather widely distributed, but the ptob­
lem is to find deposits not too far sit­
uated from where the finished product
is used. Here again, transportation is an
important factor. The better grades of
clay are used in the manufacture of the
finer ceramics. Various types of clays,
like fuller's earth and bentonite are mined
in large amounts. In order to determine
if a clay is suitable for commercial use
it must be tested by one of the many
users of clay.
Feldspar is another ceramic mineral,
but not in the clay class. This material is
mined widely in quarries, many of which
are along the Atlantic Coast. Feldspar
carries a rather high potassium content,
and is often utilized as a source of this
element. Feldspar is frequently mined in
quarries in pegmatite dykes, where a host
of other minerals are usually won, in­
cluding valuable sheet mica, quartz crys­
tals, and in some cases valuable gem min­
erals are encountered in the workings.
Some of the New England "rock" quar­
ries have produced small amounts of
pitchblende, encountered from time to
time in pockets in the workings. Produc­
tion of gem stones is speculative and un­
certain, there being no way of telling
where or when a valuable gem pocket
may be opened.
Fluorspar (fluorite, mineral name) is
used in huge amounts in the iron smelt­
ing industry, where with limestone it
forms a needed flux. The element fluorine
 J
," i
THE NON-)IETALLIC MINERALS 37

Many types of colorful rocks are now
stones. V. P. Cutler, California collector,
and well known Nevada "Wonderstone."
Nevada for some years. It is '1 hard and
the gem quality class. Large quantities
shipped for many years.
being used in the building industry as ornamental
hold a pair of book ends made from the colorful
This ornate and colorful stone has been mined in
durable stone, with the better grade passing into
of this remarkable rock have been quarried and

i, also obtained from fluorite. Practically plications. Marl is one type of limestone,
all our fluorite is obtained from the mines in great demand for the manufacture of
of southern Illinois, centered around Rosi­ portland cement.
claire. At the time of this writing, these Phosphate rock for a long time has been
deposits were not active, since the min­ widely used as a fertilizer, and as a source
eraI was being imported from cheaper of phosphates. Some 9 million tons are
foreign sources. mined in the United States each year.
Gypsum (plaster paris) is used in quan­ These deposits are of various types, and
tity in many industries. The familiar pias­ the largest and best known ones cover
ter board is widely used in the building great areas in Florida, Idaho, and Ten­
industry, and in cement manufacture. It nessee, with lesser extensive deposits in
i3 found in large sedimentary beds, where some of the other states. The known re­
it was originally precipitated from lake serves in Idaho alone are estimated to
waters, like on lake bottoms in arid re­ run into the billions of tons.
gions. Its color may be snow-white or One of the most recent developments
light-brown, depending on any impurities in phosphate rock in recent years, is the
present. Gypsum is soft and may be possibility of the recovery of the small
readily scratched with finger nail. amounts of uranium present. The uranium
Limestone and chalk are also used in content may amount to only a few ounces
quantity in many industries. Limestone per ton, but when the enormous tonnage
is essentially a calcium carborate (calc­ is considered, this can be an important
ite). A drop of hydrochloric acid applied source of valuable uranium, especially
to a sample of limestone will cause it to when the deposits of the Colorado Plateau
"fizz" vigorously. Chalk will not fizz, un­ become mined out. A considerable amount
less a substantial amount of limestone be of research has been done in connection
present, as an impurity mixture. with the extraction of uranium from this
Some 200,000 tons or more of lime'stone­ rock. Feasible technical methods have
are mined each year, for use in agricul­ been given for the amounts of uranium
ture, chemical industry, smelters, glass recovered from this source.
industry, and many other important ap­ It would not be feasible to treat phos­
38 POPULAR PROSPECTING
phate rock for its small uranium content
alone. However, the crude rock is put
through various types of treatment for
various uses, and these include some
chemical treatment. Hence, by the addi­
tion of some added treatment, the urani­
um can be recovered. It has been an7
nounced that several of the present phos­
phate plants are now recovering uranium,
and additional plants will be so equipped
in the near future.
The prospector may well regard the
potential future value of these deposits,
as only a very small part of them are
now being exploited. For example, there
are great areas in southern Idaho, and
adjacent Wyoming, of phosphate rock of
which comparatively little is known.
Doubtless much of this ground is on the
Public Domain, and open for mining
entry.
Coa1. Some of the great low grade coal
deposits of the United States, carry small
amounts of uranium, similar to the phos­
phate rock, these include the great coal
deposits of South Dakota. Investigations
now being made may reveal the coal to
be a valuable future source of uranium.
 CHAPTER FIVE
e Uranium Minerals
There can be no doubt that the present
uranium "rush" is the greatest prospect­
ing boom the world has ever known. The
tremendous interest in locating new de­
posits of uranium (and thorium) is not
just confined to the United States and
Canada, but is universal throughout the
world. A far greater army of uranium
hunters are in the field, than any gold or
diamond rush of history has ever wit­
nessed. The rewards for uranium discov­
ery are just as great, as those of history.
The Atomic Energy Commission has
in the past decade paid out many millions
for uranium ores bought in the Colorado
Plateau region, in addition to added mil­
lions paid out in the form of bonuses, and
substantial sums for trucking and road
building aid to reach isolated deposits. In
short, Uncle Sam will spend practically
any sum of money to obtain the vital ore.
During the past few months, Asso­
ciated Press reports have described a
number of profitable uranium finds, in­
cluding the discovery of Vernon J. Pick,
who was paid some $9,000,000 cash for his
claims. Other discoveries are described as
having a value of some $20,000,00 along
with handreds of lesser valued properties,
many of them in active operation. Most
of these are in the Colorado Plateau re­
gion and in adjacent Arizona and New
Mexico. There are still many opportuni­
ties for discovery.
The universal search for uranium is not
for military needs alone. It is predicted
that within the next several decades our
known reserves of coal and petroleum will
be largely depleted, or have reached a
point of depletion where we will be
obliged to turn to various low grade re­
serves at a much higher production cost.
It is expected that long before this. the
development of atomic energy will have
'reached a stage where it can well compete
with coal, petroleum, and water power de­
rived electrical energy. We are told that
the present known reserves of uranium
would suffice the present world needs for
about a century. However, the demand
for electric power is growing at a rapid
rate, so that eventually even the reserves
of uranium (and thorium) would perhaps
not suffice.
Eventually man will turn to the sun for
all his power needs-that enormous store­
house of nuclear energy that will never
die. Astronomers tell us that the sun is
an enormous hydrogen "bomb," not an
explosive one, but a source of energy that
has been constant and steady for at least
500,000,000 years that we know of, and
perhaps a total of at least 3 billion years.
They estimate that there is enough hydro­
gen present to keep the sun pouring out
its same vast energy for at least another
30 billions of years. Man of the future
need not worry about sources of power.
The uranium hunter need not have any
special skill or training. Vernon Pick and
Charles Steen, were not geologists or
mining engineers, they are in the amateur
class, still they made enormously valuable
discoveries, through some study, plus hard
work in the field. We have called atten­
tion to the fact that a knowledge of the
appearance of the common uranium min­
erals offers an enormous advantage to the
prospector.
Science has provided a most delicate,
sensitive, and accurate instrument for the
uranium hunter, the Geiger counter. Latel"
developments have produced the still more
sensitive scintillator, designed primarily
for prospecting large areas from airplanes
and truck. Both of these instruments are
regarded among the most sensitive known
in the detection of very minute amounts
of a substance.
The Geiger counter is available in many
types and price classes ranging from
about $30.00 on up into the hundreds, for
portable battery operated field units. Lab~
oratory Geiger counters for quantitative
work run into the thousands of dollars.
Scintillators are more complicated in con­
struction and at the present time start at
about $350.0'0 up.
The average part time prospector will
find a standard priced Geiger counter
ample for his needs and purse. We have
often been asked what type of equipment
is used to prospect by plane or auto.
Equipment of this kind is used by the
Atomic Energy Commission and various
corporations, but eqiupment of this kind
is complicated and runs into the thousands
of dollars to outfit a truck or jeep. More­
over, specialized knowledge is required to
operate equipment of this kind. and this
40 POPULAR PROSPECTING

we feel is beyond the scope of this book,

and its readers. Foot work is indicated
for the prospector. In addition to a COUll­
ter, a hand size rock pick will comprise
the next important part of equipment for
prospecting.
All uranium ores, rich or lean, off
invisible particles of energy called "radi­
ations." These are given off at a constant
rate, and can not be changed by any
me2.ns known to science. These' radiations
are picked up by the Geiger counter and
scintillator, and are identified by various
means, including clicks, flashes from a
neon signal indicator and by meter read­
ings. Various types of instruments will
have one or more means of indication,
counting or recording these radiations
from any tpe of uranium (and thorium)
ores. When in the field, these radiations Taking a timed "station" reading of radio­
are only of an approximate qualitative activity in the field. The earphones shown
nature. are not needed with the automatic "click"
recording meter. A stop watch is used to
Quantitative tests of reasonable accuracy accurately record time tests of rate at
may be made by testing samples of the which radiations are received from an out·
ore, in a place where the background crop or suspected buried deposit.
count is known and fairly constant, and
this count compared with a known stand­ ing a larger quantity say from 10 to 50
ard. Invisible particles of high energy, pounds or more, holding the instrument
known as cosmic radiations, constantly
bombard all parts of the earth, and these close to the sample. A large sample, even
are picked up by every Geiger counter.
though very low grade will obviously,
These cosmic rays come from an un­ make up for its leanness by its bulk of

known source in outer space, and our sun radiations,

is probably a contributor, but this is not The same facts hold true in field work.

definitely known. The rate at which these

Even a small pocket or deposit of rich
cosmic radiations come will vary at dif­
ferent places and in different instruments,
hence each Geiger counter will have a
specific "background" count for anyone
area, and this count is deducted from the
count obtained from an outcrop in the
field or when testing a sample.
Samples may be best tested indoors and
in the same place where the background
count is known from repeated tests made
and the average taken. A basement is a
good place, where the background count
will usually be found at its minimum. In
this manner reasonably accurate tests
may be made.
Attention is called to the fact that a
very small amount of a very rich ore,
like pitchblende that runs 70% or more
uranium will make any counter "run" fast.
On the other hand a similar size fragment
of ore running say only 0.01 % or 0.001%
ore, fairly near the surface, would register
on the counter. In a similar manner, a
huge deposit of a lean are would give a
similar count. Uranium radiations will
penetrate various depths of solid sub­
stances, but there are limitations, hence
the Geiger counter or the scintillator both
have their limitations as to what depth
and distance detection is possible. This is
why core drilling is done to prove or dis­
prove a uranium deposit. The cores are
brought to the surface and tested in the
laboratory.
The radiations given from all uranium
ores include what is called the alpha, beta,
and gamma radiations. The first two are
weak and of low velocity, and low pene­
tration power. The gamma rays, same as
are found in X-rays, have much greater
penetration powers, but still they have I.

uranium, is likely to not even record on their limitations. In general these gamma '.
the average Geiger counter. However, radiations will be stopped by about three
tests may still be made on even very lean inches of solid lead, one foot of solid
ores, but breaking up the mass, and test- volcanic rock, and about two or three feet
 '-:--_ .. --.-,..-~-

THE URANIUM MINERALS 41

A fine large specimen of the botryoidal type of nearly pure pitchblende. From Eldorado
Mine, Great Bear Lake, Canada. -Pitchblende has a high specific gravity, more than three
times that of ordinary rock, hence specimens of this kind are distinctly heavy when held
in hand. Any black or dark colored rock, like basalt, obsidian, and furnace slag, can be
readily distinguished from pitchblende by th'eir greatly inferior specific gravity.

of loose sand. rock or surface dirt. The
much more powerful cosmic radiations
will readily make these penetrations. . as a Geiger tube is the heart of every in­
There are some exceptions to this gen­
eral rule. In the case of huge and very
rich deposits of pitchblende, like those of
Great Bear Lake in Canada, radiations on
the surface will be detected at greater
depths. Here again volume enters into the
picture. Field tests of this kind involve
complicated and costly testing equipment,
beyond the scope of the prospector. The
range of depth at which a scintillator will
operate is greater than that of the Geiger
counter. Here again various factors will
enter into the picture like. the nature of
the overburden, the size and quality of the
orebody, and. most important of all is
whether the overburden is radioactive. In
the latter case, either a Geiger counter qr
a scintillometer may then be effective in
locating an orebody at a depth of a few
hundred feet. But if radioactivity does not
extend to reasonably near the surface,
neither instrument can be relied upon.
Core drilling will be indicated. The scin­
tillator is said to be about 100 times more
sensitive to gamma rays than the Geiger
counter. However, this need not startle
the prospector, for by no means has the
latter instrument become obsolete for its
intended purpose and field of utility.
Basically, all Geiger counters are alike
ill their mode of operation. A tube known
strument. A simple, low priced instrument
has this tube. Going into the higher priced
counters, various pieces of equipment are
added, including meters, neon flash lights,
automatic counters, and various other
items, and this accounts for the price dif­
ferences, plus better types of tubes in
higher priced equipment. A counter uses
only small amounts of power, usually not
much more than an ordinary flashlight,
hence the dry power batteries will gen­
erally have long life where the counter
is not operated over long periods of time.
Manufacturers of various types of
Geiger counters and similar instruments,
issue printed instructions for use. These
should be read carefully and observed.
URANIUM HUNTING
Uranium ores are spotty and irregularly
distributed, usually in relatively small de­
posits, and prospecting constitutes in al\
localities an important factor even after
commercial development has commenced.
Many of the uranium minerals are brightly
colored (either yellow ore green), and
even the black varieties have a character­
istic appearance, so that ore bodies are
readily recognized if they outcrop. More
42

often, however, they do not outcrop, and

then the search for ore involves a careful
study of the geological conditions.
There are certain indications for carn­
tite, but no rule in prospecting can be
given, except that good judgment might
be shown in choosing a favorable loca­
tion. The erratic nature of the occur­
rences is indicated by the fact that an
average of 14 per cent of the total time
spent on working the claims operated by
the Bureau of Mines in 1924 and 1925 was
spent in search for ore.
In prospecting and in delimiting ore
bodies, after they are discovered, all the
usual methods may be employed - test
pits, tunnels, core drills, and churn drills.
Even core drilling, however, is uncertain
unless the holes are closely spaced, for
there is usually little continuity to the
deposits.
Spence has stated that the pegmatitic
minerals that contain uranium/thorium, Pillar in the Uranium Belle Mine, Hamm
in amounts ranging from small traces to Canyon, San Miguel County, Utah. Lower
substantial amounts, may exhibit a me­ portion of pillar is light gray colored sand­
stone; upper portion is thinly bedded sand·
tallic or non-metallic character and ap­ stone carrying uranium and vanadium. Photo
pearance. Often, it may be difficult to de­ . taken in 1921 when mine was worked pri.
cide off-hand into which of these cate­ marlly for the radium and vanadium content
gories a particular unknown mineral of the rich carnotite ores.
should be placed, since many black
species appear to be metallic, and only In dykes composed of pink or red
one examination of small fragments under feldspar, the color of the spar around
a strong lens or a microscope does their uranium/thorium minerals is usually of
non-metallic nature become apparent. This a conspicuously darker brick-red shade;
is evidenced by the fact that thin chips in white feldspar dykes, such minerals
or splinters are translucent, usually ex­ often cause a brownish or black dis­
hibiting a characteristic red or brown coloration in the enclosing rock.
color, even though the massive mineral
Hugh S. Spence has stated that pitch­
itself may appear opaque.
blende is the only u ran i u m mineral
In general, it may be said that any con­ known to occur in the form of definite
spicuously heavy, black or dark-colored veins or lodes. It may be difficult to
minerals discovered in a pegmatite should identify with any certainty by its out­
be tested for possible uranium/thorium ward characteristics; w hen relatively
content. Such minerals may be difficult pure, however, its exceptional weight
to distinguish visually from magnetite serves to suggest its nature. The ab­
and ilmenite - both common in pegma­ sence of any indications of crystalline or
tites - or from rare tantalite-columbite, grain structure, or of cleavage, is help­
wolframite, and cassiterite. G rea t e r ful, the mineral breaking with a smooth,
weight serves to distinguish them from irregular, fracture and having a dun,
black tourmaline, one of the commonest somewhat greasy or pitchy appearance
dark - colored pegmatite minerals, and or lustre. It sometimes occurs in botry­
also from hornblende. oidal, or kidney - like masses, or crusts,
The presence of a bright yellow or which under a lens are seen to have
orange crust or powder surrounding a radiated structure. In this last form,
dark mineral is almost conclusive evi­ pitchblende somewhat resembles hema­
dence that it contains uranium; and small tite iron, but it may readily be distin·
plates or scales of a yellow or emerald quished from a hematite. by the black or
green color on cracks and joints in a greenish black color of its streak or
rock are a useful indicator of nearby powder, which for hematite are a strong
primary uranium are. red.

•
 THE URANJ{TM ~nNERALS

Sawed and polished section (left) of rich pitchblende ore, Eldorado Mine, Great Bear
Lake, Canada. Light colored lines in the photo are veins of pitchblende, forming network
around brecciated fragments of rock. AutoradJograph (right) showing association in greater
contrast. The advantage in using a smooth, flat, sawed surface for taking autoradiograph
is that, a sharp focus picture witl be obtained.

URANIUM GUIDE SUMMARIES form, but sometimes occurs in layer or

Hugh S. Spence has summarized sev­
eral main points to be remembered in
connection with the mode of occurrence
of uranium minerals, and these are espe­
cially good for the prospector to keep
in mind. He states that, broadly speak­
ing, the occurrences may be divided int
the following three main types:
(1) Individual crystals, or nests, pock­
ets, or similar aggregates of crystals
usually of small size and extent sparsely
and irregularly scattered through dykes
of granite pegmatite. The variety of ura­
nium minerals occurring in this manner
is large, and embraces a large portion of
the known species.
Distinguishing characteristics of such
minerals are black color, metallic appear­
ance, heaviness, and good crystal form.
(2) Veins, or lodes, of similar charac­
ter to the general run of those of other
metallic minerals such as zinc, lead, cop­
per, etc. Pitchblende, the richest and
commercially the most important ore of
uranium, is the only primary uranium
mineral that occurs in deposits of this
type. It may be the dominant mineral,
or, as sometimes the case, be in the
nature of an accessory in veins of other
metallic ores, notably those of silver,
cobalt, and nickel. Pitchblende is charac­
terized by black color, metallic appear­
ance, greasy or pitchy, lustre and dense,
massive texture. It never exhibits crystal
bands having botryoidal or kidney-like
surfaces.
(3) Deposits of a bedded, replacement,
or stockwark character; in which the
uranium minerals are a minor constitu­
ent of secondary origin and nature and
have been emplaced through the agency
of surface or circulating waters. Occur­
rences of this type may be found in both
sedimentary and igneous (granitic) rocks,
and usually they carry little, if any, trace
of primary uranium minerals.
Secondary uranium minerals found in
such deposits are characterized by vivid
and brilliant colors in tones of yellow,
orange, or green. They are usually in
the form of soft powder, crusts, or tufts,
occasionally being more massive. They
seldom ex h i bit distinguishable crystal
form, except in the case of the two com­
moner s p e c i e s tobernite and autunite,
which occur in small well-developed thin
plates.
A general summary and guide of the
fluorescence characteristics of uranium
minerals includes:
I. Primary uraninites (pitchblende)
do not fluoresce.
II. A number of secondary uranium­
bearing minerals are highly fluo­
rescent, i.e., those which contain
the uranyl group. In chemical
tests, which alter primary min­
erals, substances are produced
44 POPULAR PROSPECTING
which compositionally are analo­
gous to the secondary minerals.
III. In practically every case of fluo­
rescence the characteristic yellow­
green, or a hue of this is observed.
IV. Generally, the more soluble urani­
erous minerals are those which
are fluorescent.
V. The largest number of fluores­
cent uranium minerals are those
which have a specific gravity of
approximately 3.5. Few with a
high gravity fluoresce.
VI. Fluorescence is best excited by
short wavelength ultraviolet 'radia­
tion, e.g., wavelengths of 2537 A.V.
VII. Primary uraninites after weath­
ering frequently alter to second­
ary and fluorescent species. In
this way a dual detection may
be made with the lamp.
PHOTOGRAPHIC METHODS
The radiations from radioactive sub­
stances are all capable of affecting a
photographic plate. Since the radiations
penetrate opaque matter, a wrapped and
undeveloped pho,tographic p I ate may
serve for the detection of radium, urani­
um and thorium, as ores or other ma­
terials containing these substances will, in
effect, "take their own picture."
Practically any film will serve for the
qualitative de t e c t ion of radioactivity,
though care must be used in interpreting
results. A positive test for radioactivity
is not conclusive for radium and uranium.
Mesothorium and thorium will also affect
a sensitive plate. Tests for radioactivity
will therefore s how only whether the
specimen contains uranium and radium
or thorium and mesothorium or all four
elements. The appearance of the sample
will generally indicate which of the ele­
ments are present, but in case of doubt,
other more specific tests should be con­
ducted.
Likewise, mas s i v e specimens may
"strike" a photographic plate, giving the
appearance of exposure, merely as a re­
sult of pressure.
To test a sample for uranium or radio­
activity, lay the mineral to be tested on
a film or plate holder containing un­
exposed film or pIa t e. If uranium is
present in any considerable quantity the
plate will be acted on within a period
ranging from twelve to forty-eight hours,
depending upon the quantity of radio-
Radioautograph of a rich pitchblende speci.
men. The light colored network of lines, are
small veins of pure pitchblende.
active matter in the specimen. A rich
and nearly pure $pecimen of pitchblende
will strike film wit h i n twelve hours,
while a very lean sample like the urani­
ferous hyaline opal from North Carolina
will require weeks of exposure.
A metallic object like a flat' key or
coin placed between the specimen and
the film will appear in outline after the
film is developed in the usual manner. Ir­
regular mineral specimens may be sawed
to obtain a flat surface prior to exposure
to film. The flat surface will' give a
sharper and clearer outline of the radio­
active areas within the specimen.
When large numbers of specimens are
tested by the photographic method it is
convenient to cut small numbers from
lead foil and use these for the identifica­
tion of the plate (if affected). Likewise,
in order to avoid the false effects of
pressure, it is wise to support the speci­
men above the film by blocks or some
other mechanical means, though permit­
ting one face of its surface to remain as
close to the sensitive emulsion as possible.
The ability of a radioactive mineral to
strike or blacken a photographic plate
varies according to the uranium and/or
thorium content of the specimen. There­
fore, it can be expected that the various
minerals will act differently, some pro­
ducing an image within a matter of a
few hours or less, but others requiring
up to several weeks to provide an effect.
ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT AND
FLUORESCENCE
If the limitations and characteristics
of ultraviolet light and florescence are
well understood, these methods will prove
 THE URANIUM MINERALS 45

One of the dumps of the Club Camp Mine in Hieroglyphic Canyon. Lower San Miguel
River, Montrose County, Colorado. Photo taken in 1921, when the workings were active, Ore
was mined primarily for its radium and vanadium content. In 1921, uranium was a waste
product. This mine and many others were actively worked for radium and vanadium, for
some years, until the rich p!tchblende dep.osits were discovered in the Belgian Congo. The
Colorado and Utah radium. uranium mines could not compete, and were closed down.

highly satisfactory in prospecting and But this overshadowing of the utility of

detecting uranium minerals. They are of
no value for the thorium minerals. Fluo­
rescence alone is not indicative of urani­
um, since certain non-uranium minerals
will fluoresce under ultraviolet light.
However, in this fact there lies a double
value, since a prospector may run on to
a deposit of zinc, tungsten, or other val­
ues which certainly should not be ignored.
The non-uranium minerals which fluo­
resce yellow to green, as do certain
secondary u ran i u m minerals, include
willemite (yellow to green, with short
wavelength ultraviolet), various silicas
and calcites. The main ore minerals of
uranium - pitchblende and carnotite-do
not fluoresce un I e sst hey have been
specially treated, say by f u s ion with
sodium fluoride into a small bead or by
all acid solution treatment.
The ultraviolet lamp has in recent
years proven highly satisfactory for pros­
pecting and detecting uranium in various
minerals. Its values for this purpose have
not been widely appreciated, since the
lamp is also useful for locating and
appraising such valuable commodities as
zinc and tungsten, as well as petroleum.
the ultraviolet lamp and fluorescence
tests for uraniferous materials no longer
exists.
The usual chemical and physical tech­
niques employed for uranium exploration
and analysis are often time consuming,
expensive and difficult to use. It is for
this reason that prospectors, mining en­
gineers, chemists and physicists now
very frequently rCly upon the ultraviolet
lamp.
Discoveries With Lamp
A number of uranium localities have
actually been discovered by use of the
ultraviolet lamp. In other instances, the
lamp proves a valuable adjunct in trac­
ing veins of primary ore by the fluores­
cence of secondary uranium minerals.
Outcroppings of primary ore frequently
yield to an ultraviolet inspection, since
they may be covered with secondary
minerals.
In the Great Bear Lake regions of
Canada, the secondary mineral zippeite
shows the presence of pitchblende out­
croppings by its bright fluorescence. Two
new regions in California have been
prospected by the lamp. One of these,
4<6 POPULAR PROSPECTING

at Randsburg, yields a secondary mineral su

of uncertain composition, a species that
is probably akin to schoepite. The Rands­
burg mineral fluoresces brilliantly, and
pockets of the ore can easily be located
in a pulverulant gangue earth with the
lamp. The other California locality, at
Darwin, provides a green fluorescent
uranium mineral that has not been iden­
tified. Veins of the Darwin material can
easily be followed with ultraviolet light.
Dakeite was fir s t discovered near
Wamsutter, Wyo., by its intense yellow­
green fluorescence. This rare species is
found disseminated throughout gypsite
as small particles and as small yellow­
colored nodules.
Dozens of localities throughout the
world have first been discovered uranif­
erous by fluorescence. These areas yield
silicas and opals which have a bright
yellow to green fluorescence, indicating
trace amounts of uranium. The lamp is
the only method known by which urani­
um can be positively identified in the
silicas, since the concentration of uranium
is far below the limits of the most sensi­
tive physical and chemical tests available. PROFILE OF
oORMATIONS GAMMA RAY l~n">ITY
Last year, for example, an enormous
Radiolog of drill core, showing essential
deposit of uraniferous silica was discov­ features on approaching radioactive mineral
ered near the Mutton Mountain locality, which Is not penetrated (the anomaly) and
Oregon, and this discovery was directly the values observed when a richer body of
ore is approached and finally penetrated by
due to an ultraviolet examination. While the bit.
this silica, and others in the same class,
has no commercial value as an ore, choice Strong Fluorescent

specimens bring high prices as collectors'

items. Another i1lustration of uraniferous Autunite .................... :............. yellow-green

silica is the material found in Nevada, Beta-uranopilite ......................Yellow-green

Colorado and Wyoming. Chalcolite (cf tobernite) ......y el1ow-green

FLUORESCENT URANIUM Johannite (variable) ..............Yellow-green

MINERALS Metatorbernite .......................... Yellow-blue

The strongly fluorescent uranium min­ Dakeite ....................................Yellow-green

erals are the uranium phosphates, arsen­ Torbernite .............................. Yel1ow-green

ates, sulfates and others which fluoresce Uranocircite ............................ Yel1ow-green

with a strong yellow-green color. The

Uraniferous hyalite .............. Yel1ow-green

uranium carbonates fluoresce more of a

green color. Uranophane ............................YeHow-green

The non-fluorescent uranium minerals Uranopilite .............................. YeHow-green

usually have a drab color, often being Uranospathite ........................ YeHow-green

black or brown. The fluorescent, second­ Uranospinite ............................Yellow-green

ary minerals are usually light in color, U ranothallite ........................................Green

sometimes being light yellow, and gen­

erally have specific gravities approxi­ Medium Strong Fluorescent

mately half of the pitchblendes. The Gummite (variable) ............................. Violet

following table lists the fluorescent re­

Beta-uranotile .............................. YeHowish

sponses of uranium minerals, these color

values being green irrespective of the Uranotil ................ _........................Yellowish

locality. Zippeite ..........................................YeHowish

 THE URANll7M MINERALS 41

--------------------~--~~~-~~====~----------------~

A modern type of highly sensitive Geiger counter, compact, and light in weight. Battery
operated for field use. Recording gauge and control buttons shown on Instrument.A volume
control loud speaker for the "clicks" eliminates the need of earphones and blinker light.
Oremaster Geiger counter manufactured by Whites Electronic Company, Sweet Home, are.

URANIUM MINERALS The natural uranium oxide, pitchblende

A uranium mineral is not necessarily
an ore of uranium. Before a mineral bear­
ing uranium can be considered an ore, it
must not only contain extractable quan­
tities of uranium, but also fit require­
ments common to the ores of other ele­
ments, and must be found in quantities
which make working worthwhile.
Of the more than 100 minerals which
bear uranium, only two have been re­
sponsible for the greater part of the
world's stock of uranium and vanadium.
In the future this picture might be
changed. but presently the ores of ura­
nium and radium are those called carnO­
tite and pitchblende.
Between these two minerals--carnotite
and pitchblende - there are about four
principal elements, and numerous trace
and impurity elements. which account for
their compositions. These elements in­
clude uranium, oxygen, vanadium, potas­
sium, aside from the radium which is
invariably present in more or less con­
stant ratio to the uranium. (One part
radium for every 3,400,000 parts of ura­
nium after equilibrium has been reached.)
Although uranium and vanadium are
chemically unlike, they are found together
in one of their most important ores,
carnotite. Vanadium is a member of the
phosphorus group of elements, and ura­
nium is more akin to molybdenum and
tungsten. Geochemically, the two ele­
ments are magmatically opposed. Vana­
dium is most common in ferromagnesian
rocks, while uranium minerals are fre­
quently found in granites and pegmatites.
or uraninite, is perhaps the most extra­
ordinary mineral which has influenced
man's history. In it uranium was first
discovered, then helium, and later the
radioactive elements polonium and radi­
um. Now we learn that pitchblende con­
tains traces - almost infinitesimal quan­
tities-of the atomic explosive plutonium,
presently obtained only by man-made
methods. And it goes without saying
that the world's source of still another
atomic power yielding element, uranium
235, lies in the natural sources of urani­
um like pitchblende.
CARNOTITE
Carnotite is found in a number of
localities in the world, and in the United
States outside of Colorado and Utah, but
the latter deposits are the only ones
which have been commercially worked.
Prior to the discovery of rich uranium
ores elsewhere, the Colorado - Utah de­
posits were mined extensively, primarily
for their radium content.
Carnotite is a potassium uranium
vanadate which is orthorhombic, but
most often found as a yellow amorphous
powder, it is yellow and may be tinged
greenish or have brown iron stains; in­
frequently dark brown to blackish due
to organic material, H. 4. G. 4.1. Both
hardness and gravity vary widely, ac­
cording to the purity of the specimen;
thus, H. 2-2.5 and G. 3.5-3.9. Typical
analysis of carnotite from Montrose
County. Colo., gave 54 per cent uranium
oxide and 18 per cent vanadium oxide.
 POPULAR PROSPECTING
Contains an average of 3,4 parts radium
per 10 million parts uranium. The potas­
sium in carnotite may be substituted for
by calcium, giving "calciocarotite" which
is better known as tyuyamunite, and this
is related to another derivative, rauvite,
a hydrous calcium uranium vanadate.
Carnotite is found in a number of lo­
calities in the world. Often found as
loosely cohering masses mixed with
quartzose material, not infrequently re­
placement in organic material like leaves
and logs.
PITCHBLENDE
The known deposits of pitchblende,
sufficiently rich and extensive to be com­
mercially exploited are relatively few. It
is true that pitchblende and the uraninites
are rather widely scattered throughout
the world in small amounts, but in gen­
eral these are of less importance from a
commercial standpoint than the "big
three" Canada, Belgian Congo and
Czechoslovakia. The Canadian pitch­
plende is the richest known considered
as tonnage grade ore. The Great Bear
Lake deposits are also thought to be the
most extensive known; at least this' was
true until 1941.
The actual extent of the Great Bear
Lake pitchblende deposits has not been
completely divulged, and will probably
remain secret for some time to come.
In the uraninite group are included
such amorphous or crystalline varieties
of uranium oxide as Pitchblende, Cleve­
ite, Nivenite, Broeggerite. The terms
"pitchblende" and "uraninite" are often
used synonymously, but the term "pitch­
blende" is applicable only to the impure,
amorphous form of the mineral which
often has botryoidal surfaces with a con­
choidal fracture. Uraninite is isometric,
in octahedrons, sometimes with dodeca­
hedral faces. Infrequently found in cubes
wit h octahedrons and dodecahedrons.
Uraninite crystals are rare.
In the massive for m (pitchblende)
uraninite may be found in broken part­
icles cemented in matrices of various
materials, also botryoidal or reniform,
having a banded structure. May be den­
dritic aggregates of small crystals; also
colloform.
Brittle, with uneven to conchoidal frac­
ture, H. 5-6 average about 5.5 in high
grade specimens. G. 9.0 9.7 for most
specimens contammg admixed earths,
ranging upwards to 10.63 (Chihuahua,
Mexico), but as low as 6.4 with massive
altered forms. Natural crystals, G. 8.0­
10.0 (uraninite; coil 0 for m varieties
(pitchblende), G. 6.5 - 8.5. Calculated on
the basis of uranium dioxide, G. 10.88.
Uraninite is always more or less oxi­
dized, and with increasing oxidation, the
gravity drops markedly. Gravity is like­
wise decreased when the uranium is sub­
stituted by thorium and rare earths.
Luster submetallic, sometimes greasy
or pitch like (hence the name "pitch­
blende"), and dull. Opaque. Color drab
and usually dark: deep steely or velvety
black, brown - black, greyish, greenish
with similar streak. In very thin splinters
the high grade material may be translu­
cent on the edges. Polished surface may
be pale grey, with brownish tinge.
Natural uraninite, pitchblende and
other varieties always more or less oxi­
dized. In face an outcropping may be
greatly altered because of this property.
Actual composition variable. Theoretic­
ally given as a uranate of uranyl (U,O.)
or an uranium dioxide (UO,), but natural
material ranges between these two in
composition, with tetravalent uranium
prominent. Thorium and the rare earths
may be present in varying amounts, the
former as high as 14 per cent, the latter
mainly of the lanthanum and yttrium
r

.'
THE URANIUM MINERALS

Cake examines the old bullet holes, made some 70 years ago during the "battle of The
Post Office" in S.E. Oregon. The ruins of an old stage station, and oombination post office,
store, stable, hotel, saloon, and gambling hall. The faintly legible insoription on the door,
reads "Post Offioe - Store." This region of Harney and Malheur Counties in S.E .Oregon.
comprising some 20,000 square miles, much of it Public Domain, is one of the last frontiers
for gem and uranium hunters.

groups. Pitchblende contains little or no
thorium dioxide and little or no rare
earths, with water often present. May
also contain lead, zirconium, nitrogen,
helium, argon, and metallic sulfide im­
purities from association in metalliferous
veins with the sulfides of Ag, Pb, Co,
Ni, Fe, Zn, Cu, and others.
Approximately 125 uranium and thori­
um minerals have been described in the
mineralogical literature. The greater part
of these have been found only in small
amounts, and often at only one or a few
localities in the world. Hence there are
only a comparatively few uranium and
thorium which are of present concern and
importance in supplying the much needed
uranium. The more important uranium
minerals are described here in some de­
tail, while those of mainly academic in­
terest are merely enumerated.
In some instances the species standing
of some of the more obscure uranium
minerals are in question. In some in­
stances, a uranium mineral described as
a new species, has been later found to be
identical with some other previously de­
scribed species. In other cases some have
been later shown to be mixtures of pre­
viously described minerals. Some of the
more important thorium minerals are
here included since they are radioactive,
and thorium being similar to uranium,
it is quite possible that in the future
thorium can and will be used as a source
of atomic energy, the same as uranium.
At present, pitchblende and carnotite,
have contributed practically all our ura­
nium. Since there are comparatively few
of these deposits of any great tonnage,
it is obvious that eventually we shall be
obliged to seek other sources. There are
great known deposits of quite low grade
uranium ores, which at present are not
economical to operate on a commercial
scale. Present technical methods for ex­
tracting uranium from the very low grade
ores, would prove prohibitive from a cost
standpoint, in the face of competition of
the better grade ores. In all probability
with future improvements in refining
technology, and by force of necessity. we
50 POPULAR PROSPECTING
will eventually turn to the very low grade
uranium ores.
There are three general types of radio­
active, i.e., uranium and thorium bearing
minerals: (1) The primary uranium min­
erals or uranites, (2) the secondary ura­
nium minerals and (3) the so called
"complexes," columbium-titanium tanta­
lates of the rare earths, uranium and
thorium, including silica.
Type 1. The uraninites, which are the
richest in uranium, including such crys­
talline varieties as broeggerite, deveite,
and certain uraninites found in the United
States and East Africa. These varieties
occur in pegmatites in well developed
crystals, though these crystals rarely.
exceed two centimeters in diameter.
Pitchblendes are amorphous uraninites,
and they occur in metalliferous veins,
especially associated with sulfides of sil­
ver, lead, nickel, zinc, and other' heavy
metals.
The terms "uraninite" and "pitch­
blende" are often used synonymously,
but the term "pitchblende" is applicable
only to the impure, amorphous form of
the mineral, often with botryoidal sur­
faces and a conchoidal fracture. Uranin­
he; when crystallized, belongs to the
isometric system. It is black or grayish­
black in color, often with a glossy or
pitchlike luster. The hardness is approxi­
mately that of steel (5.5). Its specific
gravity is often high (5 to 9.7), according
to its purity. The composition is some­
what indefinte, and it is usually described
as a uranate of uranyl, together with
variable quantities of lead, calcium, iron,
copper, bismuth, thorium, zirconium, and
other rare and common elements.
Type 2. The various secondary ura­
nium minerals include phosphates, car­
bonates, arsenates, sulfates, silicates,
vanadates, and uranates. Most of these
are charcateristically colored bright green
or yellow. The most important are
autunite and carnotite. Formed relatively
recently, these secondary minerals have
not reached equilibrium (1 Ra :3.4 million
U). The uranium-radium ratio, therefore,
may vary over fairly wide limits.
,Carnotite is an amorphous, soft, pow­
dery material, occasionally talcose or
waxy in character. The color is generally
brilliant canary yellow, though it may be
discolored by iron, organic matter, or
other substances. It is essentially a hy­
drous potassium uranium vanadate, some- .
times associated with the hydrous calcium
uranium vanadate, known as tyuyamunite.
Carnotite is the principal ore mineral in
the United States and tyuyamunite is
found in Russia. Autunite is a phosphate
of uranium and lime, containing as much
as 50 per cent of uranium. The color is
described as greenish - brown to sulfur­
yellow. It is soft (hardness 2 to 2.5) and
rather light (specific gravity 3.5 to 3.9).
Torbernite is a green colored mineral of
similar composition, containing copper
instead of calcium.
Type 3. The columbium-titanium tan­
talate complexes include betafite, sami­
resite. ampangabeite, euxenite, blom­
strandite, samarskite, fergusonite, and
other minerals. These substances have
rather common characteristics and are
easily recognized because of their high
density (over 4), black or dark brown
color, and greasy, brilliant fracture. Min­
erals of this group were first discovered
in Norway and Greenland (euxenite,
blomstrandite, samarskite. and ferguson­
ite). Later a deposit of euxenite was
found in Brazil, but now by far the most
important deposits are those in Mada­
gascar, which furnish several unique
varieties, notably betafite, samiresite, and
ampangabeite, all of which are rich in
uranium. Certain minerals of this group
contain thorium in varying amounts, and
the radium extracted from them may
contain substantial quantities of meso­
thorium.
The following are the more important
or the better known-uranium and thorium
minerals.
AUTUNITE. A phosphate of uranium
and calcium. A strongly fluorescent, sec­
ondary uranium mineral, often formed in
the alteration of pitchblende. Hence we
may find this lemon - yellow, pulverent
mineral appearing in outcrops of pitch­
plende or other rich uranium minerals.
When pure or nearly so, it contains ap­
proximately 60 per cent uranium oxide,
hence this mineral would be of consider­
able commercial value if found in any
quantity. In the United States it is often
found in the granite pegmatites associ­
ated with pitchblende. Its powerful fluo­
rescence and bright color serves to iden­
tify it, without the aid of the Geiger
counter.
CALCITE carrying small amounts of
uranium, as an "impurity," have been
found at many localities throughout the
United States. Under this heading we
may include aragonite and quartz (agate
and chalcedony included). :The amount of
uranium present in these mirterals, as
 ~". ": "j

THE URANIUM MINERALS 51

Prospecting trails lead one to many romantic places in the Western States-old deserte.d
mining camps, now known as ghost towns. Part of what was once the main street of Aurora,
Nevada, is shown here. Impressive two and three story buildings once dominated Main
Street, in this city of 10,000 population when it was booming. Tall sage brush now lines
this street where once stamped the hordes of eager gold seekers. (Photo by Guy Ransom).

extraneous matter, is usually very small,
generally less than 0.001 per cent. More­
over, the identity of the included uranium
mineral is usually unknown. However
small the quantity of included uranium
may be, it is usually enough to make this
uraniferous calcite, aragonite, or silica,
strongly fluorescent under one of the
ultraviolet lamps. In view of the fact that
the material is fluorescent, we would
assume that the included uranium mineral
is one of the several secondary fluores­
cent uranium minerals.
While these uraniferous minerals are
usually found in granite rock regions,
known to be abnormally high in radio­
activity. This is especially true at many
localities in Wyoming where we find a
number of common minerals showing
strong fluorescence, due to included ura­
nium. These items may include opalized
wood, agate, common opal, jasper, and
the like. Or uraniferous agate may appear
in regions not specifically high in radio­
activity, like the southern Wasco County
locality in central Oregon.
Usually this type of uraniferous mate­
rial will fluoresce best under short waves,
and often of a characteristic yellowish­
green. Specimens of this kind are found
widely distributed in the United States,
mainly in the western states. In all proba­
bility minerals of this type are deposited
by percolating waters passing through
abnormally high content uranium country
rock, thus picking up abnormal amounts
of uranium to be redeposited elsewhere.
So far none of these minerals have been
of any commercial value, owing to their
low grade nature. However, they may be
an indication that somewhere in the vi­
cinity, and perhaps at some depth, there
many or may not be a rich body of
"mother" uranium.
D A K E I T E. Originally (1937) de­
scribed as a new species. Since then it
has been shown to be identical with the
previously des c rib e d schroeckingerite,
Found only in the Red Desert, 40 miles.
north of Wamsutter, Wyoming, where it
occurs over a wide area as yellow nodules
and lumps in impure gypsite clay. This
yellow sulphur-like mineral is strongly
fluorescent under all types of lamps.
FERGUSONITE. A columbate-tanta­
late of rare earths, with small amounts of
uranium. Resembles pitchblende in both
color and specific gravity.
GUMMITE. One of the important and
most widely distributed alterations prod­
ucts from the weathering of pitchblende.
It is usually of varying composition and
52 POPULAR PROSPECTING
color, but usually deep red or reddish·
brown. It is usually found as an amor­
phous gum-like substance, hen c e its
name. The name has been applied to sev­
eral varieties of similar uranium minerals.
When present in an outcrop of pitch­
blende, its vivid color serves as a ready
identification.
METATORBERNITE. An alteration
product derived from torbenite. Fluo­
resces a characteristic bluish-yellow col­
or, and may be found associated with
pitchblende. Fluorescent metazeunerite
has also been described as a rare mineral.
MONAZITE. This unique mineral is
found widely distributed, and often ill
~arge deposits at various localities, includ­
mg the beach sands of North Carolina,
Brazil, India and elsewhere. It is impor­
tant for its contained rare metals and
thorium content, the latter being va;iable.
If and when, thorium becomes important
in atomic energy, great quantities of this
element would be available in the sand
deposits at many localities. Monazite is
regarded essentially as one of the many
rock forming minerals, from whence it
originates in the sands.
SAMARSKITE. One of the rare earth
minerals carrying uranium, columbates
and tantalates. The uranium content
varies, averaging approximately 10 per
cent oxides. Its colors and appearance
and weight are similar to those of pitch­
blende.
TANTALITE. While not essentially a
uranium mineral, it may show radio­
activity, due to included uranium or
thorium. It resembles pitchblende in most
of its physical properties.
THORIANITE. One of the rare earth
minerals carrying various amounts of
thorium, or the thorium may in part be
replaced by uranium. Alters readily to
gummite-like minerals. It may be found
as dark colored, heavy pebbles, in placers.
It may be mistaken for pitchblende.
THORITE. A thorium silicate, brittle,
usually black in color, and quite heavy.
It may appear orange in color, when it is
referred to as orangite. When pure it
carries up to 72 per cent thorium oxides.
The uranothorite variety ranges up to
10 per cent uranium content, the uranium
replacing some of the thorium. Thoro­
gummite is another alteration product.
TORBERNITE. A copper uranium
phosphate, found rather widely distrib­
uted in uranium deposits, or in granitic
formations carrying pockets of pitch­
bien de. It is usually brieht green in color,
and fluoresces' strongly with a greenish­
blue color. Torbernite is generally found
as small masses of a pulverent nature or
loosely compact.
URACONITE. A uranium sulphate
said to be similar to or identical with
zippeite, and also strongly fluorescent.
URANOCIRCITE. Similar to autunite,
and also brightly fluorescent. The follow­
ing "urano" minerals have been found to
be fluorescent, but some may be identical
with other uranium minerals, uranochal­
cite, uranophane, uranopilite, uranospath­
ite, uranothallite, uranotile.
. ZIPPEITE, A uranium sulphate, carry­
lI1g about 68 per cent uranium oxides,
yellowish in color, and strongly fluores­
cent. I t has been found at various locali­
ties throughout the world, but its most
interesting occurrence is at Great Bear
Lake, where it is not found in the work­
ings, but appears on the pitchblende ore
dumps when the ore is piled in the open
waiting summer shipment. This is a good
indication of how quickly alteration may
take place in a uranium ore. Zippeite is
also found associated with some carnotite
deposits, in which case the former could
be readily identified by its fluorescence.
The following uranium and thorium
minerals have been described at various
times in the mineralogical literature. So
far these have been of minor interest in
the uranium picture. These will be found
described in standard works like the
Dana Textbook of Mineralogy, and the
Dana, System of Mineralogy volumes.
The species status of some are in doubt.
Bassetite, Besquerelite, Betafite Bran­
nerhe, Broeggerite, Clarkeite, Cleveite,
Coracite, Cyrtolite, Dewindite Dumonite
Eliasite, Ellsworthite, Eucras'ite, Euxen~
ite, Fourmarierite, Gadolinite Gilipinite
Hatchettolite, Hyblite, Lanthi~ite Ishika~
waite, Johannite, Kasolite, K~tangite,
Lambertite, Liebigite, Medjidite, Nastur­
an, Parsonite, Phosphuranylite, Pyro­
chlore, Randite, Rauvite, Renardite, Row­
landite, Samiresite, Schoepite, Sengierite,
Sharpite, Soddyite, Thucholite, Troeger­
ite, Volglianite, Volgite, Walpurgite
Xenotime, Zeunerite. '
URANIUM DISCOVERIES
There are a large number of known
occurrences of uranium and thorium
minerals in the United States, but the
carnotite deposits of Utah and Colorado
are by far the best known. Pitchblende
and its alteration products are widely dis­
 THE URANIUM MINERALS
tributed in small amounts, notably in the
pegmatites and granitic rocks in the New
England states, North and South Caro­
lina, Texas, the Rocky Mountain states,
and elsewhere where rocks of this type
occur.
In most cases the uranium minerals
are found as small isolated pockets, en­
countered during quarrying operations or
mining other minerals. Often these pock­
ets produced excellent specimen material,
and much of this pitchblende and the
associated secondary uraninites found its
way into private and public mineral col­
lections.
All known types of rocks are radio­
active to some extent, but in some parts
of the United States, there are great
areas where the country rock is abnor­
mally high in radioactivity. This is es­
pecially true of much of the rocks of
Wyoming. Percolating waters passing
through country rock of this type fre­
quently leach out enough uranium to
render various silicious minerals strongly
fluorescent.
There are great areas in Wyoming
;'''{here I a r g e deposits of chalcedony,
agate, common opal, and silicified woods
carry very small amounts of secondary
uraninites, but enough to render them
highly fluorescent - showing the charac­
teristic yellow-green of uranium. De­
posits of this type have been noted in
Oregon, New Mexico, Georgia, and else­
where. Aragonite and calcite may also
present a strong fluorescence, account­
able for on this same basis.
Arizona
Uraninite has been reported at the
Happy Jack mine, Wrightson district,
Santa Cruz County. In Mohave County,
it is of interest to note that gadolinite is
found in the Aquarius Cliffs in pegmatite,
30 miles south of Hackberry and near
Kingman, about 6 miles west of Chin Lee
Valley and 2 to 4 miles south of the Utah
state line. Thousands of pounds of gado­
!inite have been gathered from drifting
sand dunes by the Indians and some fine
gems have been obtained. Gadolinite is
also found here and elsewhere with
peridot.
Early in 1948 an effort was made to
realize the value of the carnotite situated
on the Navajo Indian Reservation, where
also vanadium was to be extracted. The
Indians were to obtain a 10 per cent roy­
alty on all mineral compounds except the
vanadium.
53
----------------------
A popular field type, battery operated,
Geiger counter, manufactured by Fisher Re­
search Laboratory, Palo Alto, California. The
instrument may be used with or without the
light weight probe or prospecting stick
shown In the photo. Geiger counters are also
invaluable for testing suspected uranium
specimens. By the use of known percentage
uranium specimens, approximate quantita­
tive work may be done on samples.
According to the Arizona Department
of Mineral Resources, in a 1948 report by
Chas. H. Dunning, there is an extensive
uranium deposit located in Hack's Can­
yon, 37 miles southwest of Fredonia. The
uranium mineral appears to be torbernite
or metatorbernite, and the ore assays up
to 2.50 per cent uranium. The property
has been worked siuce W odd War I, for
copper, and the uranium was discovered
by fluorescence under ultraviolet light.
The mineralized area constituting the
uranium deposit is at the contact of the
Coconino Sandstone layer of the Grand
Canyon Series, and the underlying bed of
Hermit Shale. Details of this occurrence
are hidden by the talus fill along the can­
yon wall, but there has evidently been
considerable displacement because the
mineralized rock in the mine is distinctly
Coconino Sandstone but occurs at a level
below the normal floor of that bed­
where the Hermit Shale should be.
The ore-rock is a typical fine grained
white sandstone. Many authorities con­
sider this layer of the Coconino Sand­
stone as being aeolian or wind blown.
Copper carbonates and silicates appear
54 POPULAR PROSPECTING
irregularly in the seams and are dissemi­
nated. The fluorescent mineral mentioned
has not been determined for certain. It
fluoresces like willemite but no such
mineral can be observed and a spectro­
graphic analysis shows no zinc. It could
be a calcitic coating on some of the sand
grains, but is more probably an opalitic
type of sand. In any event it seems to
have no bearing on the uranium content
and is of no economic importance.
Torbernite or metatorbernite (copper
uranium phosphate), an apple green min­
eral of platy appearance, appears in the
seams and disseminated throughout the
groundmass, and as a cementing material
holding the fragments of brecciation. It
no doubt accounts for a large portion of
the general uranium content.
Arkansas
About 0.5 per cent of thorium and 0.1
per cent of uranium are reported to ac­
company the titanium ore, which has
recently been found in an almost inex­
haustible deposit, Howard County.
California
Few uranium minerals have been re­
ported in California. Uraconite occurs as
coatings in the Rathgeb mine, near San
Andreas, Calaveras County. Uraninite in
acicular crystals has also been noted in
the Rathgeb mine. Melhase has reported
well-formed crystals of xenotime, in the
Southern Pacific quarry n ear Nuevo.
Autunite occurs in the Summit Diggings
near Randsburg. Yellow autunite as­
sociated with green plates of torbernite
was reported from a locality in the north­
eastern part of San Bernardino County.
An interesting uranium mineral has
been recently reported from the Rands­
burg district, tentatively identified as
schoepite. The mineral is highly fluores­
cent and found in an eight foot outcrop­
ping. The mineral occurs as a thin film
of very small grains, yellow in color.
Optical and crystallographic data are
incomplete at this time; the find may
represent a new species.
In 1948 uranium "in hopeful quantities"
was reported near Beaumont, in Mar­
shall Canyon. The discovery occurred on
a 300 acre ranch, and the material is
stated to be ore grade.
Colorado
Carnotite is by far the most important
uranium bearing mineral found in the
United States. The large deposits which
have been exploited commercially are in
Utah and Colorado. Carnotite mining had
been carried out in Colorado on a small
scale, even before the discovery of radi­
um. Parsons records that in 1881, Andrew
J. Talbert mined some of the ore, mainly
for its small gold content.
In 1911 Joseph M. Flannery, of Pitts­
burg, organized the Standard Chemical
Co., to exploit the carnotite deposits for
'their radium content, and as a' by-product
they contained vanadium. In the earlv
days the U. S. Bureau of Mines carried
out a considerable amount of pioneer
work in the study of these ores, and in
field investigations, notably under the
direction of Frank L. Hess. Various
private operations were carried on over a
period of years, until 1921, when domestic
production of radium salts reached its
peak. In 1923 the Standard Chemical Co.,
largest American producer, treated only
the stock pile of ore on hand in its re­
duction plant, and assumed the agency
for the distribution of Belgian radium in
the United States.
The principal productive deposits in
Colorado and Utah are all of carnotite;
roscoelite, Gypsum, copper carbonates,
and rare vanadium minerals mav be as­
sociated with it. The carnotit~ occurs
chiefly in sandstone. Sometimes it im­
pregnates the sandstone, but it is likely
to be concentrated along the cracks or
bedding planes or in pockets, where it
may be accompanied by petrified wood,
bones or other more or less fossilized
organic matter. Carnotite also occurs in
New Mexico and Arizona. The deposits
in both these states, though largely unde­
veloped, may be of considerable im­
portance.
Smarskite, gadolinite, and allanite have
been noted near Devils Head, Douglas
County, Colorado. Radioactive zircon and
columbite occur on Elk Creek, EI PasO'
County, as do xenotime and zircon at
nearby localities, e.g., St. Peter's Dome.
Uraninite is found in the Gregory dis­
trict, about Black Hawk, Gilpin County;
also a Domingo Mine in Gunnison Coun­
ty. Columbine has been reported in Jef­
ferson County. Colorado has also pro­
duced pitchblende, to the extent of per­
haps 150 tons or more of low-grade ore,
mainly from Gilpin County.
During the past few years a consider­
able number of isolated deposits of car­
notite have been discovered in Colorado
and Utah. These vary greatly in size and
extent and may be largely regarded as
"pockets." Frequently these are worked
 THE URANIUM MINERALS

General view in Hack's Canyon, Arizona, where a discovery of uranium has been made.
This photo is typical of the uranium regions of Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico.
Lighter colored strata, near center line, is Cononio (Permian) sandstone. The strata below
that which erodes in a more slanting manner is Hermit (Permian) shale or Supai Formation.

by small independent operators, and in
some cases as "one man" projects. The
ores which are extracted are sent by truck
to one of the several large ore treatment
plants which have been set-up in the
carnotite areas. The treatment plants, in­
>"olving huge investments, are operated
by large private corporations.
The ores treated are paid for on a basis
of uranium and vanadium content, as
indicated by the A.E.c. Prospecting is
encouraged, and when a suitable deposit
is located and proven, financial aid can
be readily obtained. Recent advances in
treatment technology enables the eco­
nomical handling of quite low grade ores.
The scope of these advances will un­
doubtedly be extended in the futUre, as
considerable sums are being constantly
expended in researches to this end.
A considerable amount of literature on
uranium in Colorado and adjacent re­
gions, has been issued by the U.S. Bureau
of Mines and the Atomic Energy Com­
mission. These agencies also carryon air
and ground surveys of various regions in
the Colorado Plateau. Printed bulletins
and papers are issued from time to time to
keep the prospector informed. This liter­
ature is available direct from the Atomic
Energy Commission, G ran d Junction,
Colorado, and the U.S. Bureau of Mines,
\Vashington, D. C.
Connecticut
The Branchville locality is famous for
its uranium minerals, the s e including
uraninite, autunite, gummite and tober­
nite. Columbite is also found there .At
Hales' quarry, Glastonbury, and at Willi­
mantic, as well as Middleton, uraninite
is also seen. Monazite is found at Nor­
wich, Portland, Watertown (near the
Naugatuck), and Willimantic. Columbite
is observed at Glastonbury and at Mid­
dletown.
Pitchblende has been described from
several quarries at Middletown, Glaston­
bury, and Branchville. Many of the fine
rich specimens of pitchblende, uraninite,
and various secondary uranuim minerals
found in the pegmatites of the New Eng­
land States have foqnd their way into
mineral collections, both public and pri­
vate.
Georgia
Radioactive minerals have bee n re­
ported at a number of localities within
the state of Georgia. Uranophane is
found in joints of granite at Stone, De­
kalb County; it is coated thinly by hya­
lite, the uraniferous and highly fluores­
cent common opal of Stone Mountain is
,vell known. Xenotime occurs at Clarks­
ville, Clark County; allanite is found in
Lumpkin County.
Idaho
A number of uranium and thorium
minerals have been found in the state,
mainly as small fragments found in the
placers operated in the central part of
the state. The new mineral brannerite,
carrying over 50· per cent uranium and
thorium oixdes, was found in a placer
operating in the Stanley Basin region,
56 POPULAR PROSPECTING
~------------------------
and described by Hess and Wells in 1920.
The bed-rock in the basin is said to be
granite cut by pegmatite dikes. The bran­
nerite is doubtless derived from the peg­
matites. The radioactivity of the mineral
varies with the specific gravity. the
higher the gravity the greater the radio­
activity.
Fergusonite, columbite, and samarskite
have all been recovered from the placer
dredges operating near Idaho City, Boise
County. Only small amounts have been
recovered. Aeschynite and Cuxenite oc­
cur as small water worn pebbles at vari­
ous localities in central Idaho. From
placer concentrates obtained near Center­
ville, Boise County, Hess has reported
water worn pebbles and crystals of poly­
crase, some reaching a diameter of one
half inch. The mineral is also found at
Idaho City.
Thoruim b ear i n g monazite sand is
abundant at more than 30 localities in 10
counties in Idaho. The Idaho monazite
is probably lower in its thorium content
than similar sands from Brazil and North
Carolina, but with the increasing demand
for cerium metals and the utilization of
thorium as a source of atomic energy,
the Idaho deposits are of potential im­
portance. The monazite is derived from
the granitic rocks of the great central
Idaho batholith.
The main monazite localities of Idaho
are as follows: Ada County. occurs in
black sands at Boise and Boise Basin;
Adams County, Meadows, Snake River,
and John Day Creek; Boise County, has
been mined at Centerville, and is found
in placers near Placerville, Idaho City.
and elsewhere; Canyon County, Payette
River; Clearwater County, Orofino, Dent,
and elsewhere; Idaho County has the
best deposit at Warren district (placer);
L e m h i County. at Leesburg; Lincoln
County, at Minidoka; Nez Perce County,
Musselshell Creek, 28 miles east of Greer,
and 10 miles from Weippe; Owyhee
County, at Oreana.
lJrnaphane has been found in Boise
County, at Carterville. '
A number of new and promising ura­
nium finds have been recently made in
the state.
Maine
'C"raninite is found in the pegmatite
minerals of Black Mountain, Rumford.
It is observed as minute crystals in and
on c1eavlandite in the form of dendritic
growth. Some of the uraninite has altered
to gummite, autunite, uranophane and
other secondary uranium minerals. Cyr­
tolite, an alteration product of zircon, is
found as small well-formed crystals em­
bedded in feldspar, assocated with the
uraninite and manganese dioxide.
Massachusetts
Autunite occurs at Chesterfield, alollg
with columbite, and numerous rarer ac­
cessory minerals. Allanite is found at
Athol, Belcherton, South Royalston, and
Bolton. Columbite is observed at Bever­
ly and at Northfield. Rockport has been
reported to yield both fergusonite and
cyrtolite.
Montana
Monazite has been found in the black
sands at Princeton, in Granite County;
also, Madison County, at Norris; and, in
Powe!1 County. Thorianite has bee n
known to ccour at N orris, in Madison
County, for many years, but apparently
has never been mined.
Nevada
Carnotite has been found on )01l1t5 in
gold ores in the Atlanta Mine, Lincoln
County. Southwestern N e v a d a yields
some fluorescent opal and silica. Mona­
zite Occurs in the black sands at Carson
City, in Ormsby County. There is ura­
nium in Lincoln County, 50 miles ~orth
of Pioche, where it occurs with vanadium
in an unidentified mineral resembling
carnotite (tyuyamunite).
New Mexico
Samarskite is found in a pegmatite
dike, some ZYz miles southwest of the
village of Petaca, in the north-central
part of New Mexico. Radiographs have
shown that the mineral is composed of
not one, but two species. Before 1924 no
uraninite or its alteration products had
been found in this region, but in 1928
grains of uraninite were observed in peg­
matite dikes, ranging from 2-4 millimeters
in diameter. These were accompanied by
alteration products, namely, gummite and
uranophane in what is known as the Frid­
lund dike.
Metaborenite is found at a locality near
Silver City. It fluoresces a bright green,
and occurs disseminated as minute green­
ish plates in a nonfluorescent matrix.
Autunite occurs sparingly in some of the
ores of the White Signal district, Grant
County; museum specimens are found in
the Sylvanite district of Hidalgo County,
and in the San Lorenzo district of So­
corro County.
Carnotite is a relatively rare mineral,
except in Colorado and Utah. It is found

THE URANlL'M MINERALS
A broken axle can mean real trouble for the prospector far out on the rolling sage cov­
ered hills of Nevada. The old model A Ford shown here was one of the most reliable carll
for the prospector, until the introduction of the modern 4·wheel drive Jeep.
in small amounts at a few localities in
the state. Cyrtolite was reported from a
locality southwest of Las Vegas in San
Miguel County. Cyrtolite is an ill-defined
species, and is possibly an alteration
product of zircon.
Fergusonite from the Fridlund dike, 2Yz
miles southwest of Petaca, was described
by Hess and Wells in 1930. Gummite as­
sociated with uraninite was also found
in the Fridlund dike. Monazite carrying
an average of 0.1 per cent uranium oc­
curs in the Petaca area. Samarskite in
fine large specimens occurs in the Frid­
lund dike. Pitchblende and uranophane
occur in the Black Hawk district, Grant
County, and in the Petaca district, Rio
Arriba County.
New York
The magnetite mines in the Adirondack
region have yielded some excellent speci­
mens of allanite. This species is also
found in abundance in the Smith mine,
Mineville, in Essex County; also spar­
ingly at the Bedford feldspar quarries in
\Vestchester County. Cyrtolite has been
mined and utilized from the latter lo­
cality. Uranothorite has been observed
at Port Henry. Other species which have
been reported in various N ew York lo­
calities (by Manchester) include allanite,
columbite, gummite, monazite, thorite,
torbernite, uraconite, uraninite and xeno­
time. Pitchblende is found near Peek­
skill.
,
57
NGrth Car()lina
Pegmatite formations are common to
both North and South Carolina, and as
ill the New England States, va rio u s
uranium and radioactive minerals are
found, usually in limited amounts in these
formations. Generally the "pockets" and
limited areas of the uranium minerals are
encountered during mining or quarrying
operations. Small amounts of pitchblende
and its alteration products have been pro­
duced for many years as a by-product
of the feldspar and mica mines.
Rare radioactive minerals have been
found in varying quantities widely dis­
tributed in North Carolina. The state has
yielded large am 0 u n t s of monazite,
among others. Monazite is found in Alex­
ander Co u n t y, at Brindletown, Burke
County, in the placers with malacon,
xenotime, columbite, cyrrtolite, ferguson­
ite, allanite and thorite. This locality has
produced xenotime crystals an inch
across, of a sage to grass - green color.
Hydrofergusonite and samarskite are
also found.
Columbite and autunite are found in
Alexander County; allanite at Balsam
Gap Mine, Buncombe County; columbite
ill the same county; large masses of
monazite associated with zircon in Madi­
son County (Mars Hill. In Henderson
County, at Green River, on the south
side of Blue Ridge, there occur allanite,
auerlite, polycrase, zircon, monazite,
 ,
58 POPULAR PROSPECTING
xenotime and crytoliteo Iredell County
yields allanite (Statesville); Mecklen­
burg County (Todd's Branch), monazite.
Mitchell County has long been a
source of rare radioactive minerals.
Hatchettolite, gummite, columbite, sam­
arskite, altered samarskite, rogersite,
cyrtolite, fergusonite, uraninite, urano­
til, phosphuranylite, autunite, and monaz­
ite, are found in a number of localities.
Rutherford County yields similar species.
South Carolina has produced minor
amounts of uranium minerals. Uraninite
and nivenite are found associated· with
allanite near Marietta, Greenville County.
Anderson County yields some columbite
\vith allanite and other rare minerals.
Oregon
There are several indications of urani­
ferous formations in Oregon; these com­
prise the highly fluorescent silicas and
opals, none of which has commercial
value as a source of fissiQnable metal
at the present time, though fine speci­
mens are highly prized by collectors.
Large masses of uraniferous silica are
found at Pueblo mountains, south of the
Steens mountain area, near Denio in
Harney County; also the material is
found scattered over the ground and in
submerged masses near the Warm
Springs Indian Reservation, in southern
Wasco County. In the latter instance,
the perlite deposits frequently show
more radioactivity than the surrounding
rocks. Fluorescent silica is also found
near Madras in Jefferson County. Often
the material is associated with agate,
chalcedony and common opal, and with
rhyolite, especially the Mutton Mountain
district of Wasco County, near the Warm
Springs Reservation.
Monazite is frequently found in Ore­
gon, especially in the black sands, where
it has been known to occur for many
years; this is also true of tantalum, co­
lumbium and other thorium minerals.
Zircon is known to be widely distributed
in Oregon.
The metal zirconium, derived from the
sands carrying zircon, has recently come
into prominence. The U. S. Bureau of
Mines at Albany, Oregon has carried out
researches in the recovery and refinement
of this metal, for various commercial uses.
What future the black sands of the Ore­
gon coast may hold still remains un­
known. At one time these sands were
mined for their gold content, but the rich
areas were soon mined out, and these
notable deposits have remained untouched
for many years.
Pennsylvania
Uraninite and various secondary urani­
um minerals have been reported from a
number of localities in the state. Usually
these are encountered in quarying work
or in mining. Uraninite, and several al­
teration minerals were reported from
Philadelphia County, Fairmount Park.
The uraninite is generally extensively
altered on the exterior, with often an un­
altered core of uraninite comprising the
interior of the mass. .
Carnotite has long been known ill con­
glomerate on Mount Pisgah, three-quar­
ters of a mile north of Mauch Chunk,
in Carbon County. It occurs in a small
area of the rock known as the Potts­
ville Conglomerate, often found as the
cementing material holding small pebbles
together. The carnotite has been known
since 1874, but it has been used only as
a source for mineral collectors, and no
commercial workings have been under­
taken. Carnotite is also found in the
Williams quarry at Easton, just north
of the city. Other radioactive minerals
are also found in this quarry.
Allanite is found in Chester County,
at Bethlehem, in East Bradford and Cov­
entry- townships; also, at Princeton in
Lawrence County; Lehigh County, at
Allentown; Philadelphia Co u n t y at
Frankford, nearly all of which localities
yield the allanite in granitic rock
South Carolina
Monazite is found in deposits of com­
mercial value in Anderson, Cherokee,
Greenville, Laurens, Oconee. Pickens,
and Spartanburg Counties. It has beel}
mined near Gaffney, Cherokee County,
and south of Greenville, in Greenville
County. Polycrase is found 4 miles from
Marietta, in Greenville County. See
North Carolina.
South Dakota
The pegmatites of the Black Hills have
produced small amount of pitchblende
and various alteration products. usually
as small pockets encountered in mining
operations. Autunite is found in the peg­
matites of Black Hills, near Keystone,
as at Custer and Spokane. Tantalite and
columbite are also found in the pegma­
tites. Tantalite 0 c cur s in Pennington
County, n ear Keystone. Columbite is
found in Custer County, and has been
 THE URANIUM MINERALS
mined near Laughing Water Creek, north
of Custer; in Lawrence County, Tinton
area, and is abundant in gold placers in
the Nigger Hill district, in the Yolo and
Centennial claims; in Pennington County,
in pegmatites near Hill City, Oreville,
and in upwards of a dozen mines near
keystone. Uranocircite is also found in
this locallty. Uraninite, torbernite and
autunite are found in Pennington County,
at Bald Mountain.
Texas
A number of rare minerals were found
in some quantity in the now inaccessible
Barringer Hill locality in Llano County;
nivenite was described here for the first
time. Gadolinite has been reported in
small quantities in Burnet County, and
is found in the red granite area with the
exception of one locality. Fergusonite,
gadolinite, yttrialite, allanite, gummite,
nivenite and cyrtolite have been reported
in a locality five miles south of Blufton.
Utah
The southeastern Utah carnotite areas
are described in more detail in the section
for Colorado. This uranium ore has been
known for years in Emery County, and
mined on the east flank of the San Rafael
Swell, 13 miles southwest of Greenriver,
in Upper Jurassic(?) sandstone; it occurs
in Temple Rock and along ·the South
Temple Wash, with uvanite, metahewet­
tite, and other uranium and vanadium
minerals. and with asphaltite on the
southeast side of the swell and along the
San Rafael rvier. Carnotite is found in
Garfield County, on the east and south­
west flanks of the Henry Mountains,
especially on 'C res c e n t and Trachyte
creeks; also in Grand County, near Rich­
ardson, where it is mixed with calciovol­
borthite 'and copper minerals, and 15 to
20 miles southeast of Thompsons with
tyuyamunite.
Carnotite occurs in many place in the
La Sal Mountains, particularly on Pack
Creek; also in San Juan County, with
many deposits in Dry, Big Indian, and
Lisburne valleys north of Monticello.
The ore is also found in Washington
County, near Washington, Silver Reef;
\Vayne County, in the north end of the
Henry Mountains.
Autunite occurs 9 miles south of Pah­
reah, in Kane County; also in Washing­
ton County; Silver Reef, in sandstone
formerly worked for silver. Monazite oc­
curs irt Uinta County, in the black sands
of Green River, Jensen district.
59
Torbernite occurs in Kane County, at
the Virgin 'River; also, San Juan County,
in the La Sal Mountains. Uranospinite
is found 9 miles south of Pahreah in
Kane County. In Wayne County, a urani­
um sulfate has been reported as occur­
ring in a fine-grained sandstone with cop­
per carbonates near Fruita.
Uraninite is found in small amounts at
Ogden Canyon, Weber County. The un­
common uranium mineral zeunerite is
found occasionally in the ore of the Cen­
tennial Eureka mine as minute yellowish­
green crystals in barite, Tintic district, in
Juab County.
Utah yields tyuyamunite a Ion g with
carnotite and other vanadium minerals in
Emery and Garfield counties; also, Grand
County, prominently crystallized at Rich~
ardson, with carnotite, and on Pac k
Creek. The mineral tyuyamunite is found
in San Juan County, in East Canyon and'
Big Indian Creek; also, Uinta County, as
small de p 0 sit s in pre-Cambrian(?)
quartzite, on Red Creek, Browns Park,
with copper minerals.
Virginia
The pegmatites of Virginia are of in~
terest both because of the variety of rare
and interesting minerals which they con~
tain and for the reason that they have
served as sources of specimen material
hom time to time. The deposits are found
in the crystalline belt of Virginia which
is situated between the Blue Ridge Moun­
tains on the west and the coastal plain on
the east. The Amelia area, located in
Amelia County, is of interest in connec­
tion with radioactive minerals.
Washington
Monazite is found in the black sands
at Moclips and Grays Harbor, G ray s
Harbor County; also in the sands of the
Columbia river, Douglas County, and at
Wilmot bar on the same river, in Stevens
County.
Wyoming
In general the country rocks of Wyo­
ming show radioactivity to an abnormal
degree, indicating they doubtless carry an
abnormal amount of uranium and thori­
um. Percolating waters passing through
these rocks frequently leach out soluble
uranium saits, along with silica, and later
deposit the silica as uraniferous agate,
chalcedony. and common opal. For this
rea son great quantities of fluorescent
agate and common opal have been found
at many localities in the state. The water
60 POPULAR PROSPECTING

One of the many annual exhibits sponsored by the many amateur gem and mineral
clubs throughout the Country. Hundreds of private and commercial exhibits may be seen at
these gatherings of the prospectors, gem hunters. mineral collectors, and rockhounds. These
exhibits of specimens are of considerable value to the novice, enabling one to gain a good
idea as to what type of materials are in demand and their approximate value.

worn pebbles of moss agate, generally
known as Sweetwater (locality) agate,
are widely known, and fluoresce the
characteristic yellow-green of uranium,
under short wavelength ultraviolet light.
The schroeckingerite deposits, on Lost
Creek, in the Red Desert, some 40 miles
nor t h of Wamsutter, are perhaps the
most extensive deposits of uranium in
the state., These deposits were first noted
by local residents in 1936, and thought
to be sulfur, as the mineral is quite fri­
able and has a color very similar to
sulfur.
The deposits were first visited by the
write in 1936, and identified as uranium.
Specimens were studied by Dr. E. S.
Larsen of Harvard and described in the
February 1936 issue of The Mineralogist.
The minerals was first thought to be a
new species (dakeite), but later shown
to be identical with schroeckingerite.
Schroeckingerite of Wyoming occurs
in crude clay-like gypsite, over a con­
siderable area. The creek water flowing
through the deposits are also slightly
uraniferous. The yellow mineral occurs
as small hard grains and nodular masses
distributed throughout the gypsite. In
some places the deposit has a thickness
of 3 feet or more, near or at the surface
in many places. The deposit has not been
prospected enough to learn its extent,
but it appears to extend over a consider­
able area, and is located at a high eleva­
tion on the flat backbone of the Rocky
Mountains. The origin of the mineral has
not been definitely established, but was
no doubt derived from the weathering of
some primary (pitchblende) deposit. The
mineral is highly fluorescent, a yellow­
ish green.
The next most notable deposits of ura­
nium are situated near Lusk. and these
have been operated on a commercial
basis. Several important secondary ura­
nium minerals are included in the Lusk
deposits.
Allanite occurs in Wyoming near Al­
bany Station, in Albany County, in peg­
matite. Monazite is found in the black
sands of the Bald Mountain district, in
Carbon County, and has been reported in
Sheridan County, from the Bighorn Mts.

CHAPTER SIX
Notes On Prospecting
During the past few decades, a number
of new instruments have been developed
which have proven of considerable value
in the location and exploration of various
mineral deposits. These instruments are
in wide use by professional and scientific
exploration companies. Suitable instru­
ments in this class have also been de­
signed and manufactured especially for
the prospector. These include tools like
the Geiger counter, portable ultraviolet
I amp s, scintillometers, magnetometers
and similar instruments used in geophys­
ical prospecting and exporation work. In­
cluded in this class are various types of
metal locators, widely used in military
work in the detection of buried mine
fields.
One of the pioneer manufacturers of
geophysical prospecting equipment, is the
Fisher Research Laboratories, 1961 Uni­
versity Avenue, Palo Alto, Calif. This
well known finn has kindly supplied us
with the following information pertinent
to the possibilities, and general utility
of this type of modern equipment. \Vhile
these instruments arc not highly com­
plicated, yet the instructions for their use
should be carefully noted in order to use
these tools in an intelligent manner.
During the past twenty to thirty years
much has appeared in print concerning
the invention and development of differ­
ent types of equipment designed to aid in
the locations and development of subsur­
face mineral deposits of significant eco­
nomic value. The claims of the com­
panies marketing these items as well as
the pseudo scientific writers describing
them have created in the public mind
many false or at best semi-correct im­
pressions as to just what can be accom­
plished through the use of modern geo­
physical equipment.
Some of the more common misconcep­
tions are that instruments exist to locate
gold and silver as such and to differ­
entiate it from any enclosing or asso­
ciated ores, that subsurface water can be
definitely located by means other than
drilling, and that the large petroleum
companies have some method of telling in
advance whether or not there is oil be­
neath a given piece of property.
It is obvious from a study of the patents
issued over the past twenty years that the
./
very great mojority of the progress made
has been in those instruments designed to
aid in the exploration for structures favor­
able for the accumulation of oil and gas
and in the proper development of pe­
troleum deposits once they have been
found. The reason for this is directly re­
lated to the tremendous economic return
to be realized from the successful location
of an oil bearing structure. Hence, tre­
mendous sums have been made available
for research and development of any type
of geophysical equipment that could in
any way facilitate the location or develop­
ment of petroleum deposits. Among the
various items of equipment in extensive
use at present for petroleum exploration
are the reflection seismograph, the mag­
netomer, the gravimeter, and electric and
1
radioactive logging devices. .1
In spite of the fact that there has not
been a tremendous amount of funds avail­
able there has still been a steady develop­
ment of geophysical equipment for other
applications such as the location of ores
and placer channels, the solving of foun­
dation problems for the engineer, and the
study of ground water levels and quality.
Among these are the different types Elf
inductive electromagnetic equipment, the
.,J
ground and airborne magnetometer, the
portable ref r a c ti 0 n seismograph, the
Geiger counter, and the ultra-violet or
black light.
Naturally, some of the methods men­
tioned above have different applications
in the various fields of geophysical pros­
pecting. For example, the seismic and
magnetometer methods can be used in oil
exploration problems as well as in certain
types of ore exploration problems. In the
following paragraphs, the different com­
monly accepted methods of geophysical
exploration will be outlined in their sim­
plest form. Particular attention will be
paid to inductive e lee t rom a g net i c
methods.
One of the oldest methods of successful
geophysical exploration still in common
use today is that using either land or air­
borne magnetometers. The met hod in­
volves the careful study of the effect of
different rocks and ores on the earth's
magnetic field. The principle will be un­
derstood when it is recalled that an ordin­
ary pocket compass is often seriously af­
62 POPULAR PROSPECTING
fected by the presence of certain types of
mineral deposits.
The magnetometer is no more than a
ve r y sensitive and carefully calibrated
compass type instrument and is effec­
tively employed in locating magnetite rich
iron ore deposits. In addition it has been
and is commonly used in looking for
basement rock structure anomalies that
wiII perhaps be indicative of over-lying
sedimentary rock structure.
Since the conclusion of the sec 0 n d
World War, it has been common practice
to make large scale magnetometer sur­
veys by means of an airborne magneto­
meter. In this way it is easy to rapidly
evaluate very large areas at a compara­
tively low cost. Ordinary ground magnet­
ometer instruments are still in use, but
have been restricted to smaller scale
problems. The instruments involved in
this type of work are necessarily quite
expensive. Further. the interpretation of
the data obtained is often involved and
requires considerable experience. Hence,
it is general practice to employ contract
parties to perform the work and provide
prepared interpretations.
Seismic Methods
Seismic methods may be classified into
two major subdivisions. refraction and re­
Hection. The reflection method is almost
exclusively a p p lie d to oil exploration
problems. It involves setting off an arti­
ficial shock, and car e f u I study of the
travel times and paths of the shock waves
as they are reflected back from different
subsurface horions. By so doing, it is
possible to measure in detail the attitude
of sedimentary strata to depths of 15,000
feet.
With the refraction method of seismic
exploration, a shock wave is also set off
by the explosion of a buried charge. The
shock waves generated by this explosion
are refracted instead of reflected from
subsurface boundaries, and are in turn
picked up by sensitive geophones set out
at carefully measured distances from the
point of origin of the blast. By carefully
measuring the time the wave takes in
traveling from the point of origin to the
position of the geophones, it is possible
to compute the velocities of the wave
front through the surface overburden and
different subsurface strata or bedrock.
Through studying these travel times and
the resultant velocities, it is possible to
compute the depth to the different strata
or to bed rock.
Metal detectors find many applications.'
These remarkable instruments are widely
used by treasure hunters and explorers. They
also find use in tracing out cover iron water
pipes and the like. OccasionaUy. the treas­
ure hunter may find a can of gold coins, but
generally he will dig up a lot of metal cans.
horseshoes. and an assortment of metal ob­
jects. The depth at which this battery op­
erated unit will function is several feet, de­
pending upon conditions. but the depth of
utility is limited. Manufactured by Fisher
Research Laboratory, Palo Alto, .California.
It is also possible to obtain considerable
information as to the geological nature of
the overburden and bedrock. Applications
of this method can be found in searching
for petroleum type structures, in tracing
the position and extent of buried placer
channels, and in measuring the amount of
overburden to be removed in stripping
operations.
Iu the late 1920"s and 30's this technic
found extensive use in the location of
buried salt domes along the Gulf Coast;
however in recent years, it has been al­
most entirely supplanted for this use by
the reflection method. As with the mag­
netometer, the seismic method requires a
considerable investment in equipment, as
well as technical knowledge of operation
in interpretation. Hence, it is general
practice for most of the large petroleum
companies and mining firms to employ
contract crews of specialists.
Electrical Methods
All methods of geophysical prospecting
depending for .their functioning upon elec­
trical properties of the earth may be clas­
 NOTES ON PROSPECTING
sified under this general heading. The
major standard subdivisions are described
as methods employing (I) natural earth
potentials (2) applied currents (3) indic­
tion currents.
Natural Earth Potentials
Due to the oxidation of certain types of
near surface sulphide ores, electro-chemi­
cal differences of potential are sometimes
generated. Such natural currents, when
sufficiently pronounced, may often be de­
tected and accurately traced on the sur­
face of the ground. It has been found
from experience that the practical appli­
cation of measuring these natural cur­
rents is restricted almost entirely to the
discovery of sulphide ore bodies.
Applied Currents
Dire€t or alternating current is applied
to the soil or bedrock by means of some
definite pattern of well grounded elec­
trodes. Surface electrical potentials so ob­
tained are a measure of the earth's ability
to carry or conduct the applied current.
Inasmuch as different rocks and minerals
differ greatly in their ability to carry or
conduct electric currents, it is possible to
use this fact in geologic prospecting.
Under favorable conditions problems
relating to the determination of depth of
overburden, the location of conductive
ore bodies, the water table, dikes, faults,
and contacts can be aided in their solution
by this method. Here again successful op­
eration requires a large outlay for equip­
ment plus extensive experience in the
correct interpretation of the data. The
most common method of applied current
prospecting is known as the Earth Re­
sistivity Method. Electric Logging as
used in the petroleum industry is a form
of both the natural potential and applied
current methods.
Induced Currents
This method applies an artificial elec­
tromagnetic field set up by high fre­
quency alternating current either passed
conductively through the earth by actual
contact or applied inductively to the
ground by some type of transmitting loop.
The electromagnetic field so induced is
referred to as the primary field and it in
turn induces secondary electromagnetic
fields in any subsurface conductors, such
as ore bodies, that may be present. The
combined, or resultant electromagnetic
field, consisting of the primary plus any
fields due to subsurface conductors is
studied by means of a directional receiv-
63
Light weight mineral and metal dete<:tor,
widely used for locating buried metallic min­
erai deposits, and any metal objects includ­
ing coins. Ores best suited for location by
this field, battery operated instrument, are
the conductive metallic sulphides and any
native metallic ores. This type of instru­
ment is effective at any reasonable depth,
and this In turn is dependent upon the size
and nature of the ore body and its covering.
Manufactu..ed by Fisher Research Labora­
tory, Palo Alto, California.
ing unit. Electrical methods employing a
vertical loop transmitter for inductively
energizing the ground are the most wide­
ly used of the electromagnetic methods.
Fisher Research Laboratory, Inc., has
developed two related types of instru­
ments for this method of prospecting.
With one of these two the transmitting
and receiving units are designed to func­
tion separately. A large vertical transmit­
ting loop is operated by one member of
the party while a second man is required
to operate the receiving unit. The instru­
ment is well suited for energizing con­
ductive zones that are vertical or are
steeply dipping such as veins, faults, and
dykes buried under shalIow overburden.
The depth range is entirely governed by
the physical conditions existing at each
survey, but under f a v 0 r a b I e circum­
stances may reach several hundred feet.
The second, and more widely used in­
strument, employs a method in which the
transmitting' and receiving units are held
in a fixed position in relation to each
other by means of a pair of carrying
handles. This unit has a depth range of
 POPULAR PROSPECTING
approximately 25 feet, also depending on
the existing physical conditions, and is
usually operated as a single unit by one
man. For certain types of problems the
receiving and transmitting units can be
separated and employed in a manner sim­
ilar to that of the large vertical loop field
transmitter. However, the depth range is
not appreciably increased. The unit is
suitable for locating any relatively con­
ductive body within the range of the in­
strument.
When operating the large field trans­
mitter the receiver is held in a horizontal
position so that a null or minimum is
registered on the receiver visual meter
and in the receiver earphones. Traverses
are then made across the strike at dis­
tances of from 50 to 200 feet from the re­
ceiver. Indications of subsurface conduc­
tive bodies are received in the form of in­
creased dial tone and meter reading.
When such an indication is found it
will . be necessary to tilt the receiver to
again obtain the null position. When the
conductive zone or orebody is passed it
will be necessary to tilt the receiver in
the opposite direction to again obtain the
null position. The extension of lines per­
pendicular to the plane of the receiver
when so tilted will point toward the con­
ductive body so that it is possible to ob­
tain information as to the depth and at­
titude of the vein or ore body as well as
its plan or surface location.
When using the smaller, coupled, in­
strument the receiver is carefully balanced
to the null position over barren ground.
When the instrument is then carried over
a conductive body in which a secondary
field has been induced, an increase in
visual meter indica~ion is observed plus
a marked increase in earphone tone.
The effectiveness of work with either
of the two types of equipment described
above will depend on several important
considerations:
1. The length, and shape of the
ore body.
2. The depth of the ore body. The de­
tectability of a conductive body decreases
very rapidly with increasing depth.
Interpretation
One very important point that has been
by-passed so far in this discussion is the
extreme importance of a thorough knowl­
edge of the geology of the area and of
the physical characteristics 'of the ores
and rocks to be encountered before any of
the discussed instruments can be effec­
tively applied. It should be noted that in
all of the applications, the aid to the pros­
pector, geologist, or engineer is indirect
in that only changes can be detected.
One can detect changes in the amount
of radioactivity, changes in the conduc­
tivity of the earth, and changes in the ve­
locity with which a shock wave is trans­
mitted. It is in the interpretation of what
these changes mean that the value of
these modern instruments comes to the
fore. To express it in another way the
prospecting aids that have been discussed
are no more than tools for the use of the
prospector just as the pick and shovel are
tools. And similarly each can contribut.e
to the understanding of the prospector's
particular problem. No single instrument
in itself can provide the answer.
Each particle of information obtained
through the use of modern exploration
equipment must be added to the sum
total of information available before any
answer can be given. If all of this is kept
in mind then it can be said without fear
of contradiction that modern science can
provide invaluable aid to the modern
prospector.
Metal Detectors
The Fisher Research Laboratories of
Palo Alto, California, also manufacture
metal and treasure detectors, which are
described here. Like all similar instru­
ments, these have their valuable uses, and
their limitations. Where indicated these
instruments are in wide use, and will be
found invaluable.
Consider for a moment the vast wealth
accumulated and then lost or buried in
the centuries past. Consider the ultimate
disposition of the great wealth and loot of
the pirates and bandits so numerous dur­
ing the early days of this country. Con­
sider the large quantities of family silver­
ware and savings hidden to protect them
and subsequently forgotten. What has
happened to this great wealth? For the
most part it lies buried in long forgotten
sites. It lies at the disposal of some mod­
ern explorer with determination and fore­
sight willing to acquire and use the latest
and most scientific instruments in his
search.
The M-Scope Metal and Mineral De­
tector is this instrument. It enables the ex­
plorer through the use of the most ad­
vanced electronic principles to literally see
into the earth, beneath floors, into old ado­
be and brick wails, through shallow fresh
water, and through pavements. It enables
the explorer to rapidly and thoroughly in­
vestigate large areas, to feel confident
 NOTES ON PROSPECTING
A view in Last Chance Canyon, of Southern California. Note the tilted sedimentary
formations comprising the backqround hills. This region is a favorite for part time gem
hunters. A detailed description of this region appears in the book California Gem Trails.
that he has uncovered all bullion or treas­
ure as well as any other metal objects of
interest and value that may be present.
Valuable mineral deposits can be de­
tected through the use of M-Scope equip­
ment. Included in geophysical equipment
are instruments for detecting conductive
ores present in veins, lodes, pockets, and
placer deposits: radioactive ores and ma­
terials such as carnotite and pitchblende:
and fluorescent ores such as the highly
valuable tungsten ore scheelite. These are
but a few of the many varied and valuable
applications of M-Scope equipment.
The Fisher M-Scope Metal and Mineral
Detecting Equipment is scientifically de-
'signed to pro v ide in practical form a
sound and usable metal and mineral de­
tecting instrument. In its simplest terms
the equipment mea sur e s or detects,
through the use of induced electromag­
netic fields, changes in the relative elec­
trical conductivities of the material over
which it is carried. The term conductivity
refers to the ability of a material to con­
duct an electric current. Since metal ob­
jects and metallic ores are generally much
more conductive than the surrounding
soil or rock it is evident that they can be
detected as conductivity changes if they
lie within the range of the instrument.
The theory of operation is founded on
carefully established scientific facts.
All metal objects can be detected since
the instruments do not depend for their
functioning on the magnetic properties of
the buried materials. Hence, all metals
65
and conductive minerals including gold,
silver, copper, iron, etc., can be found with
equal ease. Native gold, silver and copper
and the metallic sulphides are the ores
most suited for this method of geophys­
ical exploration. For those interested in
mining, the more prominent of the me­
tallic sulphides include pyrite, chalcopy
rite, pyrrohotite, galena, chalcocite, cin­
nabar and molybdenite. Some of the ox­
ides such as magnetite and maganite are
also good conductors.
Explorers need no special knowledge or
experience in order to successfully oper­
ate metal and mineral detecting equip­
ment. Full and detailed instructions and
illustrations are provided. It is only nec­
essary to adjust a few controls in order to
operate the equipment. Once the neces­
sary tuning has been done the instrument
will retain its sensitive adjustment even
when operating over rough terrain: or
through heavy brush. Only one man is
needed for efficient operation so that the
treasure seeking explorer need not divulge
his secrets to anyone. All of the instru­
ments are highly portable for greater
ease of operation and transportation.
Once the area to be explored has been
reached the instrument is assembled and •
adjusted over ground that is known to be
barren of treasure or bullion. The instru­
ment is then carried over the suspected
site. When the lost treasure is crossed the
instrument's receiver will detect it by
means of a loud buzzing in the receiver
earphones as well as a clear and sharply
66 POPFLAR PROSPECTING
defined indication on the large visual in­
dicator.
The depth to which ALL metal and
mineral detecting equipment will function
depends upon:
The metallic surface area of the deposit.
The moisture content of the ground.
The length of time the metal object
sought has been buried.
The type of instrument used.
Buried treasure including gold or silver
coins, metal chests, family silver, gold or
silver bullion, and near surface placer
gold concentrations.
Lost or burried tools-pliers, hammers,
wrenches, keys, weapons.
Pavement covered manholes, valves,
stubs, etc.
Lost or buried metal surveyor pro!Jerty
markers.
MetaL beams, plumbing, or electrical
boxes behind brick or plastered walls.
Here are some of the limitations and
performances of equipment of this kind.
Will detect both magnetic and non­
magnetic minerals.
Will not identify individual minerals
but will indicate the presence of metallic
ore bodies within the depth range of the
instrument and approximately outline the
surface area of the deposit.
Will not locate underground water or
oil deposits.. (There is no scientifically ac­
cepted instrument for this purpose.)
Will locate, within the depth range of
the instrument used, local pockets in an
otherwise barren vein, veins and bodies
of metallic ores, and rich placer deposits.
Will not automatically lead, point or
direct to a mineral deposit. (There is no
scientifically accepted instrument for this
purpose.)
Will not locate Uranium ores-you need
a M-Scope Geiger Counter for this pur­
pose.
Will eliminate much unnecessary and
time consuming digging and trenching.
SALTING A MINE
Salting a prospect or a mine property
is a very old practice, and has been fre­
quently applied to gold properties. How­
ever, one of the most notable swindles in
this field is the great Diamond Hoax of
the 1870's, when two clever swindlers
salted some ground in Wyoming, north­
west of Rawlins. These two lads, had
made a visit to' the diamond cutting cen­
tersof Amsterdam, and had bought some
$36,000 worth of then nearly worthless
diamond bort, and for good measure
tossed in some red rubies. This consider­
able amount of diamond was then used
to salt the ground.
Posing as honest prospectors, they took
in a San Francisco banker (Ralston) for
some $600,0'00 for the pro per t y. The
banker had sent a mining engineer to ex­
amine the ground, and sure enough the
engineer reported favorably, and actually
returned with a handful of rough dia­
monds and a few rubies. A second, and
not so trusty examiner revealed the hoax
when he discovered a partly cut diamond
on the ground.
We offer the following, not for the
reader to make use of, but for his self
protection.
Shotgun Method
Salting may take place in the mine
itself. The shotgun method is very simple
and effective. Gold filings from coins or
jewelry, loaded into a IZ-gauge shotgun
shell are fired at random at the vein to
make good ore out of the poor. Carefully
placed shots make even better ore. A
slight variation of this scheme is to load
dynamite with the filings. Using this
dynamite the examiner, who blasts down
a fresh face in order to avoid any chance
of saiting, unwittingly enriches the ore
himself. In dry mines the faces may be
painted with gold chloride or silver nitrate
solutions to up the values.
Cases are on record where "veins" were
actually made in fissures in the rocks. In
one such case cassiterite, the ore of tin
was very cleverly mixed with other min­
erals and tamped into cracks and points
of the barren country rock. A soluble sUi:
cate was then added, and, when this had
solidified, a truly art i f i cia I vein was
formed. "Vhen later the hoax was ex­
posed, an experienced Cornish miner who
had originally reeommended the property
explained that "he was not accustomed
to the particular vintage of champagne
used on the expedition."
Salting Sample
A less difficult and less expensive means
of salting is to adulterate the samples.
When the sample is being taken, the metal
may be flicked into it from the ash of
a contaminated cigar, or dropped in en­
closed in a ball of prepared clay. Long
fingernails may be very useful to the
salters. Gold, amalgam, etc., can be nicely
hidden under these until the critical mo­
ment when someone is not looking too
closely.
Rickard tells of Philippine women us­
ing this scheme. These women wore a
"Mother Hubbard" kind of dress with a
 NOTES ON PROSPECTING 67

Part of the noted Plume or flower agate diggings on the Priday Ranch of Central Ore­
gon. Now known as Fulton Agate Beds. The superb gem agate occurs in veins, seams and
pockets at various horizons. The waste overburden material is removed by heavy duty
power machinery, including jack hammers, air compressor shown here. The diggings shown
here have also yielded large amounts of colorful opal filled thunder eggs. The typical sage
and Juni!)er covered hills of this reaion are shown in background. Since its discovery in
1934, the Priday Ranch locality is est!mated to have produced no less than $250,000 'in gem,
materials, mostly high grade gem agate.

pocket over the left breast. This pocket
was provided with gold dust which was
transferred inconspicuously by means of
wet fingers to the gravel in the gold pan.
The woman worked, each sitting up to
her waist in water, with her pan near the
pocket so that detection was difficult.
Furthermore, the gold was taken from
the property being examined which made
impossible detection of fraud by means
of the microscope. '
A Hypo Shot
"Salt" can be added to samples even
though they are in sealed sacks by giv­
ing them a '''hypodermic'' injection. Solu­
tions of various metals are shot into the
bags with a syringe. Some of these solu­
tions are very difficult to remove after
they have dried. Such salting cannot al­
ways be detected by panning. Filings
blown into the sacks this way are ef­
fective, but are more easily detected.
Where samples are crushed and quar­
tered on the property, there is always
a chance that some villian will spill a little
"salt" in the machines that are used or in
the samples themselves, using the long
fingernail act again. He might employ a
different technique here though and use
a dirty handkerchief instead. '
A misguided man might think himself
safe, when at last he has satisfied himself
that he has taken and prepared for assay
a number of good clean samples; but look
out, Mr. Gyp is still on his tail. Even the
early alchemists placed precious metals
ill their crucible bottoms and covered
them with wax or other substance to hide
them until the assay was made. Holes in
charcoal filled with gold and waxed over
served to fool the unwary then. even as
today. A more modern version of this
artifice. which came to me from a very
reliable source is the case of the pow­
dered tin in a furnace oil supply. When
the furnace was fired, a stream of tin­
bearing oil blew merrily into the firebox
coating everything at hand with the re­
markable element.
Salted Crucibles
Fluxes and acids used of the assay can
be "salted" too, as can the crucibles. In
one instance new crucibles were soaked
in gold chloride and silver nitrate and
dried. The assayer, failing to run blanks
for a check, was greatly fooled; and need­
less to say his reputation was ruined.
There are assayers too, who don't mind
being fooled a little; in fact who will pur­
posely make out false reports. One suc­
 68 POPULAR PROSPECTING
cessful engineer once told me that "Wher­
ever ore is bought and sold there will be
someone doubting the results of the as­
sayer." I was this man's assayer, and he
told me to be a hundred percent sure of
every assay I made. In some cases, as
many as two dozen assays were made to
get one result, but results were worth
all the effort; for, although there were
many controversies between buyer and
seller, there was never an argument over
the validity of an assay after all dissatis­
fied parties had tried several umpires and
lost.
Besides making deliberate, false reports,
an analyst might be guilty of "innocent"
salting. This is the result of carelessness
in keeping crushing equipment, reagents,
and the laboratory in general clean, or the
result of improper preparation of the sam­
ples. Most carelessness will lead to high
results, though some procedures, such as
careless mix i n g or improper fluxing,
might bring about low assays.
High Grade Ore
High grade can be added to the mill cir­
cuit in the same manner as it is slipped
into sample sacks. The crushing plant,
ball mill, feed, tables, floation cells, or
. reagent feeders are possible points for
adding the "salt." Reagent feeders that
operate continuously without attention
serve very nicely since they are incon­
spicuous.
Dressing the Mine
Some methods of defrauding prospec­
tive buyers do not call for the addition of
foreign material, but rather the removal
of undersired portions of the vein. Dress­
ing the mine, as such practice is called, re­
quires that low-grade ore be mined out
leaving nice large chunks of rich stuff to
stare the sampler in the fact. Fine look­
ing specimens scattered over the dumps
add to the attractiveness of the under­
ground picture. Such lures are termed
"sucker bait."
False Weights
Deception by these and many other
means can take place; but assuming they
don't, there is still a way of tripping the
unwary. That is by the use of fraudlent
weights. Let us say, for example, that the
gold is obtained in exactly the right
amount from representative samples, and
that the true weight of the gold, repre­
sents, therefore, the true value of the ore.
But on determining the amount of gold
in the buttons, if the weights have had
corners cut away or bottoms filed down,
the results will be falsely high. Hollow
weights or aluminum weights substituted
for platil1um could be used in this farce.
Thus it is seen that the ways of the
"salter" are many and clever. In fact, one
might ask, is there any protection against
such a racket? The answer is yes, but
only by eternal vigilance.
Samples must be taken carefully, notes
and observations being recorded at time
of sampling. Several low-grade samples
which are known not to have been tamp­
ered with, can be mixed thoroughly and
divided into unequal parts, and each part
saved separately. It will be impossible for
anyone to salt these so that assays will be
the same. If, then, the assays are unlike
and high, the samples have been salted.
Cutting a fresh face of ore before sam­
pling protects samplers against the pos­
sibility of either a salted face or a dressed
face. Faces that change their appearance
in many places when newly blasted should
put· one on his guard.
All samples should be quartered be­
fore being sent for assaying, one portion
being saved for future reference and an­
other for panning. Every sample should
be panned for "salt" such as amalgam,
metallic filings, or other foreign material.
Fine particles of lead added to the pan
helps in checking accuracy of the work;
they should be recovered.
Another portion of the sample should be
washed and both the pulp and washings
assayed. Gold chloride, gold cyanide, sil­
ver nitrate, or copper chloride used for
salting can be detected in this manner.
Uranium Mines
In a small way, an effort has been made
to salt a uranium property by similar
methods, but with little success. Uranium,
chemical salts, soluble in water have
been used in some instances. However,
the cost and difficulty of obtaining any
quantity of this material has served to
discourage frauds of this nature. Any sub­
stantial amount of uranium salts would
have to be obtained through bootleg
sources, and at a high cost, if available.
Refined uranium salts, dumped into a
mine property would effect the Geiger
counter and the scintillator in the same
manner as the crude uranium ores.
PEGMATITE PROSPECTING
Pegmatite dikes are rather widely dis­
tributed throughout the world. California,
Oregon and Washington abound in these
easy to discern formations. Possibly only
a short distance from your home you may
locate one or a pumber of pegmatite dikes,
 NOTES ON PROSPECTING 69

General present day view of the ghost town of Aurora, Nevada. Most of the standing
buildings are stone or brick. The original wooden structures were generally salvaged and
carted away, or fire took its toll. This old mining camp once held a population of some
10,000 gold seekers, prospectors, miners, and the many human leeches that follow their for­
tunes. When the diggings in the hills in the background were exhausted, the treasure
seekers promptly left for greener fields. (Photo by Guy Ransom).

which are likely to yield a host of speci­
mens, including various gem minerals.
For example, the pegmatite dikes of San
Diego County, California, are noted for
their production of gem quality tourma­
line crystals. The pegmatites of the New
England states have for many years pro­
duced a wide range of minerals and gems
in superb crystals.
Regarding pegmatites. Dana states
"In connection with deep-seated, coarse­
grained igneous rocks, especiaIly granite,
we frequently find mineral deposits known
as pegmatite dikes, or veins. These bodies
have the general shape 'and characterists
of an igneous dike, or a broad mineral
vein, though in certain respects they dif­
fer markedly from either of these. Peg­
matite dikes run through the main mass
of igneous rock, or fill fissures in the sur­
face rocks. The dikes are characterized by
very coarse crystallization."
Slow CooEng
Owing to the fact that pegmatite gran­
ites were originally injected into the sur­
rounding formations at some distance be­
'low the surface, cooling of the mass took
place very slowly, and this in turn en­
abled enormous single crystals to "grow"
or "segregate." Cavities are also charac­
teristic of pegmatite formations, and often
these open pockets may prove bonanzas
- pocket filled with gem mineral crys­
tals of various kinds. Almost 100 dif­
ferent mineral species have been found in
the pegmatites of the New England
states. Often the surface outcroppings of
the pegmatites can be traced for many
miles. Since the pegmatite rock is often
more resistant to weathering than the
surrounding "country" rock, the former
is noted as a hill or ridge, higher than the
surrounding terrain.
Many Minerals
Minerals found in the pegmatite dikes
include a number of gem minerals like
beryl, emerald, topaz, quartz, amethyst,
tourmaline, kunzite. and a number of rare
gem minerals. Often these occur in no­
tably large crystals of great perfection.
Beryl crystals (non-gem quality), some 14
feet in length and weighing many tons,
have been mined in the pegmatites of the
New England states.
 POPULAR PROSPECTING
Rare Elements
Minerals of the rare elements and rare
earths are also common to pegmatite
dikes. For example, the famous Barringer
Hill, Texas, pegmatite yielded a large
number of uranium and thorium minerals,
and numerous rare earth minerals, some
of which were new to science at the time
of discovery. Lithium, tungsten,' tin, tan­
talum, and columbium are also found in
pegmatites. Feldspar and mica are also
common to pegmatites. Some of the sin­
gle, feldspar crystals mined in the Black
Hills pegmatites weighed hundreds of
tons.
The enormous mica "books" are derived
from the pegmatites. In short, the host
of minerals found in the pegmatites are
invaluable to the industries, arts, and sci­
ences.
LABINE'S DISCOVERY URANIUM
Perhaps some may not realize how Gil­
bert Labine made his world shattering
discovery of Pitchblende, at Great Bear
Lake, in northern Canada, far north of
the Arctic Circle.
Back in 1900, J. Mackintosh Bell of the
Canada Geological Survey, made a detailed
study of the salient geological features
of that then little known country in the
ice-bound north. For some 30 years Be1l's
report gathered dust and remained in ob­
scurity as a geological curiosity. In 1930
Gilbert Labine's sharp eye fell upon the
old works of Bell. Labine was an itinerant
mining stock salesman, but he and his
brother were fired by the Bell reports,
and by stories of mining as told by their
uncle, Jim Labine.
The Labine brothers, falling into the
spirit of a mining community in which
they resided, were soon engaged in pros­
pecting and gained valuable experience
in the noted Cobalt and Porcupine dis­
tricts of Canada. Gilbert Labine was soon
aware of his technical deficiencies and he
enrolled at Haileybury Mining School
where he went through a comprehensive
course in mineralogy and geology. Armed
with this fresh knowledge, Labine struck
out for the far north to investigate Bell's
old reports of 1900, where green stains of
copper and cobalt bloom had been re­
ported.
Labine's mineralogical training sug­
gested to him that wherever cobalt oc­
curred silver should be found also. At th
time he did not even dream of pitch­
blende. Flying from Edmonton, Labine
surveyed the region around Great Bear
Lake, from the air, especially the area
around Echo Bay, the scene of Bell's
early observations. The survey made a
lasting impression on Labine.
In March 1928, Labine and a partner
went by the water ways as far north as
was possible. Then with a crude sled, the
two men hauled almost a ton of supplies
to Echo Bay, from the headwaters of the
Camsell river, a terrifying journey of
hardships that required full six weeks. En
route his partner, Charles St. Paul be­
came snow blind, but they ,dared not stop
en route for fear the Spring thaws would
melt the snow and ice and leave them
stranded and facing death on the open
Barrens.
Taking his place in front, Labine har­
nessed his blind partner in position and
after days of agony reached the compara­
tive safety of Echo Bay on Great Bear
Lake. With his partner disabled, Labine
managed to scout around and he soon
found what he sought, the cobalt bloom
stains, outcrops of heavy masses of native
silver, and a heavy black mineral, which
in his new academic role, Labine at once
recognized as pitchblende.
And so the Eldorado Gold Mines, which
had failed to develop a gold mine in Mani­
toba, now began to produce fabulous rich
ores of uranium, accompanied by equally
fabulous quantities of silver. Labine, truly
a man of destiny, served early notice on
an incredulous world that the atomic age
was about to become a reality.
Not alone was the uranium discovery of
Labine highly important, but his work
also led to the discovery of gold at the
world famous Yellowknife district farther
south on Great Bear Lake. It is safe to
say that the discovery made by Labine,
rates as the most important or among
the most important mineral discoveries
ever made.
Some may have been under the impres­
sion that Labine, was merely a wandering
prospector who by sheer good fortune
stumbled upon this discovery. Dispel the
thought. Labine was an intelligent man
and a student. He first made a detailed
study of early geological reports, then he
prepared himself with a knowledge of
mineralogy and geology,so when he did
go into the field he ,was qualified to
identify what he saw.
Labine had no Geiger Counter, he had
no large geophysical crew, and 110 finan­
cial backing to speak of. He made his dis­
 NOTES ON PROSPECTING

A gem hunter in the Black Hills of South Dakota. June zeitner of Mission, South Da·
kota, searches through the rock of a talus slope, hunting the valuable and elusive Fairburn
typ'e of agate. A trained and skilled eye is required to distinguish the gem pieces from the
worthless rock.

covery through his own knowledge as a
student, and shall we add a good measure
of intestinal fortitude. There are some
1,300,000 square miles of bleak and for­
bidding territory in northern Canada, and
the casually wandering prospector of ·the
old school would stand little opportunity
of making a chance discovery, let alone
being able to survive in some of this re­
gion. The Great Bear Lake uranium de­
posits have been Nationalized, and are be­
ing operated with more or less secrecy, it
is understood that the entire production is
goin to the U. S. A.
BY PASSED BONANZAS
Patrick Fancher, an old timer in the
famous mining camp of Silverton, Colo­
rado, has given us the following ante­
dotes, where prospectors have passed by
fabulous fortunes, simply through their
lack of knowledge.
Mining history is replete with many in­
stances of great fortunes passed up be­
cause the prospector failed to recognize
the value of the mineral he had found. In
most cases they were minerals which the
average mineral collector or student of
mineralogy would recognize instantly.
The gold rush of 1849 is a good place
to start. The gold-crazy Spaniards had
been taking their siestas over this vast
California treasure for countless decades.
::rhe haughty Conquistadors, however, had
no use for a gold pan, or a pick and
shovel. They preferred to take their gold
with the sword. That, incidentally has
been the approved method through the
centuries.
That observation is more political than
mineral, but I am not "viewing with
alarm." The Russians, those astute poli­
ticians, once sold us a tremendous min­
eral deposit for only seven million dollars.
Single mines in Alaska have since pro­
duced more than this sum, and the sur­
face has today hardly been scratched. Yet
at the time of this purchase there was op- .
position in Congress for this "waste" of
money.
'When Alaska is made a state, a state
large and potentially richer than Texas, it
may well give an impetus to Alaska min­
ing which will equal the Klondike rush.
Mineralogist would flock there, and would
not make the mistakes so commonly made
by the old Timers, who looked only for
the yellow metal, and usually could rec­
ognize few if allY other minerals - like
the rich copper ores of Alaska. Un­
dreamed of bonanzas would be found, and
the United States itself would receive a
needed pecuniary transfusion. A million
Americans with an urge to make a better
living will succeed far bo;:tter than the
best laid plans of politicians.
N ow let me hasten to apolize to the fair
state of Texas for having said that any­
 '12 POPULAR PROSPECTING
thing could ever be larger. And the Texas
cowboys who drove their longhorns over
the Chisholm Trail can be excused for
not having recognized the vast mineral
wealth beneath them. Prospecting for oil
and the like requires more equipment than
a pan and a burro.
The wagon trains of 1849, enroute to.
California, it goes without saying, passed
by vast wealth in silver and gold and
other minerals in their haste to reach the
far West diggings. The human tide rolled
up to the Pacific, and then flowed back
to the Rockies where decades later vast
mineral wealth was found.
A few lovable old prospectors had
stopped to pan gold in Nevada's Carson
river and its creeks. They found enough
gold to keep them in bacon and beans,
and an occasional bottle, but their efforts
to separate the gold from the sand was
hampered by the "blue mud." A passing
Mexican informed them it was "La Plata,"
but the prospectors were neither rock­
hounds or linguists. They failed to recog­
nize the Mexican word for silver, so the
fabulous Comstock Lode was undisturbed
for decades.
Comstock himself was a Can a d ian
sheepherder. He was one of the thirsty
gold panners, and was therefore on hand
i
I
when the silver lode was found. He staked
1 • out claims worth many millions, but he
never made a dime. When a good drink­
ing companion hit town, Comstock would
ask him if he had a claim. If he had none
then Comstock presented hirtl with one.
It is small wonder that Comstock was the
most popular man in camp and lent his
name to the lode.
One of his cronies. 01' Virginny, took a
dim view of the whole business and was
jealous of his friends prominence. So dur­
ing a drinking argument one day he scruf­
fed a mark in the street and announced:
"Then I call this spot Virginny." And
Virginia City it is today.
Some of the boys did make fortunes
but they could not hold on to them for
long. A lady who kept a boarding house
for the panners accepted shares in their
claims in payment of board bills. In view
of the tremendous fortune this lady made,
it would appear that the cost of food in
those days exceeded even today's high
prices.
As the wave flowed back eastward it
passed the veins at Goldfield, Tonopah,
and numerous others, which were not dis­
covered until early in this century. The
Pikes Peak rush brought many prospec­
tors to Colorado, but for many years they
failed to recognize the tremendously rich
tellurides at Cripple Creek. Here in the
San Juan Mountains the silver miners
threw away the rich gold of the Campbird
and Tom Boy.
When Leadville was in its infancy a
character named Chicken Bill salted a
shaft and sold it to the fabulous Haw Ta­
bor. Bill boasted about it in the saloons,
but his joy was short-lived. Tabor sank
the shaft a little deeper and the mine paid
off into the millions. He had found an­
other great mine.
Another character of that period was
driving a tunnel but became discouraged
and sold it for a small sum. The new
owner hit a bonanza within ten feet. For­
ever after, when he was in his cups, "Ten­
foot" McGinnity would proclaim to all
and sundry, ''I'll never quit another tunnel
until I've driven just ten feet more."
Perhaps we modern rockhounds should
not judge the old prospector too harshly.
On Bartlett Mountain in Colorado, is the
great Climax Molybdenum mine. produc­
ing today some 16,000 tons of ore per day.
Opened less than 2S years ago the Climax
stock has jumped from ten cents a share
to around $60.00. Thousands of miners
and prospectors had passed over the Cli­
max properties, but we will overlook that
too. For in 1890 the Colorado School of
Mines, no less, had identified the mineral
as graphite.
LOST MINE FABLES
"Lost" and ficticious mines of reputed
fabulous wealth have long held a fascina­
tion and lure. In recent years there has
been an unusual amount of activity di­
rected toward the hoped for rediscovery
of these "lost" mines-if they ever existed
as reported. There must be 50 or more of
these in various parts of the United
States, which have been referred to in
print at various times during the past
decade. As far as we have been enabled
to learn, none of them have been rediscov­
ered, despite the fact that thousands have
searched, some having continued search­
ing for many years, expending substantial
sums of money, time, and suffering con­
stant disappointment.
'vVe have no objections to anyone
searching for "lost" mines, but it does
seem like these individuals are bucking a
losing game, with slim chances of success,
if indeed their objective even exists.
 NOTES ON PROSPECTING 73
--------------------------------

Fireplace partly faced with sawed slabs of colorful fluorescent rocks, mounted in plaster
paris to form removable and portable plaques. The use of sawed slabs on fireplace fronts
and similar ornamentation, offers a neat and easy means of installation. Commercial and
private ornamentations of this nature are increasing the demand and value of these materials.

Nearly every human being has within
him that lure of discovery. the same lure
by which Columbus discovered America,
and by the same lure which Magellan
sailed the seven seas.
Practically all these so-called lost mines
we read of have an almost identical his­
tory. The familiar one where a prospector
or party, out in the wide open spaces,
made a fabulous discovery. Then their
water. and food ran out, or perchance In­
dians beset them. In any event they had
only time to scoop up some of the rich
rock. or a handful of gold nuggets, make
a dash to civilization and arrive in a des­
perate and pitiful condition oi suffering.
Mayhe the dying prospector made a
rough sketch map, and passed it along to
his benefactor. In the case of the most
noted Oregon lost mine, the Blue Bucket,
some youngsters gathered up a quantity
of gold nuggets and filled a blue colored
bucket, hence the name. The blue bucket
was presumably tied to a wagon and thus
reached civilization, just a few steps in
advance of starvation and blood thirsty
Indians.
Many of these lost mine fables are of
comparatively recent history. but they
also date back to the time when the white

, !
 POPUI,AR PROSPECTING
man first trod America, back to the days
of Coronado. They include fabulous gold
and silver mines and gem deposits, but all
have the similar history, once discovered
and then "lost." Even the original discov­
erers have never been enabled to return
to the proper spot. This would seem most
incredible. vVe can well imagine a city
lad losing himself in the forest or desert
wilderness, but hardly an experienced,
mountain or desert man. Still that's the
way the tales read.
We can not think of any more fascinat­
ing and thrilling rea din g matter than
these many published works on "lost"
mines. The available descriptions, maps,
and other data, are invariably so vague,
and permeated with so much hearsay in­
formation. that in most cases it would ap­
pear that the deposit, as described is of
questionable existence. Hence the chances
of making any discoveries of this nature
based on this type of data, are practically
nil. Still thousands follow this lure of
hope and discovery, which beats in the
hearts of every human being.
\Vhat we are getting at is that it seems
unfortunate for one to waste his time in
a search for a ficticious objective. During
the past few years we have had numerous
inquiries pertaining to information on lost
mines and the like.
There are still many opportunities for
discovery in fields where the chances are
far better than in the lost mines field. \Ve
may cite. for example, the uranium pros­
pectors, where rich and profitable dis­
coveries have been made in both the
United States and Canada during the past
decade. Uncle Sam spends millions of dol­
lars, conducting surveys, gathering infor­
mation to pass along to the serious urani­
um prospector. This is not vague or hear­
say information, and many have profited
by acting on this data.
The possibilities of discovery in the field
of gold mines, lode or placer, have be­
come increasingly less with the passing
decades. Hence the once familiar gold
pt'ospector with his burro, has passed in­
to history. and is now replaced by the jeep
rid i n g prospector carrying a Geiger
counter, or similar electronic equipment.
The development of science and indus­
try during the past few decades has
brought forth a tremendous demand for
many new metals, including uranium, ti­
tanium, zirconium, tantalum, tungsten,
nickle, lithium, a whole series of the rare
earth elements, to name just a few,
amongst the metallic elements. Tremend­
ous demand for aluminum, and magne­
sium have brought about wide activity.
Not so long ago most of these met'als
were merely laboratory curiosities, and of
little commercial worth. The single de­
velopment of the jet engine, for example,
has brought forth a number of revolution­
ary metalurgical miracles. Even a huge
deposit of common obsidian may be of
considerable value, if of suitable quality
as a building material aggregate.
In the field of gems, there are still
many opportunities for valuable discov­
eries, perhaps none of fabulous worth, but
still worth hunting. In descriptive lure,
this field of discovery has never been ex­
ploited in the ~ame manner as the lost
mines. Often when we have an inquiry
for lost mine data, we suggest a book giv­
ing authentic data for gem discoveries, but
these lads are simply not interested. This
is quite understandable.
For those who will follow the lure of
"lost" mines, we offer here The Great
Diamond Hoax of the 1870"s. This is quite
authentic, and a matter of historical rec­
ord, and not based upon' any vague hear­
say. As a matter of fact the Bank of Cali­
fornia, at San Francisco closed its doors
through this swindle, after Banker Rais­
ton had handed out some $600,000 in cash,
Here is the story. Diamond bort at the
time it was bought in Amsterdam was
worth only about twenty-five cents per
carat. it is now worth around $4.00 per
carat, and some $35,000 worth was used
to "salt" the ground. A good deal still re­
mains to be screened out provided the
exact place of salting is found.
GREAT DIAMOND HOAX
This swindle rates as one of the most
fantastic pieces of chicanery and fraud
ever per pet rat e d, and incidentally it
gained the perpetrators a neat sum of
money. The best printed description of
this hoax was written by Asbury Har­
pending (1913), his book The Great Dia­
mond Hoax, printed in San Francisco.
Unfortunately this fascinating classic has
been long since out of print. and is an
item hard to obtain. A brief outline of the
swindle, as given by Harpending, may be
of interest.
Along about 1872, two innocent appear­
ing "prospectors" approached a prominent
San Francisco banker with the fantastic
story of the discovery of a great diamond
field. Naturally, as bankers go, the in­
tended victim was very skeptic, but the
 NOTES ON PROSPECTING 75

Gem Hunters on a Sunday often throng the Oregon Pacific Ocean gem beaches. These
sands, in places are loaded with zircon, iIImenite, monazite, garnet, mangetite, and other
valuable minerals. In an earlier day these "black sands" were worked for their gold and
platinum content, but these isolated rich 'patches were soon worked out. For many years
efforts were made to ut!lize these sand minerals with little success. With the ever increas­
ing demands for the newer metals, it is likely these sands will eventually come into com.
mercial prominence.

con men had a sack of diamonds (rubies,
etc., thrown in) to bolster their claims.
After considerable negotiations, during
which time the diamonds were examined
by various experts, preparations were
made to send "experts" to the field to
verify the claims made. These men re­
ported back to the banker that the claims
were not false, and they even brought
back diamonds to offer as proof.
Finallv after more conferences. the
banker -and his associates handed over
to the swindlers some $660,000. Shortly
afterwards. others were sent to examine
the claims, and a keen mining engineer
. finally found a diamond that plainly
showed marks of lapidary treatment. The
whole hoax then blew up, but in the
meanwhile the slick promoters had de­
parted for parts unknown.
It came out later that these two men
had gone to one of the diamond cutting
centers of Europe and had bought up 'I.
quantity of greatly inferior rough dia­
monds, rubies, etc., to the tune of about
$35,000, to be used to salt the ground.
L nfortunately, for the swindlers, there
was among this lot a single stone that
had been on the diamond lap, and tossed
aside as a reject, and not finished.
The diamonds and other rough gems
were scattered upon the ground, and cov­
ered slightly, over a considerable area.
Hence by careful search it was possible
to pick up a stone here and there. Simple
enough, but effective in this case. Count­
ing the cost of the salting, and allowing
for expense money, the two sharpers
made about $600',000 net profit to divide,
which they did.
As near as the writer can gather from
various sources, the locality of the salting
is in the Red Desert country, some miles
north and east of Wamsutter, Wyoming.
Anyone who is familiar with this region,
situated on the barren backbone of the
Rocky Mountains. will appreciate that
this would be an ideal place for a hoax
of this kind.
In 1872, it was absolutely unsettled
country, just as it stands today. In the
past it was only visited by sheepherders
with bands of sheep during a few months
of the summer, and so it is today, except
that now jade hunters and uranium hunt­
ers swarm over the country during July
and August-the only safe time to go in
there, as the elevation is around 7,000 feet
and the stranger may be trapped by a
sudden blizzard in any other month of
the year.
The most reliable information seems to
be that the two swindlers, accompanied
by the banker's representative, went by
i6 popeLA R PROSPECTING
rail to Rawlins (then called Rawlins
Springs), Wyoming, on the Union Pacific
Railroad. At that time there was no rail­
way station at \Vamsutter, situated some
miles west of Raw lin s. At Rawlins
Springs, the party engaged a team of
horses and a buggy. and hit out across
the open country. just as we may do
today by auto.
According to the length of time they
are said to have traveled, and the direc­
tion of travel, this would place them any­
where (details always vague) from 20 to
45 miles northwest of Rawlins Springs,
and this in turn would have landed them
somewhere in the Red Desert, north, and
perhaps east of Wamsutter. Nowhere does
there appear any specific reference to the
exact spot of the salting, one can only
infer from various older writings, and
familiarity with the country, after reading.
the several printed descriptions.
It so happens that jade has also been
found in this same region along with de·
posits of uranium. The uramum
deposits are situated 45 due 110rth
of Wamsutter. They were first described
in the February 1937 issue of The Min­
eralogist Magazine, by Larsen of
Harvard University. At time the
uranium was thought to be a new spedes,
and was named "dakeite," but it is prob­
ably the previously described species
known as schroeckingerite.
Over 5,000 acres of ground haye been
filed on, and early reports claimed the
uranium mineral was noted over most of
the area. The present writer is inclined to
agree with this claim of extent. based on
personal observation made some years
ago. However, information is lacking as
to the commercial possibilities of the de­
posit.
So those who may wish to prospect in
this great area of the Red Desert. should
keep in mind the diamonds and rubies in
addition to the jade and uranium possibili­
ties. The manner in which the ground
was originally salted, it would seem rea­
sonable to assume that rough diamonds
and rubies still remain to be found.
GEIGER COUNTER CHECK
It is advisable to check the workings of
the Geiger counter from time to time
This may be done in different ways, us­
ing any radioactive sample of a mineral
or other substance. Any small and rich
specimen of uranium, like pitchblend2 will
cause Geiger counters to work like mad.
Lacking uranium samples, luminous dials
on any wrist watch or alarm clock will
prove fully effective as the mineral sam­
ple, despite the fa c t that the actual
amount of radium present in the luminous
paint is sub-microscopic in size.
The several dry cell batteries in any
counter will eventually need replacement,
and this had best be done by sending the
instrument to the factory, where old bat­
teries will be replaced, and the instru­
ment checked to make sure everything is
in good order. The instrument takes very
little energy from the batteries. about the
same as the pocket size flashlight. Even
if the counter is used very little, the dry
batteries will eventually, after about 18
months, become exhausted through "old
age," and will require replacement.
The manufacturers of Geiger counters
will replace the special batteries at a low
cost, and with little profit to themselves,
in addition to checking the instrument. If
someone not familiar with the instrument
is permitted to t:\mper with it, the factory
can not be held responsible if something
goes wrong.
\Vith ordinary care and usage the Gei­
ger counter will last a lifetime, aside from
the batteries. Rough handling and sub­
merging in water will soon ruin it, or
cause extensive damage.
URANIUM WANTED
In view of the wide interest in uranium
minerals, and the extensive use of Geiger
counters, there is an unusual demand for
specimens of pitchblende, as well as all
other uranium minerals. Daily we receive
numerous inquiries from readers of The
Mineralogist Magazine, relative to the
availability of rich uranium ores. Speci­
mens desired for comparative purposes,
and for use in testing Geiger counters,.
electroscopes, and similar instruments.
All rich uranium minerals, like pitch­
blende. now bring premium prices. con­
siderable more than in the pre-atomic
bomb days, and still the supply is no­
w her e e qua I to the demand. Supply
houses stock of the richer uranium min­
erals appears to be practically nil, or
specimens are not being offered, if in
stock. For testing and comparative pur­
poses, the richer specimens need not be
over 1 x 1 or 2 x 2 inches in size.
If any supply firm or individual has a
stock of the richer pitchblende (or other
species) ores, could readily dispose of
them. and at premium prices consider­
ably higher than several years ago.
 NOTES ON PROSPECTING 77

Gem hunter at work at the foot of Pony Butte, on the celebrated Priday Ranch in
Central Oregon. The shallow, open pit digging, covering only a few acres, shown in the fore­
ground, produced at least $35,000,000 worth of high grade, colorful moss agate. This portion
of the diggings became exhausted after several years effort on the part of hundred, of
diggers from all over the United States. Additional richer grounds were discovred at a
higher elevation on the same property, and these are now in active exploitation.

HOLE IN THE GROUND described as tin white, grayish white,

Generally speaking, a "mine" is a hole
in the ground, but it is needless to say
that every hole in the ground is not a
mine. "Prospects" are potentialities; there
is no rule for appraising them, other than
experience and the application of good
judgment, followed by development, if
warranted.
However, it must be borne in mind
that every mine, even the best was once
a humble prospect; they are like in­
fants, with brief pasts and unknown fu­
tures; babies and prospects have much in
common; a single blast may blowout all
the ore in one, just as the whooping
cough may end the uncertain existence
of the other. On the other hand, a period
of development may bring forth a highly
profitable mine, just as a healthy baby
matures into a strong and robust adult.
DISTINGUISHING MARCASITE
FROM PYRITE
Pyrite and marcasite are generally dis­
tinguished by their differences in color,
crystallization, density, and ease of oxi­
dation. But when the material is seen in a
granular massive or concretionary nodu­
lar form, the color guide will prove for
the collector the best means of determin­
ing these minerals.
The color of pyrite is generally said to
be pale brass yellow, while marcasite is
brass yellow, bronze yellow, and other
colors. Dana gives the color of marcasite
as being pale bronze yellow. Both mar­
casite and pyrite assume varying hues of
color under various degrees of oxidation
and doubtless some of these discrepancies
can be accounted for by oxidation.
To make an accurate diffentiation be­
tween pyrite and marcasite the material
should be examined under good white
light, as a yellow artificial light may
tend to impart a yellowish tinge of color.
A freshly fractured surface or a surface
well cleaned with hydrochloric should be
used and compared with a know standard.
Under these conditions marcasite will
clearly appear tin white to grayish white,
without any trace of yellow, while pyrite
will show at least a faint yellow. A rough
surface will not show the colors plainly
and mixtures of the two minerals may
also lend difficulty.
SCHEELITE PROSPECTING
Another highly successful method of
prospecting for scheelite (tungsten), is by
the examination of dril1 core samples un­
der ultraviolet light. Recently one of the
most important tungsten discoveries yet
made in Idaho was by this means. An
antimony deposit ne<:or Stibnite, Idaho was
being prospected by drilling. Examination
of the drill cores, taken from depth re­
78 POPULAR PROSPECTING
vealed the unexpected presence of scheel­
ite. Moreover, according to the amount
of tungsten revealed by the ultraviolet
light the Idaho deposit holds promise of
becoming important.
The tungsten mineral, scheelite, fluo­
resces only under radiations given from
quartz tube of ultraviolet units
which give off wave length radia­
tions. The characteristic blue color of
scheelite is best revealed if the ultraviolet
light unit is fitted with filter number 986.
Examination of drill core or other sam­
ples under ultraviolet light is quick, easy,
and can be done at practically no cost.
The qualitative detection of scheelite by
chemical means is obviously at a disad­
vantage. As a matter of routine, all drill
cores and similar samples should be ex­
amined in the laboratory under various
ultraviolet units, for the possible presence
of suspected or unsuspected minerals in
addition to tungsten
A t ten t ion is called to the fact that
scheelite is sometimes stated to fluoresce
yellowish. Hundreds of samples of scheel­
ite tested by the writer revealed only the
chaj"acteristic blue color. However, the
tungsten minerals powellite and cupro­
scheelite fluoresce 3. strong and charac­
teristic yellowish color. Molybdenum or
copper may replace part of the calcium
in scbeelite to form powellite or cupro­
scheelite. Scheelite may in some cases be
coated by either of these tungsten min­
erals. Hence in testing drill cores, hand
s~mples, outcroppings, or placer sands,
for the possible presence of tungsten, due
attention sbould be given to yellowish as
well as blue fluorescing material.
THE SUNSHINE MINE
The story of the Sunshine Mine in the
Couer d' Alene mining district of N orth­
ern Idaho, reads like a chapter out of
Arabian Nights. This noted· silver prop­
erty has returned to the original stock"
holders many thousands of dollars for
each dollar invested at the outset.
The Sunshine Mine was originally staked
in 1884 by two prospectors-Dennis and
True Blake. The Blake brothers had no
idea they were standing upon a fabulous
wealth in silver-one of the biggest and
richest ever known in the United States.
Nature had hidden the silver down in the
earth and covered it with a huge layer of
rock and dirt.
For many years the brothers scratched
around upon the surface digging shallow
holes whever a thin finger of ore had
found its way to the surface. The little
are they did recover was rich in silver,
but locked up in so much waste rock. The
ore won by hard labor was h2.nd sorted
and when enough had accumulated it was
carried out by Fack burro for shipment to
the smelter. Sometimes they labored for
a year or more to accumulate enough for
a shipment.
Finally, after years of hard labor, the
brothers had accumulated a tidy sum,
and then decided to lease the property to
those who had funds for exploration and
development. The leasing company, at the
outset, had difficulty in financing the
,'lork and it was decided to sell stock in
the venture. The property had been ex­
amined by numerous mining engineers,
and was always turned down as being too
 NOTES ON PR()SPECTING 19
-------------------------------- -------------------------
80 POPPLAR PROSPECTING
small and uncertain for serious invest­
ment.
The promoters selected Yakima, INash­
ington, as a likely place to dispose of
stock to the numerous prosperous fruit
growers residing in that region. Stock in
the Sunshine was purchased by many
residents of this region, for what proved
later to be only a very small fraction of
its real value. Shares in the venture once
sold for less than one dollar, and has re­
turned to the stockholders many millions
of dollars since 1927. The workings have
produced well over 100,000,000 ounces oi
silver, most of it won from depth. A sin­
gle dollar invested in Sunshine, in the
early 1920's when the stock was low,
would today be worth many thousands,
paid out in cash dividends and stock
splits.
At depth, considerable lead and an ti­
mony was encountered in the silver ores,
and the Sunshine has produced some 20,­
0'00,000 pounds of valuable antimony.
AGATES WITH PERLITE
Collectors of the colorful agate-filled
nodules ("thunder eggs") of the Central
Oregon region have long noted that
these agate masses are invariably asso­
ciated with a dark colored volcanic glass
resembling obsidian and termed such.
Dr. Austin Rogers, of Stanford' Uni­
versity has examined specimens of this
volcanic glass and suggests that the term
"perlite" would be more appropriate for
this material. Perlite is defined as a vol­
canic glass with concentric, shelly tex­
ture and ust:ally with a notable percent­
age of water in chemical combinat:on.
Just what bearing, if any this perlite
may have in the genesis of the agate­
filled nodules has not been worked out.
but seemingly there must be some defi­
nite relationship. At practically every lo­
cality where agate-filled nodules are found
in the rhyolite of Central Oregon, a seam
or flow of perlite will be noted. The nod­
ules have, so far as can be learned, not
been found within the perlite, but the
presence of this volcanic glass is gener­
ally noted either immediately above or be­
low the nodule bearing horizon in the
rhyolite. The various volcanic glasses (in­
cluding perlite) of Central Oregon, are
generally high in silica content and would
correspond chemically to rhyolite. In
short, obsidian. perlite, pumice aad rhyo­
lite are essentially the same chemically
but differ in texture.
Experienced collectors of agate-filled
nodules in Central Oregon have learned
to note and investigate outcroppings of
volcanic glass (perlite), for possible as­
sociation of agate. Often tracing float
pieces of perlite up a hillside has re­
vealed a deposit of agate filled nodules.