FOCbook

Fundamentals of Color and Appearance
About this Book

This book is intended to provide a foundation for understanding color and appearance to an audience of people who are involved in color evaluation and color management. It also presents the tools available to monitor and control color reproduction in a variety of applications. Most people consider color subjectively. The perception and knowledge of color is often limited to a childs Crayola days or to the bits and pieces of information that are picked up in everyday life. Very little is taught about color in schools. Yet, industry considers color a very important characteristic for evaluating products. Many books, papers, and journals have been written about color. They cover theories and principles for evaluation, formulation, batch correction, weighting functions, optimum pigment loading, and measurement techniques. Unfortunately, most of the color literature available today is written by scientists to explain the physics, science, and mathematics supporting the instrumentation used to measure color and the notations used to communicate it.
Through years of experience, we have assembled this material to provide a logical and practical approach to solving color and appearance issues related to industrial applications. We hope that this information will be valuable to you.
Some of the industries and applications for color are: Apparel: ink, leathergoods, plastics, and textile applications Appliances: paint, plastics, laminates, and ink applications Automotive: ink, paint, plastics, laminates, and textile applications Building Products: ink, paint, paper, plastics, and textile applications Food & Food Packaging: ink, dyes, paper, and plastics applications Furniture: ink, paint, plastics, laminates, and textile applications Health & Beauty: cosmetics, ink, pharmaceuticals, plastics, and textile applications Manufacturing: ink, paint, paper, plastics, and textile applications Printing: ink, paper, and plastics applications Pharmaceuticals: dyes, pigments, ink, paper, and plastics applications Retail: color coordination of in-process materials and finished goods for all industries and applications listed above
Fundamentals of Color and Appearance
Fundamentals
Table of Contents Section 1: Introduction to Color and Appearance

Color and Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.1 Color Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.1 Understanding Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.1 Light Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.2 Artificial Light Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.2 Visible Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.2 Additive Color Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.2 Subtractive Color Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.3 Object Interaction with Light Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.4 Light Distribution from Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.4 Reflected Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.4 Absorbed Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.4 Geometric Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.4 Gloss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.6 Human Observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.7 Eye Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.7 Color Deficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.7 Factors That Affect Color Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.9 Color Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.9 Munsell Color Order System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.9 Color Naming Conventions and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.11 Definition of a Color Order System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.11
Section 2: Quantifying Color

Quantifying Sources, Objects and Observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.1 The CIE System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.1 CIE Chromaticity Diagram (1931) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.1 Quantifying Light Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.3 Color Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.3 Planckian Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.3 Standard Illuminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.3 Color Rendering Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.3 Spectral Power Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.4 Color Evaluation Illuminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.4 Quantifying Objects Using Spectral Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.7 Spectral Reflectance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.7 Fluorescent Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.7 Spectral Transmittance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.7
Quantifying Observers Observer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.8 1931 Standard Observer (2 Degree Observer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.8 1964 Observer (10 Degree Observer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.8 Putting the Numbers Together Tristimulus Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.8 Sources and Illuminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.10 Spectral Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.10 Observer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.10 Calculating Tristimulus Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.10 Refining CIE, XYZ Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.10 Color Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.10 Chromaticity (xyY) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.10 CIE 1976 Uniform Color Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.12 CIELab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.12 CIELCh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.12 Lab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.12 CMC (l:c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.14 FMC-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.14
Section 3: Instrumentation
Effective Color Evaluation Advantages of Color Measurement Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.1 Colorimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.1 Spectrophotometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.2 Light Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.2 UV Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.2 45/0 Illumination Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.2 Integrating Sphere Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.3 Diffraction Grating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.3 Detector Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.3 Microprocessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.5 Sphere-Based Spectrophotometer Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.5 Spectrophotometer Performance Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.5 Innovations in Spectrophotometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.6 Goniospectrophotometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.6 Glossmeter Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.8 Glossmeter Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.8 ASTM D523 Test Method for Specular Gloss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.8
Section 4: Visual Quality Control

Visual Color Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.1 ASTM D1729-89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.1 Establishing Your Visual Color Evaluation Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.1 Light Source Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.1 Natural Daylight Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.2 Artificial Daylight Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.2 Fluorescent Light Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.3 Incandescent Light Sources (Illuminant A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.3 Horizon Daylight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.3 Viewing Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.3 Viewing Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.3 Neutral Surrounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.4 Metamerism Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.4 Color Standards and Sample Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.5 The Ideal Color Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.5 Color Standard Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.5 Sample Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.5 Visual Tolerancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.6 Evaluating Color Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.6 Color Vision and Color Discrimination Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.7 Communicating Color Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.7 Visual Color Evaluation Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.8 Visual Color Evaluation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.8
Section 5: Instrumental Quality Control

Consistency in Color Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.1 Establishing Your Instrumental Quality Control Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.1 Color Standards and Sample Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.1 Color Standard Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.1 Physical Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.1 Numerical Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.2 Sample Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.2 Illuminant and Observer Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.3 Daylight Illuminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.3 Horizon Daylight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.3 Incandescent Illuminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.4 Fluorescent Illuminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.4 Observer Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.4
Color Difference in Color QC 5.4 Deltas in Color Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.4 Total Color Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.4 Nonsymmetrical Color Perception in Color QC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.5 Tolerancing (Creating a Tolerance) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.6 Tolerances Based on Individual Deltas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.7 Manual Tolerancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.8 Total Color Difference Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.8 Pass/Fail Analysis (Applying a Tolerance to Color Data) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.9 Special Pass/Fail Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.9 Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.9 Yellowness Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.9 Whiteness Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.10 Strength Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.11 Metamerism Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.12 Orange Juice (OJ) Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.12 TAPPI Brightness and Opacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.12 AATCC Gray Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.13 XYZ Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.13 Limitations of Color Measurement Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.13 Correlation with Visual Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.13 Interinstrument Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.14 Instrumental Color QC A Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.14 Proactive Color Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.14 Cost of Poor Color Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.14 Phases of a Color Quality Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.14 Instrumental Color Evaluation Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.15 Instrumental Color Evaluation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.15 Appendixes: Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .G.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .R.1
Section 1: Introduction to Color and Appearance
1
Introduction to Color and Appearance
Color and Appearance

The phenomenon of color results from the physical interaction of light energy with an object and the subjective experience of an individual observer. When physical interaction and subjective experience are combined, color becomes a psychophysical response.
Observer Situation
Color Perception
Three factors can influence the perception of color: 1. a light source 2. an object being viewed 3. an observer (person) viewing the object The combination of these three elements is called the observer situation. A light source is an object that emits radiant energy (light). The human eye is sensitive to this energy. Emission is characterized by the relative amount of energy emitted at each wavelength in the visible spectrum. The light source that illuminates the object affects color perception, since individual sources contain varying quantities of each of the visible wavelengths of light. The spectral reflectance (or transmittance) of an object characterizes the color makeup or color fingerprint of that object. The spectral reflection or transmission curve of the object represents it graphically and provides a way to quantify sample color numerically. Since samples vary in color, so does that graph depicting the energy being absorbed or reflected. Example: A red object looks red primarily because it reflects red wavelengths more than green and blue. Green and blue wavelengths are selectively absorbed.
light source
observer
object
The human visual system (observer) affects the perception of a color. Human color vision deficiencies affect color perception.
Understanding Appearance
Color is one aspect of a broader subject known as appearance. Appearance consists of two major categories. Chromatic Attributes are characteristics that relate to color such as hue, value, and chroma. Geometric Attributes are characteristics associated with light distribution from an object including gloss, haze, texture, shape, viewing angle, and surround. Both chromatic and geometric attributes affect visual perception.
1.1
Light Energy
Known as visible light, white light is part of an even larger classification of energy known as the electromagnetic spectrum. In 1666, Isaac Newton passed a beam of sunlight through a glass prism that refracted it into a visible spectrum. This experiment demonstrated that white light can be split into many colors ranging from violet to red. Example: A rainbow is a naturally occurring example of white light (daylight) separated into a full spectrum of color. Water droplets in the atmosphere act as little prisms that separate the light into its component colors. As an energy form, light can be characterized in terms of frequency and time (cycles per second). If we hold time constant (e.g., 1 second), we see higher frequency is related to a shorter repeat cycle. The cycle is called wavelength and is symbolized by the Greek letter (lambda). Violet light is refracted the most because of its lower and, therefore, shorter wavelengths.
warming effects of infrared energy produced from an incandescent lamp or radiated from the sun. Ultraviolet energy can cause a reemission in the visible spectrum. Optical whiteners and brighteners take advantage of this phenomenon. Energies at shorter wavelengths include gamma and x-rays that have many valuable applications in nuclear and internal medicine.
Visible Spectrum
The colors that we recognize are found at the following wavelengths:
red between 630 and 700 nm orange between 590 and 630 nm yellow between 560 and 590 nm green between 480 and 560 nm blue between 480 and 360 nm
Artificial Light Sources

Artificial light sources are produced to approximate radiant energy across the full visible spectrum. An incandescent lamp, daylight lamp, or a fluorescent tube appear white to the eye. White light, that is described by the components separated by the prism, is the primary focus of color and appearance technology.
The commonly taught acronym that helps people remember the colors in the visible spectrum is ROY G BIV. The acronym helps us remember Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, and Blue, as well as Indigo and Violet. Indigo and violet are included in the blue region of the visible spectrum, but can be seen separately. Human vision does not respond equally to each wavelength in the visible spectrum. Although varying with different wavelengths, sensitivity peaks at about 550 nm (green) for daytime vision. At twilight, the eyes sensitivity shifts to shorter wavelengths at about 510 nm (lower levels of illumination).
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Light, or any radiant energy form, is measured as distance traveled versus time. That distance is commonly described in terms of wavelength and the amount of energy at a given wavelength. The electromagnetic spectrum consists of visible light and other forms of electromagnetic energy. X-rays and ultraviolet energy are located at lower wavelengths while infrared, microwave, TV, radio and electricity are located at the higher wavelengths. Visible light wavelengths are expressed in nanometers millionths of a millimeter. Comparing these units to inches, there are 25,400,000 nanometers to the inch. The relative insensitivity of the human eye limits it to the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum a narrow section of wavelengths ranging from approximately 380 to 760 nanometers. Although humans are only visually sensitive to visible light energy, the presence of other forms of electromagnetic energy impacts our daily lives. We feel the
Additive Color Process

By mixing different wavelengths of energy (or colors) to create white light, we observe the additive color process. The additive primaries (red, green and blue) are defined by the three visually dominant sections of visible light. In theory, we can mix these additive primaries in desired proportions to produce any color. By mixing all three primaries in relatively equal amounts, we can produce white light. A color television, computer monitor, or stage lighting all demonstrate the additive color process. Three beams of light projected through red, green and blue filters illustrate how these additive mixtures react. By superimposing two primary colors, we produce a secondary color. Example, when red and green lights are superimposed, we obtain yellow; green and blue produce cyan; blue and red produce magenta. Combining two secondary colors will produce white light.
1.2
Light Energy
10-7
10-6
cosmic rays
10-5
10-4
wavelength
white light
10-3 10-2 1.0-1
gamma rays
x-rays
1.0 10
ultraviolet
102
visible light
103 104
400 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm
infrared microwaves
105 106 107 108 109
visible light
radar
television
green yellow cyan white red blue green
cyan blue
1010 1011 1012 1013 1014
radio
black
yellow red magenta
magenta
additive color process
ultrasonic
subtractive color process
electromagnetic spectrum
Subtractive Color Mixtures

While additive mixtures are achieved by blending colored lights, subtractive mixtures are produced by combining color pigments or dyes. Any material containing pigments or dyes will either reflect, absorb or transmit light energy. This results in color being produced according to the subtractive color theory. Furthermore, objects absorbing certain wavelengths will reflect opposing wavelengths of energy. For example, a yellow object absorbs blue energy and reflects yellow energy. A cyan colorant subtracts the red component of white light, magenta subtracts green light, and yellow subtracts blue light. Blending two subtractive primaries creates the secondary mixtures of red, green and blue. Cyan, magenta and yellow are the subtractive primary
colors. By combining all three primary colors, the resulting image appears black (since all light is absorbed). Subtractive color mixing is used in the printing industry. We refer to printing as a four-color process: three primaries (cyan [C], magenta [M], and yellow [Y]) and black [K]. (Black ink is used to achieve a deeper black than could be made by mixing the three primaries.) Taken together, these four inks are called the process colors. Color prints or transparencies can be separated into millions of dots using an optical color separator. Four separate printing plates are produced for each of the process colors. When a printing press (e.g., offset press) reassembles the dots of process inks on paper substrate, a full range of color can be achieved.
1.3
We have used the terms color pigments and dyes. It is important to identify the differences between these two terms. Colorant is a generic term used to denote a color pigment or dye. Although there are exceptions, pigments are finely ground insoluble particles, usually available as a powder. Pigments are dispersed or suspended in a liquid vehicle, such as a base to make paint. By contrast, dyes are soluble and are usually mixed with water or solvent (e.g., press cake or paste to make ink). These media allow colorants to be absorbed better by the product to be colored such as textile or paper.
Diffuse transmission occurs when light is dispersed while leaving an objects surface in all directions. At low levels this is seen as haze. Regular transmission occurs when light passes through an object predominantly undisturbed (without diffusion) and is altered only in its color.
Reflected Light
As white light strikes the object, a small portion of it is reflected from the first surface at the same surface angle as it originated. The angle of incidence of a light source striking a surface equals the angle of reflection from the surface. This highlight or reflection from the first surface remains as white light because it is a reflection of light energy at all wavelengths. We see it as shininess or gloss.
Object Interaction with Light Energy

The object is the second element of the observer situation. Basic physics states that all objects modify and distribute the light waves that interact with them. The geometric attributes of an object (shape, texture, opacity, and so forth) affect how the light waves are modified and distributed.
Absorbed Light
Absorption plays a major role in delivering that portion of light that finally reaches the eye. Light is selectively absorbed by an object based on the presence of physical substances such as dyes and pigments (colorants). A red object absorbs blue light and other wavelengths and primarily reflects the red light that is seen by an observer. If all of the light is absorbed, the object appears black and is said to be opaque.
Light Distribution from Objects

When light strikes an object, one or more of the four primary types of light distribution occur. Specular reflection (gloss) occurs when a small fraction of light (generally between one and ten percent) reflected at the first surface of the object is unchanged. It will appear as a white highlight to an observer. This is also known as the mirror-like reflection from a smooth surface. On a rough or matte surface, light is diffusely reflected (scattered) in all directions that are visible to an observer. Non-metallic color surfaces exhibit this diffuse reflection. In comparison, smooth surfaces exhibit more directional reflection. Scattering occurs when light energy encounters particles and is slowed down, redirected, or refracted. This can happen at the surface of or inside an object. A refractive index identifies how much light is slowed down compared to air, which is assigned an index of one. Scattering is responsible for the opacity or hiding power of a colorant. Sunlight scattering by molecules in the earths atmosphere is responsible for the blue sky and red sunrise.
Geometric Attributes
Objects can be identified according to how they modify incident light. When white light strikes the surface of an opaque (non-metallic) object, such as a red object, several important interactions occur that result in the object being perceived as red. Most of the light enters the red object and certain wavelengths (e.g., blue and green) are selectively absorbed by the pigments. Red wavelengths scattered into the air enter the eye. They are interpreted by the brain as red. Metallic finishes, such as gold, brass or silver, have a unique color in their specular reflectance. The specular reflectance from a metallic surface is the color of the metal. Small flakes of aluminum or mica are suspended in a pigmented paint coating in metallic or metal-flake finishes. They exhibit a change in lightness when either viewing angle or angle of illumination is changed.
1.4
Primary Types of Light Distribution from Objects
specular reflection
diffuse reflection
diffuse transmission
regular transmission
diffuse reflection incident specular reflection incident specular reflection
diffuse reflection
red pigments
small flakes of aluminum or mica
opaque object
metallic object
glossy object
translucent object
transparent object matte object
1.5
These effects can be measured using a goniospectrophotometer. This specialized instrument measures the object at several viewing angles. When viewed near the specular reflection or facing the observer, they appear lighter this is known as the face color. As the angle increases away from the specular reflection, the lightness of the color decreases this is referred to as the flop color. The apparent difference between the two objects is referred to as the travel. When a metallic finish is viewed at an angle near the specular, the objects lightness is at its maximum and color saturation at its minimum. This appearance attribute is known as luster. This effect is desirable in automotive finishes. The more rapidly the luster decreases with the angle of view, the more apparent the curvature and contours of the car surface appear. These effects are also seen in other materials such as satin and taffeta fabrics that demonstrate a change in luster as the viewing angle changes. Pearlescent finishes use small particles of mica that act as interference filters to provide a change in luster, and hue or chroma as illumination or angle of view changes. Pearlescent finishes are popular for packaging, cosmetics, and auto finishing since they cause a change in luster or apparent color on curved surfaces. Many factors contribute to an apparent color difference in metallic and pearlescent finishes. Two objects that appear to match under one set of angular conditions of illumination and viewing, but not all, are goniochromatic and demonstrate goniochromatism. Specialized methods for visual evaluation and multiangle instrumentation (goniospectrophotometers) have been designed to measure this effect. For visual evaluation, GretagMacbeth has developed the SkyLight viewing booth, in support of the efforts of the ASTM E12 committee on the Measurement of Metallic and Pearlescent Colors. The SkyLight provides a D65 filtered tungsten light source, fifteen choices of viewing angles, and a calibrated gray scale to determine the magnitude of any apparent color difference. For instrumental evaluation, Macbeth offers the Auto-Eye goniospectrophotometer. Translucent objects are less than 100% opaque. Examples of translucent materials include printing inks, plastics, liquids, sheer textiles, filters and colored glass products. The translucency of a product makes visual evaluation and instrumental measurements far more complex. Thickness must be controlled. The perception of a product is dependent on its substrate or backing. Transmitted and reflected light must both be considered in these evaluations.
1.6
Light that is scattered forward and backward results in what is perceived as haze. In transparent products, haze refers to the small quantity of light that is scattered while light passes through an object to make it look less than clear. Transparent products include clear liquids, glass, and plastic films. Both reflected and transmitted light must be considered when evaluating these products for color and appearance. Visual or instrumental color and appearance assessments require an understanding of the materials used in order to provide repeatable reporting of these attributes.
Gloss
Gloss is the property of a surface that involves specular reflection and is responsible for lustrous or mirror-like appearance. Next to color, gloss is the second most important attribute that can be measured objectively. In general, the higher the gloss, the darker the object will appear, and the lower the gloss, the lighter the object will appear. Gloss is one of the easiest measurements to understand, but it is also one of the most misapplied. Gloss is a visual sensation that a human observer experiences when light is distributed from a surface. It is a geometric attribute much like haze or transparency. Gloss is perceived differently from color and is not limited to the three dimensions of color perception. Some factors that affect gloss include shape, texture, angle of view, curvature of the surface, and object directionality. The human eye accounts for all these parameters simultaneously and combines them into a single subjective gloss appraisal. This explains why several observers can reach different conclusions about gloss. No single objective measurement of gloss will provide a perfect correlation to human assessment.
Human Observer
The human observer is the final prerequisite for human color perception. The human eye and brain function both as receiver and analyzer. An understanding of how the eye functions provides some awareness of how we perceive color and appearance.
from a dark environment to a bright one. Although painful, our light adaptation occurs in milliseconds. Dark adaptation, however, known as our scotopic vision, is a function of our rods and can take as long as twenty minutes. This slower adaptation to darkness explains why driving at dusk is the most dangerous time to drive. Rods and cones in the back of the eye transform images into chemical energies that stimulate millions of nerve endings. These nerve impulses are transported to the brain by the optic nerve, where the signals are interpreted. The color vision we are born with is our inheritance and remains with us with only slight modifications throughout life. There are various levels of color deficient vision that are linked to the X chromosome. Since males have a single X chromosome (that is inherited from their mothers), and females have two (one inherited from each parent), color deficient vision occurs in 1 of 12 males and in only 1 of 250 females.
Eye Physiology
The eye has an outer protective covering called the cornea. It is a transparent membrane that bends light rays as they enter the eye. The light rays travel through an opening in the iris called the pupil. The movement of the iris causes the pupil to change in size. The size of the pupil controls the amount of light that enters the back of the eye. The light next passes through the lens, which changes in thickness to bring the image of an object into focus on the light sensitive retina.
Cross Section of the Human Eye
Color Deficiency
retina aqueous humor ciliary muscle
fovea lens cornea iris
ciliary muscle vitreous humor optic nerve
Color deficient vision is caused by a partial or complete absence of one or more of the three types of cones. The most common form of color deficient vision is a partial green defective. These individuals are Deuteranomalous and called Deutans if they have a total absence of green receptors. The second most common color deficiency involves partial red vision. Protoanomalous or Protans have all red receptors missing. A Tritanomalous has partial blue vision, and individuals with the total absence of blue receptors are called Tritans. A Monochromat has only one type of cone. The term color blind is often misused in labeling anyone with any degree of color defective vision. For an individual to be considered totally color blind, he or she must lack all three receptors. This condition occurs only once in 40,000. This individual is an Achromat. People with normal color vision are referred to as Trichromats. In the two most common forms of color deficiencies, (Deutans and Protans), reds and greens are confused. Tritans, on the other hand, see differences between red and green, but have difficulties with green and blue. For these reasons, green traffic lights are never a pure green, but a bluish-green to accommodate all common color deficiencies.
retina
The retina is the innermost layer of the eye and contains two types of visual receptors, rods and cones. Approximately one hundred and twenty million rods provide humans with night or scotopic vision. There are approximately five to seven million cones in the retina layer of the eye that provide for our photopic or color vision. There are three types of cones. Blue cones are sensitive to short wavelengths. Green cones are sensitive to medium wavelengths and red cones to longer wavelengths. Light adaptation or photopic vision, a function of our cones, occurs when we move
1.7
Factors That Affect Color Vision
simultaneous contrast
chameleon effect
before
after
complementary afterimage
1.8
Factors That Affect Color Vision

Many circumstances affect human color vision. An important factor often overlooked in performing color evaluation is the presence of a surround. The surround color can influence color judgment significantly and can cause what is known as simultaneous contrast. Colors of medium value and chroma will appear to change in the direction of lighter, brighter or darker, less saturated colors surrounding them. This is known as the chameleon effect. A chameleon changes its skin color to blend into its environment, just as some colors evaluated next to others will appear to shift in the direction of the adjoining colors. Staring at colors for prolonged periods reduces sensitivity to them, resulting in a reverse or complementary afterimage that appears until color balance is restored. The term adaptation describes how the eye automatically changes its sensitivity to a wide range of viewing conditions. Familiar colors or objects remain largely unchanged with variations in lighting or viewing conditions. This phenomenon is called color constancy. For example, imagine the clothes you are wearing. The blue suit you put on at home (incandescent light) still looks blue when you go outdoors (daylight) and into the office (fluorescent light). These sources are quite different in energy composition. It is quite remarkable that when we view colors under these different sources, color is still perceived as being in the same color family.
Munsell Color Order System

Color order systems provide a way for us to communicate color meaningfully. The first system to do this successfully was the Munsell Color Order System. It is probably the most recognized system, and was developed by Professor Albert H. Munsell in 1905. Albert Munsell was a commercial artist and teacher in need of a precise way to describe color. He established a method to specify and show the relationships among colors using three attributes: hue, value, and chroma. In 1918, Munsell founded the Munsell Color Company to provide physical color standards in the form of painted paper swatches. This operation, now a part of GretagMacbeth, is a principal supplier of such standards to colorists in business, science, education, and industry. Hue is that attribute of a color by which we distinguish red from green, blue from yellow, and so forth. There is a natural order of hues: red, yellow, green, blue, purple. One can mix paints of adjacent colors in this series to obtain a continuous variation from one color to the other. For example, red and yellow may be mixed in any proportion to obtain all the hues from red through orange to yellow. The same may be said of yellow and green, green and blue, blue and purple, and purple and red. This series returns to the starting point, so all colors can be arranged in a circle. Munsell called red, yellow, green, blue, and purple the principal hues and placed them at equal intervals around a circle. He inserted five intermediate hues: yellow-red, green-yellow, blue-green, purple-blue and red-purple, to make a total of ten hues. For simplicity, he used the initials for each color as symbols to designate the ten hue sectors: R, YR, Y, GY, G, BG, B, PB, P and RP. Munsell arbitrarily divided the hue circle into 100 steps, of equal visual change in hue, with the zero point at the beginning of the red sector. Hue may be identified by a number ranging from 0 to 100 (shown in the outer circle). This may be useful for statistical records, cataloging and computer programming. However, the meaning is more obvious when the hue is identified by the hue sector and a step, based on a scale of ten, within that sector. For example, the hue in the middle of the red sector is called five red, and is written 5R. (The zero step is not used, so there is a 10R hue, but no 0 YR.) This method of identifying hue is shown on the inner circle.
Color Communication
A major problem often arises when we communicate color to others. For example, imagine someone wearing rose-colored clothing. You probably have a pretty vivid image of the color. The problem with this statement, however, is that roses are not always red. In fact, they can be red, yellow, pink, white, or virtually any color imaginable. A human observer with normal color vision can distinguish seven to ten million different colors. Specifying or communicating color choices is only possible when we can establish an orderly relationship among colors.
1.9
Munsell Color Order System
weak chroma
strong chroma
chroma
value
Munsell color space
1.10
Value indicates the lightness of a color. The scale of value ranges from 0 for pure black to 10 for pure white. Black, white and the grays between them are called neutral colors. They have no hue. Colors that have a hue are called chromatic colors. The value scale applies to chromatic as well as neutral colors. Chroma is defined as the degree of departure of a color from the neutral color of the same value. Colors of low chroma are sometimes called weak, while those of high chroma are said to be highly saturated, strong or vivid. Imagine mixing a little vivid red paint with a gray paint of the same value. If you started with gray and gradually added the red until you achieved the original vivid red color, you would develop a series of gradually changing colors that increase in chroma. The scaling of chroma is intended to be visually uniform and is very nearly so. The units are arbitrary. The scale starts at zero, for neutral colors, but there is no arbitrary end to the scale. As new pigments have become available, Munsell color chips of higher chroma have been made for many hues and values. The chroma scale for normal reflecting materials extends beyond 20 in some cases. Fluorescent materials may have chromas as high as 30. Munsell hue, value and chroma can be varied independently so all colors can be arranged according to the three attributes in a three-dimensional space. The neutral colors are placed along a vertical line, called the neutral axis, with black at the bottom, white at the top, and all grays in between. The different hues are displayed at various angles around the neutral axis. The chroma scale is perpendicular to the axis, increasing in an outward direction. This three-dimensional arrangement of colors is called Munsell color space. In the Munsell system, color is identified by its Hue (H), Value (V) and Chroma (C). These attributes are written in a form H V/C, also referred to as Munsell notation. For a vivid red having a hue of 5R, a value of 6 and a chroma of 14, the complete notation is 5R 6/14. When a finer division is needed for any attribute, decimals are used. For example, 5.3R 6.1/14.4. The notation for a neutral color is written: N V/. (The chroma of a neutral color is zero, but is customary to omit the zero in the notation.) The notation N 1/ denotes a black, a very dark neutral, while N 9/ denotes a white, a very light neutral. The notation for a middle gray is N 5/. ANSI specifies N 8/ for interiors of booths and surround colors for evaluating
products in the graphic arts industry. The ASTM recognizes N 7/ for viewing surrounds used in critical color matching applications. The Munsell color order system itself is applicable to all possible colors. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) describes the Standard Test Method for specifying color by the Munsell System in D1535. Unknown colors can be identified and communicated in Munsell notation by visual comparison to the Munsell chips available in the Munsell Book of Color or through computer programs.
Color Naming Conventions and Standards

The Munsell color order system remains the most recognized method for identifying and specifying color. It is described in unabridged dictionaries and encyclopedias as well as in specialized publications on art, design, color photography, television, printing, paint, textiles and plastics. The Inter-Society Color Council (ISCC) and the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) developed a simplified language of color based on the Munsell System. The Munsell space was divided into 267 regions. Boundaries were defined based on hue, value and chroma. Each region was named using an ISCCNBS hue and a standard set of adjectives (pale, dark, light, moderate, brilliant, strong, deep and vivid). The Munsell color order system has been widely used in many fields of color science, most notably as a model of uniformity for colorimetric spaces and has, itself, been the subject of many scientific studies.
Definition of a Color Order System

A distinction must be made between color order systems and color collections. Any group of colors can be a collection. For a collection of colors to be a color order system, several requirements must be met: The collection must represent all colors in a threedimensional color space. Colors must have a logical visual progression orrelationship among one another. Any color introduced into the system must fit into the system in a logical sequence, and a color notation can be derived based on its relationship to other colors.
1.11
A slight variation of an existing color can be described easily by partial steps between colors, and a new notation can be derived. The system should provide values that allow easy communication of a color even when a sample is not provided. The medium used to represent the system must be consistent and reproducible. Colors represented from one book or fan deck to another should be stable. Paint on paper is usually used to represent these systems because of its consistency and long shelf life (4 to 6 years). Ostwald System (1931) This color system was based on the use of a disk colorimeter. It provides a scale having constant white, black or hue. Even though Ostwalds system was based on the systematic mixing of colorants, it is truly not a color order system since it is arranged on colorant behavior and not on color space. Additionally, partial steps between colors are not available. The Natural Color System (Swedish 1970) This system is based on four principal pure hues: red, yellow, green, and blue. These principal hues are arranged at 90 degrees from each other by perceptual steps of saturation (chroma) and blackness. One criticism of this system is that it does not provide equal perceptual steps of hue.
OSA Uniform Color Scales System (1977) This system provides 558 colors spaced according to redness, greenness, yellowness, blueness, and lightness. It allows for the addition of any color and provides uniform steps or spaces from the center of the system. The problem experienced with this system is that samples at the outer edge are not equally spaced since the system originates from the center. Chroma Cosmos 5000 (Japan CRI 1979) This system provides 5000 samples based on the Munsell System. They are arranged by constant chroma and not by hue. This system has good correlation with human visual perception but does not take into consideration several human factors. Regarding lightness, chroma and hue, most observers have the greatest acceptance to variations in lightness (least perceptible), a lesser acceptance to variations in chroma, the least acceptance to variations in hue.
1.12
Section 2: Quantifying Color
2
Quantifying Color
Quantifying Sources, Objects and Observers

Visual color perception (with its subjective observer) has evolved to a scientific method that is capable of using instrumentation to measure color objectively. This method is based on the ability to describe the typical observer response numerically. The human visual system is now understood well enough to simulate it with mathematical models. While no mathematical model can simulate the full complexity of human visual perception, the use of a single model enables one to get consistent and repeatable results. Standard mathematical models quantify source, object and observer as a function of wavelength. Sources are quantified as illuminants. Objects are quantified by spectral data. Observers are quantified by the observer functions.
The CIEs accomplishments included: The development of a standard observer which described how an average human sees color. The definition of standard illuminants (specification for light sources for color comparison). The calculation of tristimulus values which represent how the human visual system responds to a given color. The transformation of tristimulus values into more understandable chromaticity coordinates (xyY color space). The CIE chromaticity diagram.
CIE Chromaticity Diagram (1931)

The CIE Chromaticity Diagram contains some very important information which will aid the discussion on quantifying light sources, so we will introduce it here. We will come back to it again later in this section when we discuss color spaces in general. When the full range of perceptible colors is graphed, the result is a characteristic horseshoe shape. Colors near the edge of the graph are highly saturated. The center of the graph is determined by the chromaticity coordinates (hue and chroma) of the illuminant. Colors closer to this center are less saturated and nearly neutral (black, gray or white). The curved line that defines the horseshoe shape represents pure spectral colors, as those projected by a prism. Blue wavelengths plot at the extreme left. Green wavelengths plot along the top. Red wavelengths plot along the extreme right. Highly saturated purples and magentas (which are actually mixtures of spectral blue and red) plot along the straight line that connects the ends of the horseshoe curve. This line represents the limits of our visual sensitivity.
The CIE System

The International Commission on Illumination or CIE (abbreviated from the French Commission Internationale de lclairage) is devoted to standardization in illumination and related areas that include color and appearance. The CIE color system was developed on the premise that color is the combination and interaction of light energy, an object and an observer. In 1931, the CIE defined numbers which could be used to represent a color viewed under a standard light source by the standard observer.
2.1
CIE 1931 Chromaticity Diagram
wavelength in microns
source A source B source C source D source E
chromaticity diagram
CIE standard illuminants

Illuminant A B C D65 D75 F2 TL84 Description Incandescent Noon Daylight Average Daylight Average North Sky Daylight North Sky Daylight Cool White Fluorescent Narrow Band Fluorescent Color Temperature 2856K 4874K 6770K 6500K 7500K 4150K .3 4100K .4 .5
chromaticity diagram showing isothermic lines
.2 .2 .3 .4
.5
.6
2.2
The CIE diagram demonstrates one of its remarkable properties: If you mix two colors with different chromaticity coordinate points, any of the mixtures that can be achieved can be found on a straight line connecting the two points. This property assists analysis of additive color mixing. For example, when the chromaticity coordinates of three primary color guns of a television or monitor are plotted on the CIE diagram, straight lines connecting the coordinates form a triangle. Any color within the triangle or color gamut can be produced. Those lying outside of it cannot.
If a section of the 1931 CIE diagram containing the black body curve is enlarged, there can be an infinite number of chromaticity coordinates that could represent any correlated or apparent color temperature. For this reason the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has specified a range of chromaticities acceptable for a specific color temperature. Because of the inconsistencies associated with using chromaticity coordinates, these are a very weak specification for any light source when used alone.
Standard Illuminants
In addition to the black body curve located at the center of most CIE diagrams, there are also alphanumeric designations: A, B, C, and D65. These represent standard illuminants that have been identified by the CIE and other standardization committees including ANSI. Known as CIE Standard Illuminants, they are mathematical reference models used for performing visual or instrumental calculations. The physical simulation of an illuminant is called a light source. Some illuminants (A, B, D55, D65 and D75) can be represented by actual light sources. Others (such as C) cannot. Therefore, all light sources can be illuminants, but not all illuminants can be light sources.
Quantifying Light Sources

Color Temperature
At the center of almost every CIE diagram is a curve. This curve originates in the dark red region of the diagram, proceeds through the white region, and ends in blue. This curve represents the black body curve or Planckian Locus, named in honor of Max Planck, (Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck, a German physicist who lived from 1858-1947). In 1900, Planck derived an equation that relates the spectral characteristics of light emitted from a glowing body to increases in temperature of that same body. An iron bar placed in a furnace appears dull red as it begins to heat. The bar proceeds through red-orange, white, and finally blue-white as temperature rises. In the same way, a filament in an incandescent lamp changes color as varying voltages are applied. Plancks Law can be used to designate the relative color temperature of a light source and can be expressed as absolute temperature (Kelvin). The Kelvin scale (a thermodynamic temperature scale) has the same unit size as those in the Celsius scale, except they start at absolute zero (minus 273.16 degrees Celsius).
Color Rendering Index

The Color Rendering Index (CRI) expresses the degree to which a range of colors appears familiar or natural under a particular light source. The CRI system is based on how a light source affects our color judgment of eight special pastel colors and nine supplemental special colors. The light source to be evaluated is compared to a reference source at a specified color temperature. The maximum CRI rating is 100. Lamps that have ratings of 90 or above are considered good for color evaluation. Lamps with color temperatures below 5000K are compared to a tungsten filament lamp, which is arbitrarily given a CRI of 100. For light sources above 5000K, the reference source is a phase of daylight that matches its correlated color temperature. The Color Rendering Index for a light source is based on an arbitrary reference source. This does not mean that the reference source has good color rendering properties. Color Rendering Index ratings are the average performance for a light source compared to reference colors. Better responses for some colors can be concealed in the overall average with poorer performance in other colors. Two lamps with the
2.3
Planckian Curve
Technically, a color temperature designation can apply to an incandescent lamp only, and for those sources that adhere to the Planckian Curve. However, in illumination engineering, the terms Apparent Color Temperature and Correlated Color Temperature are often used to specify a degree of the whiteness of fluorescent-, high intensity discharge and daylight lamps. Even daylight does not exactly match the black body curve. It should be understood that color temperature alone is one of the weakest specifications for a light source. Consider a household incandescent source and a warm white fluorescent source. Both have the same correlated color temperature at 3000K, however they render colors very differently.
same correlated color temperature and Color Rendering Index may differ remarkably in their ability to render one or more colors. A Color Rendering Index is only an indicator of the color rendering ability for a light source. It is useful only in specifying a source when its limitations and deficiencies are understood.
Daylight sources are preferred sources for color evaluation. D65 has the entire spectrum in close to equal amounts. The equal energy distribution is one factor that makes daylight the preferred source. Other light sources do not exhibit similar characteristics. The abbreviations D50, D65, and D75 are used to designate the phases of daylight recognized by the CIE. Daylight can be simulated in several ways. The best method for simulating daylight is a filtered tungsten halogen source. If you decide to use a daylight fluorescent source, choose one that is specially designed for color evaluation. The least desirable choice for daylight simulation is commercial daylight fluorescent fixtures. These units are generally optimizing for lamp efficiency, not color rendering properties. According to the Illumination Engineering Society of North America (IES), The only way to effectively reproduce or simulate daylight is by filtering a continuous spectrum tungsten halogen source. This patented technology was pioneered by GretagMacbeth and can be found in all of our SpectraLight products. It remains the most accurate reproduction of daylight in use throughout the world today. If you opt to use daylight fluorescent simulation, keep in mind that commercial daylight fluorescent lamps utilize only three phosphors, resulting in spikes and depressions in the SPD. These effects enhance some colors, but gray out others. GretagMacbeth Daylight fluorescent lamps have a patented seven phosphor coating that eliminates the color exaggeration caused by most commercially available daylight fluorescent sources. GretagMacbeths patented coating also doubles usable lamp life. Another issue associated with commercial fluorescent lamps is that an additional green phosphor is used to increase lamp efficiency (lumen-per-watt ratio). Human sensitivity to color peaks at 550 nm (green). The addition of green phosphor heightens human visual perception and the perceived efficiency of the lamp follows. Commercial fluorescent lamps are manufactured to achieve maximum efficiency rather than maximum color rendering capabilities. One cannot have good color rendering and energy efficiency a tradeoff must be made.
Spectral Power Distribution

Due to the great variations in light sources in use today, understanding the critical difference in the energy content or wavelength balance for each source is essential to understanding overall performance. A spectroradiometer measures the relative energy of a light source across the visible spectrum as a function of wavelength. Results can be usually represented as watts per nanometer. A light source can be characterized by its Spectral Power Distribution, or SPD curve. These curves and their related numerical data are convenient ways to identify and characterize light sources and illuminants. The spectral power distribution of a light source is one of the most valuable tools used to determine how well a light source renders or distorts color. Daylight Spectral Power Distribution The spectral quality of natural daylight constantly changes from hour to hour, day to day, season to season, and place to place. Natural daylight is not available at night or in interior rooms. For these reasons, companies have developed technologies that simulate daylight phases. Differences in the spectral composition of the three daylight phases are demonstrated in their SPD curves. D75 has slightly more blue energy than D65. D65 has more blue energy than D50 and D50 has more red content than either D65 or D75. As a rule, all phases of daylight have very similar curves, and most color matches found to be acceptable under one of these illuminants will be acceptable under the other two.
Color Evaluation Illuminants

The CIE specified certain light sources to use for color evaluation. The chart to the right lists the commonly selected illuminants used to perform visual color evaluation or color instrumental measurements. Each illuminant has its own unique spectral power distribution curve and identifying numerical data. When looking at SPD curves, the important part is the visual spectrum from 380 nm to 760 nm.
2.4
Quantifying Light Sources

Lamp Designation Cool White Cool White Dx Warm White Warm White Dx Daylight GretagMacbeth D50 Fluor GretagMacbeth D65 Fluor GretagMacbeth D75 Fluor TL84 Ultralume 30 Horizon Tungsten Mercury Vapor Metal Halide Xenon High Pressure Sodium Low Pressure Sodium Correlated Color CIE Chromaticity Coordinates Temperature - Kelvin x y 0.373 0.376 0.436 0.440 0.316 0.340 0.313 0.299 0.375 0.440 0.492 0.424 0.373 0.396 0.324 0.519 0.569 0.385 0.368 0.406 0.403 0.345 0.360 0.324 0.310 0.380 0.406 0.416 0.399 0.415 0.390 0.324 0.418 0.412 4250 4050 3020 2940 6250 5150 6520 7550 4100 3000 2300 3190 4430 3720 5920 2100 1740 Color Rendering Index 62 89 52 73 74 93 94 95 85 600 85
normalized spectral power (W/%NM/1000000 LM)
CIE D65
600
0 400
wavelength (nm)
700
SpectraLight D65
100 100 32 60 94 21 -.44
0 400
wavelength (nm)
700
GretagMacbeth D65 fluorescent

600
1.5
5000K
650 0K K
Daylight SPD Curves
7500 K
6500K
750 0K
0 400
wavelength (nm)
700
5000
commercial daylight D65

600
0 400 wavelength (nm) 700
0 400
wavelength (nm)
700
2.5
Illuminant A, also known as incandescent or tungsten halogen, has a curve that provides very little blue and green energy, and large amounts of yellow, orange, and red energy. For this reason, the incandescent lamps found in homes or used as accent lighting in retail stores enhance yellows, oranges and reds and suppress or gray out blues. Fluorescent lamps such as Cool White or TL84 have some dramatic differences in the shape of their curves. In fluorescent lamp technology, a tube of glass or envelope is capped at each end with a coiled wire filament called an electrode. The tube is filled with argon gas and a small amount of mercury vapor. The inside of the envelope is coated with phosphor. The lamp ballast provides a high voltage electric arc to start the lamp. The voltage is then reduced to maintain a plasma arc between the electrodes. The combination of this plasma arc and the mercury vapor gas produces a short wave ultraviolet energy that is absorbed by the phosphor coating, causing it to fluoresce. All fluorescent lamps produce a continuous spectrum characterized by the chemical composition of the phosphor coating. The mercury lines or spikes at specific wavelengths are caused by the mercury gas. Distortions hinder the ability of fluorescent lamps to render all colors equally. For example: Cool White Fluorescent strengthens oranges, yellows, blues, and greens and suppresses or grays out most reds. As a result of the phosphors found in a Cool White lamp, energy is emitted in wide patterns across the visible spectrum. Cool White Fluorescent is known as wide band fluorescent. In order to improve viewing conditions, newer triphosphor lamp technology utilizes rare earth phosphors that were introduced as TL84 and Ultralume. These produce three narrow spikes of blue, green, and red-orange energy to create an illusion of white light. Known as narrow band fluorescent lamps, they depend on the human brain to average the visual response across the spectrum. Narrow band lamps tend to make a space look more colorful as the three peak phosphors compress all colors into blue, green, and red-orange, in order to increase the contrast among colors.
SPD Curves for Common Illuminants
Illuminant A
600
0 400
wavelength (nm)
700
Cool White Fluorescent

600
0 400
wavelength (nm)
700
TL84
600
0 400
wavelength (nm)
700
2.6
Quantifying Objects Using Spectral Data

It is important to understand the interaction that occurs between objects and light waves in order to be able to relate them to measurement data. The perceived color of an object is directly related to its spectral characteristics. Spectral characteristics are specified by reflectance (or transmittance) as a function of wavelength. Spectral characteristics of a material, for the purpose of color measurement, are a property of the individual piece being measured and are independent of other variables (such as the light source and observer). Spectral data are measured with a spectrophotometer.
Quantifying Objects
125 100
reflectance %
75 50 25 0
red object
400 nm
500 nm
600 nm
700 nm
spectral reflectance curve
Spectral Reflectance
As white light strikes the red object, a small portion is reflected from the first surface at the same surface angle as it originated. The angle of incidence of a light source striking a surface equals the angle of reflection from the surface. This highlight or reflection from the first surface remains as white light because it is a reflection of light energy at all wavelengths. We see it as shininess or gloss. Every color has its own unique characteristic of absorbing and reflecting white light energies. By plotting these reflectance and absorption properties against the visible spectrum, reflectance curves are generated. A spectral curve can be used to identify a specific color. A white surface reflects all light energy across the visible spectrum. Its reflectance curve is a straight line at approximately 90 to 100% reflectance. Black absorbs almost all light energy, so its reflectance curve is flat and approaches 0% reflectance. A mid-range gray, made by combining equal portions of white and black, is represented by a straight line at 50% reflectance. For opaque materials, spectral reflectance is measured because reflected light is what the eye perceives. Reflectance is expressed as a percentage, ranging from 100% (where material reflects all light striking it) to 0% (where it absorbs all light striking it). For example, a bright red tile may reflect 75% in the red region of the visible spectrum, and reflect only 10% in the blue and green regions.
125 100
reflectance %
white white fluorescent red
75
blue
50 25 0
400 nm
green gray
black
500 nm 600 nm 700 nm
spectral reflectance curves
Emitted energy and reflected energy of the same wavelength are perceived (by both spectrophotometer and human eye) as if all the energy was simply reflected. Therefore, the object seems to reflect more light of that color than that with which it was illuminated. To the eye, a fluorescent color is very bright and vivid, and a fluorescent white is whiter than white. To the spectrophotometer, a fluorescent object can have reflectance values greater than 100%. For this reason, fluorescent materials require special consideration to attain meaningful results.
Spectral Transmittance
For transparent materials, spectral transmittance determines the color, because the eye perceives light that passes through the material. Transmittance is expressed as a percentage, ranging from 100% (where material transmits all light striking it) to 0% (where it absorbs all light striking it). For example, a deep red filter may transmit 80% in the red region of the visible spectrum and transmit only 1% in the blue and green regions.
Fluorescent Materials
Fluorescent materials absorb energy at a short wavelength and emit the energy at a longer wavelength.
2.7
Quantifying Observers Observer Functions

In addition to defining standard illuminants, the CIE conducted experiments to quantify the standard observer. The development of the standard observer is the basis for all instrumental color measurement.
that the new primary set of red, green and blue output could not be produced by an existing lamp. Despite this, the 1931 CIE standard observer curves were adopted as standard response curves for the average observer. The three standard observer curves relate directly back to how the human eye functions. They represent the three responses of the human eye. We know these as our color matching function. The three color matching functions are given symbols x-bar, y-bar, and z-bar. These functions correspond to the spectral sensitivity of the human eye with the highest sensitivity in the green range (electromagnetic spectral energy at 550 nm). This standard observer function and the related mathematical data remain the worldwide basis for color measurement and computation.
1931 Standard Observer (2 Degree Observer)

In 1927, a test fixture was designed to allow an observer to dial in the correct amount of red, green and blue light to match a given color. Imagine an observer seated in front of this fixture. The observer would look at a white screen through an aperture having a 2 degree field of view (much like looking at ones thumbnail at arms length). The observer then would be asked to match a test light visually on one side of the screen by adjusting the intensity of red, green and blue lights. The quantities of the three primary light sources required to match the test source were named tristimulus values. The test was continued until the observers matched colors representing the entire visual spectrum. A 2 degree field of view was used in the experiments. This meant the observer would be able to use only the region of the retina known as the fovea. The 2 degree field of view was selected since the fovea has the highest concentration of cones, and it is the cones that are responsible for color sensation. Two separate experiments were conducted by physicists John Guild and David Wright. Guild used 7 observers and Wright used 10. The data from the two independent observer groups were combined mathematically. The experimental results proved that not all colors can be matched using the set of primaries. In some cases, light from one of the primaries had to be added to the test color to deliver a match. Adding light to the test color was considered the equivalent of subtracting it from the other two primaries, resulting in the test color being described by a combination of positive and negative tristimulus values. In order for the data to be easily used in ongoing standardization work, the CIE believed it would be necessary to eliminate all negative numbers. To accomplish this, they mathematically transformed the standard tristimulus curves so that all red, green and blue responses were positive. This change meant
1964 Observer (10 Degree Observer)

It was later determined that color values calculated using the 2 degree observer do not always correlate well with visual assessment, since most visual assessments are done with a field of view greater than 2 degrees. Subtle differences exist when a wider area of view is used, particularly in the blue-green region of the spectrum. In 1964, the CIE defined a supplemental observer to provide better correlation with commercial color matching. The supplemental observer is based on color matching experiments which were conducted using a 10 degree field of view. Repeatability of the standard observer was found to be more accurate using a larger field of view. Today, the 10 degree observer is most widely used in color formulation and color quality control.
Putting the Numbers Together Tristimulus Values

Having defined standard illuminants and standard observers, the CIE was then able to define tristimulus values. Tristimulus values are numbers that represent how the human visual system responds to a given color. These are calculated from the numerical data used to describe each of the components responsible for color perception.
2.8
Quantifying Observers
red
green
blue
white screen
observer black partition
test lamp
CIE standard observer experiment
2.00
CIE 1931 CIE 1976
masking screen
eye
Relative Response
1.50
fovea 2
1.00
10
2 and 10 observers
.50 400 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm
standard observer responses
2.9
Sources and Illuminants

A light source is defined as a physical origin of light, such as a tungsten lamp. An illuminant is a numerical representation of a source. The set of numbers used in this numerical representation describes how much light of each wavelength the source contains. Illuminants have been created to represent most commonly available sources.
source. Thus, XYZ values do not allow you to detect metamerism. In addition, CIE X, Y and Z values are not practical for describing object color (and were never intended to be used this way). An example of this can be shown if one is given a set of tristimulus values X = 18.34, Y = 11.19, Z = 6.68 (based on Illuminant D65/10 Observer) and asked to describe the color they represent. Unless you were very experienced using tristimulus values, you would be unable to determine that these values represent a dark, yellowish red. Color scientists have developed equations that translate tristimulus values into numbers that can be more easily understood by the common observer and can be plotted in color space.
Spectral Data
Spectral data (reflectance or transmittance) specifies the spectral reflectance or transmittance characteristics of an object. This is measured on a spectrophotometer and shows how much light (as a percentage of incident light) of each wavelength is reflected or transmitted by the object.
Observer Functions
The response of the average normal human eye at each wavelength has been measured through extensive experimentation by the CIE. Since there are three color sensor types, there are three observer functions that comprise what is known as the standard observer.
Color Spaces
A color space is an arrangement of colors in some orderly fashion. Some color spaces are physical arrangements of colors based on visual assessment (for example, the Munsell system). For color measurement, the most useful color spaces are ones that are calculated based on tristimulus values. Many advances have been made to refine the boundaries of color space and describe color difference. Color spaces evolved out of the necessity to provide a uniform method to spread colors relative to their visual differences and to describe color in numerical terms that make sense to us. Opponent-type scales were developed from the theoretical mechanism that the eye and brain actually use to perceive color.
Calculating Tristimulus Values

Source, object and observer are integrated mathematically to calculate a response value called a tristimulus value. Since the standard observer contains three response functions, three response values are calculated to describe (in mathematical terms) how the human visual system responds to a single color. The observer situation and its three elements can now be represented numerically. By multiplying the object color (as reflectance or transmittance values) by the mathematical data representing the light source and standard observer functions (x-bar, y-bar, and z-bar), we arrive at the tristimulus values. These are also referred to as cap X, cap Y, and cap Z. Most observers have difficulty in identifying a color from its tristimulus values.
Chromaticity (xyY)
Chromaticity coordinates (hue and chroma) are a simple transformation of tristimulus values that can be represented on a two-dimensional graph. The third dimension is tristimulus Y (luminosity), which represents how bright the color is. Using the chromaticity coordinate system, all possible colors can be designated by their x and y coordinates on the 1931 CIE chromaticity diagram. Chromaticity coordinates are calculated from tristimulus values as follows:
Refining CIE, XYZ Systems

The CIE, XYZ System was designed to provide a method to determine whether two colors having the same tristimulus values match (using a specific illuminant and observer). If the calculated XYZ values for two colors were the same, the pair would match when viewed under the light used in the original calculation. However, these same two objects may not match when viewed under a different light
x=
X Y ,y= (X + Y + Z ) (X + Y + Z )
The primary disadvantage of this color space is that equal spatial distances on the graph do not represent equal visual color differences. In other words, it is a nonuniform color space.
2.10
Color Spaces
.8
520
540 500
.6
560
y
.4
580 600 620 650
.2
480 470 450
.0 .0 .2 .4
.6
.8
CIE 1931 x, y chromaticity diagram
.6
.1
520 530 540 550 560
.2
Greenish Yellow 570 Yellow 580 Yellow Green
3000 4000 6000 D 65 10000
.3
u
Orange Yellow Orange 590 00
15
.4
.5
.6
.6
Yellowish Green Green
600
00 10
2000
.5
Bluish Green
B E
C White
ow Yell k Pin Pink
ish
Reddish Orange
610
620
630
640
650
Red
680 700-780 nm
.5
.4
490
20000
Purplish Pink
Greenish Blue Reddish Purple
Purplish Red
.4
.3
Blue
480
.3
v .2
470
Purple
v .2
.1
460
.1
Purplish Blue
440 380-420
.0 .0 .1 .2 .3 u .4 .5 .6
.0
CIE 1976 U.C.S. chromaticity diagram
2.11
CIE 1976 Uniform Color Space

Unlike the CIE color space from 1931 that was a visual color space, in 1976, the CIE defined a uniform color space. Relative to the 1931 CIE Chromaticity Diagram, you can see that the shape of the 1976 CIE diagram has been changed. The hues from yellow to bluish green have been compressed, while the hues from blue to red have been expanded. In the 1976 CIE diagram, equal spatial distances on the graph represent equal visual color differences.
can be described in terms of uniform CIELab color space with an: L* value of 39.90, a* value of 48.04 and a b* value of 17.18. This is meaningful since a positive a* and b* value signify the yellowness and redness of the color immediately. The L* signifies that the color is dark (using the 0 to 100 scale for relative darkness and lightness of a color).
CIELab
CIELab color space supports the accepted theory of color perception based on three separate color receptors, RGB (Red, Green, and Blue), in the eye. When reflected light reaches these receptors, they are excited. This results in three sets of signals being sent to the brain: light or dark, red or green, and yellow or blue. They are opposing in that one receives a red signal or a green, but not both. Does one ever see a red green or green red? The answer is no, but a yellow green or a blue red can be sensed. There is a relationship between lightness and Munsell value. This relationship was established so that the lightness scale would be based on uniform steps, as Munsell had already established in his color scale. The opponent type color scales are derived mathematically from the CIE values. As defined by the CIE in 1976, CIELab color space and color difference formula were modified for use where a more perceptually uniform color space than CIE, XYZ was required. L* is a measure of the lightness of an object and ranges from 0 (black) to 100 (white). a* is a measure of redness (positive a*) or greenness (negative a*). b* is a measure of yellowness (positive b*) or blueness (negative b*). These coordinates (a* and b*) approach zero for neutral colors (white, grays, and blacks). The higher the values for a* and b* are, the more saturated a color is. Now, for example, a color that has an: X value of 18.34, Y value of 11.19 and a Z value of 6.68
CIELCh
In addition to the use of L, a, b, colors can also be defined by the parameters of lightness, chroma and hue (LCh). This method is based on the CIELab color space, but describes the location of a color in space by use of polar coordinates rather than rectangular coordinates. L* is a measure of the lightness of an object, ranging from 0 (black) to 100 (white). C* is a measure of chroma (saturation) and represents distance from the neutral axis. h is a measure of hue and is represented as an angle ranging from 0 degrees to 360 degrees. Angles that range from 0 degrees to 90 degrees are reds, oranges, and yellows. 90 degrees to 180 degrees are yellows, yellow-greens, and greens. 180 degrees to 270 degrees are greens, cyans (blue-greens) and blues. From 270 degrees to 360 degrees are blues, purples, magentas, and return to reds. An h value that is equal to 360 degrees is reported as 0 degree.
Hunter Lab
This color space was developed by Richard S. Hunter in 1942 for use with three-filter colorimeters. The L, a, and b notations represent the same color characteristics as in the CIELab system. For any given color, CIELab values and Hunter Lab are similar. However, the CIELab equations are the current CIE recommendation, and are in more common use. The Lab color space is generally used only by manufacturers who need to correlate with historical data stored in Hunter Lab values.
2.12
Color Spaces
white L* yellow +b*
green -a*
red +a*
blue -b*
Example
Pale Gray (nearly wht.) Medium Gray Brilliant Red Brilliant Yellow Green Deep Blue
L*
83.70 59.60 43.70 83.30 56.80 29.30
a*
-0.50 0.00 37.10 1.90 -30.00 8.0
b*
0.50 0.50 18.70 77.00 15.40 -17.90
CIELab
black
90 yellow +b*
hue
C*
180 green -a*
0 red +a*
Example
Pale Gray (nearly wht.) Medium Gray Brilliant Red Brilliant Yellow Green Deep Blue
L*
83.70 59.60 43.70 83.30 56.80 29.30
C*
0.71 0.50 41.55 77.02 33.72 19.61
h
315.0 270.0 26.8 88.6 152.7 294.1
CIELCh
270 blue -b*
2.13
Section 3: Instrumentation
3
Instrumentation
Effective Color Evaluation

Visual color evaluation will always be subjective. It relies on individual eye-brain limitations, including memory loss, color vision defects and eye fatigue. Differences in viewing conditions, light sources, and other factors need to be understood and addressed to ensure good visual evaluation. Finally, color differences are difficult to quantify and communicate. For example, what do we mean when we say something is too light or too red? While the final judge will always be the human observer, color measurement instrumentation is available that can assist the observer in making color decisions. Instruments are tools that improve the effectiveness and efficiency of color control. Example: While a carpenter could build a house without a tape measure, the process would be laborious and wasteful. The carpenter would have to approximate the length of boards and other materials used in construction and then cut them until the proper lengths were achieved. The tape measure allows the carpenter to accomplish the task faster and with less waste by providing a method to make repeatable measurements consistently and accurately.
Colorimeters
The term colorimeter is used to describe any color measurement instrument. A true colorimeter uses filters (glass or plastic) in combination with a light source and detector to emulate the three color response functions of the eye. A colorimeter provides color data only, is based on a single observer (2 or 10 degrees), and typically one illuminant (C or D65). Because colorimeters only provide data for a single illuminant, these instruments are blind to metamerism. Although colorimeters have improved in recent years, there are inherent problems associated with filterbased technology and tungsten halogen light sources. These filter-based instruments are subject to repeatability and interinstrument agreement problems. Filters can change or degrade over time, resulting in color data that constantly vary. Colorimeters use a tungsten halogen light source that inherently has very little blue or green energy. This can cause problems when collecting data on dark objects. Tungsten halogen light sources must be warmed up to stabilize lamp performance, making it impossible to take immediate measurements. Measurements taken when the instrument is first turned on versus after it has warmed up have shown discrepancies in data collected. Tungsten halogen light sources generate heat. Some instrument designs require that the tungsten lamp be on continuously in order to eliminate warm-up effects. Unfortunately this can cause sample heating that could result in thermochromic effects. Thermochromic colors can change significantly while they are in the measurement port of these instruments. Tungsten halogen lamps change over the life of the lamp. Unless the optics and electronics of the instrument are capable of correcting for lamp aging, drift in the instrumental color data will occur.
Advantages of Color Measurement Instrumentation

Color instrumentation is more sensitive than even the best trained human eye. Instruments can detect color differences between a standard and a trial far below the minimum perceptible level. A wide variety of color measurement instrumentation is available today, including tristimulus colorimeters and spectrophotometers. Color measurement instrumentation does not replace the colorist. Instead, it provides the colorist with a resource to achieve consistent acceptable color faster and with less rework. Effective color evaluation requires an interaction between the subjective human observer and an objective instrument. The ultimate goal is to arrive at numerical assessments that agree with what the eye sees and to use these assessments to communicate the acceptability of color quality.
3.1
Spectrophotometers
A spectrophotometer compares the amount of light that is shined onto an object with the amount of light that is reflected back from that object. The ratio of these two measurements determines the percentage of light the object reflects back. This ratio is calculated at each wavelength in the visible spectrum. The major components of a spectrophotometer are a light source, UV filter, optics, diffraction grating, detector array, and microprocessor.
UV Filter
Some spectrophotometers have a filter for removing or partially removing ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the light source. If an object has fluorescent agents, UV radiation can change the apparent reflectance of an object (apparent to the spectrophotometer). To determine if an object is fluorescent, take two readings: one with the UV component included, and one with the UV component excluded. If the object has fluorescent agents, the two readings will be significantly different. The degree of fluorescence depends on the absolute amount of excitation energy present in the light source. For many fluorescent materials, the excitation wavelength is in the ultraviolet region. Different instruments have different ways of handling UV. Some instruments utilize removable UV filters. Readings with filter in place and with filter removed can be compared to determine emission wavelength, and degree of fluorescence relative to other fluorescent objects. Be careful when comparing results between two instruments of this type because the percentage reflectance measurement depends on the individual lamp in the instrument. Other instruments have an adjustable UV filter. UV content of the source may be adjusted to achieve a known quantity of UV, or a known reading on a standard fluorescent material. Absolute degree of fluorescence may then be quantified.
Light Source
GretagMacbeth spectrophotometers use a pulsed xenon light source. The pulsed xenon flash illuminates the object uniformly by sending a powerful one hundred thousand watt burst of light into the illuminating optics (sphere or 45/0 assembly). Since the light has high intensity, but short duration, the energy does not appreciably change any thermochromic properties of the sample. Pulsed xenon is more powerful than a tungsten halogen lamp for improved measurement reproducibility through noncontact measurement. This property is particularly useful in measuring dark objects. Another benefit of pulsed xenon is that it provides light almost exactly the same color as normal daylight, an important factor for correlation to visual evaluation. This is very important when measuring optically brightened or fluorescent objects. Lastly, pulsed xenon can provide in excess of one million flashes. This translates into five to seven measurementyears without requiring a lamp change.
45/0 Illumination Optics

To illuminate an object, spectrophotometers have one of two types of illumination optics: sphere or 45/0 (forty-five zero). Illumination optics are selected to include or exclude the specular component. The colors of roughened surfaces of some textiles (flannel), paints (sand paints), and plastics (textured polystyrene) depend on the angle at which they are viewed. Using 45/0 viewing delivers a good approximation of the typical visual evaluation technique. 45/0 includes the effect or appearance of gloss and texture in the measurement. This appearance measurement simulates how the human eye would see a sample.
Pulsed Xenon vs Tungsten Halogen
2.0
1.5
tungsten halogen
1.0
pulsed xenon
.50
0 300 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm
The 0/45 design is based on the set-up of a visual evaluation where the incident light is overhead at 0 degrees and the viewing angle is 45 degrees (or the optics are reversed as in 45/0). It has been shown through experimentation that the same results can be achieved with 45/0 as with 0/45. An object can be evaluated with the light source directly overhead and viewed at 45 degrees, (preferred), or the same evaluation can be obtained by illuminating an object at 45 degrees and viewing directly overhead. An advantage of 45/0 instrument design is that it can provide annular (circular) illumination of the object.
3.2
relative output
This eliminates the large variations that can occur when measuring directional objects such as corduroy, brushed aluminum and textured plastics. Both 0/45 and 45/0 viewing allow for a product to be evaluated only for appearance. The diffuse reflectance or scattered light is measured, while the specular or gloss component is excluded from the measurement. Annular illumination optics light the object at 45 degrees in a complete circle. To visualize this, imagine a cone whose apex angle is 45 degrees to the cones axis. The object is placed at the tip of the cone. The sides of the cone represent light striking the object. The object is viewed by the spectrophotometer along the cone axis, through the base of the cone. If an object has a specular component of reflection, it will be excluded by 45/0 illumination automatically. Why? Light that is reflected specularly will be reflected at the same angle as it strikes the object. With 45/0 illumination optics, light that is reflected away at 45 degrees will not be viewed by the spectrophotometer.
Specular Component Included measurement: Includes all angles of illumination, ignoring surface characteristics. Is independent of object surface characteristics (gloss or texture). Is taken with the object positioned flush with the sample viewport. Measures true color. Is used widely for color matching. The specular exclusion port can also be opened when taking measurements. When this port is open, the specular reflection from the object is eliminated from the measurement. This measurement excludes the specular component and correlates well with visual evaluation of the objects surface. This is known as Specular Component Excluded (SCE). SCE measures the diffuse reflectance only and is similar to the 45/0 design. Specular Component Excluded measurement: Is similar to 0/45, depending on gloss level. Characterizes the effects of an objects surface. Measures color and appearance. Can be compared to SCI measurements for estimation of gloss. The comparison of SCI and SCE measurements of the same object estimates the appearance effects of gloss. A difference of approximately 4% between the two measurements is equivalent to approximately 100 gloss units; 2% would be 50 gloss units, and so forth. This method only estimates gloss. The use of a glossmeter is still the best way to characterize an objects gloss.
Integrating Sphere Optics

D8 geometry uses an integrating sphere with diffuse illumination and an 8 degree viewing angle. The integrating sphere is a hollow ball that is coated with a highly reflective white substance. The object is presented to the instrument by placing it in front of the viewing port opening located at the front of the instrument. The light source illuminates the sphere through another port and is reflected from the sphere walls to illuminate the object from all directions. This diffuse illumination minimizes the effect of object texture and sample directionality. The light reflected from the object exits through a third viewing port at 8 degrees from an axis that is perpendicular to the object. Light reflects away from a surface at an angle that is equal to its incident illumination. Sphere geometry has the unique ability to include or exclude the specular component from the measurement. To exclude the specular component, a small piece of the sphere located at 8 degrees opposite the viewing angle is removed; any specular reflection will simply be a reflection of a very dark hole, and therefore will not be included in the reading. The specular port is located at 8 degrees opposite the viewing port. When this port is closed, the specular component of the light source (relative to the sample) is included in the measurement. This is known as Specular Component Included (SCI) and is a true color measurement. SCI measures the total reflectance, which equals the diffuse plus the specular reflectance.
Diffraction Grating
Light that reflects from an object into the viewing optics (measuring optics) is a mixture of various wavelengths. Before spectral reflectance can be measured, this light must be divided into its individual spectral components. Mixed light that is shined onto a diffraction grating is refracted as a spectrum (as if it were shined through a prism). This is a very precise way to divide white light into its component colors. Another term often used for diffraction grating is monochromator.
Detector Array
The detector array is a row of photodetectors. The monochromator projects the spectrum onto this array. Each photodetector senses the quantity of light energy at each measurement point in the spectrum, and then records it as an electronic signal.
3.3
Illumination Optics
light source diffraction grating
detector diffraction grating
light source
0/45 illumination
45/0 illumination
light source
specular exclusion port
specimen
8
detectors
integrating sphere
diffraction grating
sphere optics
specular exclusion port open 8 light source light source 8 8
specimen at reflectance port
specimen at reflectance port
SCI
SCE
3.4
Microprocessor
The microprocessor is a tiny computer inside the spectrophotometer. This computer takes the energy readings from the detector array and calculates what percent reflectance each amount of energy represents. A spectrophotometer calculates the ratio of light reflected or transmitted from an object, wavelength by wavelength across the entire visible spectrum relative to the values of a white ceramic calibration tile with known absolute reflectance values. Data collected are known as spectral data. The spectrophotometer can calculate color values based on any combination of observer and illuminant using these spectral data. It is the spectral data that give a spectrophotometer versatility in all its applications, including color formulation, batch correction, shade sorting, trend analysis, pass/fail analysis, and strength calculations. Many current spectrophotometer designs use a pulsed xenon light source in conjunction with a diffraction grating or monochromator, detector array, and a microprocessor.
example, a deep red filter may transmit 80% in the red region of the visible spectrum, but only transmit 1% in the blue and green regions. If the light source used has ultraviolet energy, a blocking filter can be used to eliminate ultraviolet energy from entering the sphere (UV excluded) and thereby exclude it from the measurement. When this blocking filter allows the ultraviolet energy into the sphere (UV included), the ultraviolet energy is part of the measurement. The effects of optical brighteners, whitening agents, fluorescent dyes, or pigments can be seen by comparing UV excluded and UV included measurements of the same object. Some instruments can vary the area of object measured. Small Area View (SAV) can be used for small solid objects or curved surfaces. Large Area View (LAV) is preferred when measuring textured surfaces such as textiles, foods or multicolor objects. Several instruments are equipped with an intermediate Medium Area View (MAV), and Very Small Area View (VSAV). SAV and VSAV measurements are best used where measurement of a small area or highly curved surface is desired. Measurement repeatability should be checked when the sample is not a solid color or when measuring highly curved surfaces. Some instruments are able to make adjusting measurements to compensate for instrument drift. Many sphere-based spectrophotometers in use today are pseudo-dual beam instruments. These instruments use a beam switch to measure the object and an independent reference measurement of the wall of the sphere. A true dual-beam instrument has a separate reference light source that provides a simultaneous measurement of the object and the sphere wall. True dual-beam technology increases instrument accuracy and prevents drift. The GretagMacbeth Color-Eye 7000 Series offers true dual-beam spectrophotometry.
Sphere-Based Spectrophotometer Operation

In a sphere-based spectrophotometer, the light reflected from the object leaves the viewport and is analyzed. Reflected or transmitted light contains various wavelengths of energy, based on the light source and the selective absorption properties of the object itself. The diffraction grating (or monochromator) functions like a prism and separates light into its component colors. The spectrum is projected onto a detector array that distinguishes quantities of energy across the entire visible spectrum. The detectors measure 31 or 16 data points across the spectrum (at intervals of 10 or 20 nanometers respectively). The microprocessor, a small computer in the spectrophotometer, calculates the percent reflectance at each interval. The sphere design allows for some unique measurement techniques for the evaluation of objects. These include transmittance measurements, UV measurements and adjustable area of view. Transmittance measurements can be made by placing an object between the integrating sphere and the diffraction grating. This makes it possible to measure liquids and translucent or transparent materials in much the same way as the eye perceives the color of light that is transmitted through them. Transmittance is expressed as a percentage, ranging from 100% (where material transmits all light striking it) to 0% (where it absorbs all light striking it). For
Spectrophotometer Performance Issues

Color spectrophotometer performance depends on several factors, including the initial instrument calibration. The instrument comes with a calibrated white ceramic standard for reflectance measurements. This is the permanent reference material that is used for calibration according to a manufacturers specifications. Never mix calibration tiles among instruments, or use any other tiles for calibrating the instrument. The performance of the white calibration standard is critical to overall instrument performance. In most cases, the white ceramic material used to make the standard is stable and reproducible. Operators should exercise care in keeping the tile clean and free from surface defects such as scratches and chips.
3.5
For transmittance measurements an air blank is used for calibration, and in many cases the white calibration tile itself can be applied to complete the sphere at the viewport. During calibration, the instrument measures the energy ratio of this calibration tile (that is, the reflected energy versus incident energy) at each wavelength and assigns the known reflectance values stored in memory to these ratios. Calibration is a necessary part of good measurement procedure. Calibration is recommended: At least every eight hours. Every time the instrument power is turned on or interrupted. When you select a different measurement mode (reflection or transmission). When changing from SCI to SCE. Calibrating more frequently will do no harm. Check the instrument operation manual to determine how often you should calibrate your spectrophotometer. It is important to consider instrument performance when selecting a spectrophotometer. Repeatability and interinstrument agreement are two issues that are typically considered when purchasing an instrument. Repeatability refers to the instruments ability to provide the same measurement data each time it reads the same object. Interinstrument agreement refers to how well the measurement data from the instrument agree with data from other instruments of the same type and setup. The chart below represents repeatability and interinstrument agreement specifications for some GretagMacbeth spectrophotometers.
Innovations in Spectrophotometers
Goniospectrophotometers
The appearance of metallic and pearlescent materials is difficult to measure consistently because it varies with the angle of illumination and viewing. No single geometric conditions can characterize color variations of these surfaces accurately. Effect surfaces can be characterized with measurements at several angles away from the specular direction (aspecular angles). Measurements at multiple aspecular angles, e.g., 20, 45, 75, and 110 degrees, identify the variations in color representative of sample appearance. Goniospectrophotometers are available in both portable and benchtop models. They provide multiangle measurements of effect surfaces such as metallic and pearlescent finishes, grained plastics and anodized aluminum. Goniospectrophotometers are widely used in automotive applications, since many of the new automobiles feature metallic or pearlescent finishes. They are also a valuable tool for automotive refinish applications. Since goniospectrophotometers can properly characterize metallic finishes, they eliminate the need to repaint an entire car in order to repair one body section. Some goniospectrophotometers utilize a single light source multiangle viewing system. This method of viewing has a single light source and places the observer at various angles along the viewing path. This requires that the light source be on while several different measurement conditions change. Measurement time can be extensive. During the measurement time, the operator must remain perfectly still or the data will be affected. Other goniospectrophotometers utilize a multiple light source multiangle measuring system. The GretagMacbeth Auto-Eye 640 series of goniospectrophotometers are a good example of a multiple light source, multiangle measuring system. The pulsed xenon illumination and pressure sensors ensure accurate sample positioning. Measurement time is extremely short. This stop motion measurement virtually freezes the sample so movement is not an issue. Good interinstrument agreement is achieved by a three-point triggering system that ensures a uniform measurement plane. Since goniospectrophotometers are typically used in automotive manufacturing and automotive refinish, other features to look for which will ensure measurement accuracy include temperature sensors that identify when samples are out of the temperature range and an automatic alert for recalibration.
GretagMacbeth Spectrophotometers
Instrument Color-Eye 7000A Geometry D/8 Repeatability 0.01 Interinstrument Agreement 0.08
Color-Eye 3100
D/8
0.02
0.12
Color-Eye 2180
D/8
0.04
0.12
ColorChecker 545
45/0
0.04
0.12
Color-Eye 2145
45/0
0.04
0.12
3.6
Goniospectrophotometer Designs
light source 25 45 75
specular angle
110
diffuse reflection specular reflection
sample
single light source
holographic grating graphics display microprocessor and memory
buttons
A/D converter
video data element detector array
xenon lamp xenon lamp xenon lamp lens 25 virtual specular direction (direction in which the system is looking) 45 75 xenon lamp fiber optic
110
note: all angles are relative to the specular direction
sample
multiple light source
3.7
Glossmeter Instruments
Since it is not possible to produce an equivalent gloss stimulus, no standard observer for gloss has been developed. Surface gloss is referenced to how a perfect mirror reflects light. In the real world, most surfaces are less than perfect. Specular reflection associated with gloss can vary from one object surface to another. Although not easily perceived, gloss can vary across the surface of the very same object. Gloss measurements should not be confused with percent reflectance measurements that are performed with a reflectometer. Reflectance measurements identify how efficiently a surface reflects light. A reflectometric measurement is derived from percent reflectance and is done by comparing the object to a white standard (100% reflectance) and a black standard (0% reflectance). A variety of test methods can be used to measure gloss objectively. Discussion here is limited to simple, single angle, specular gloss and its measurement using standard gloss meters.
Gloss scales were originally calibrated to provide a value of 1,000 gloss units by comparison to a perfect first surface mirror. It is possible to have gloss values greater than 100 gloss units. Products, such as polished aluminum, chrome plated parts and metallic plastics, can demonstrate gloss values of 200 to 300 or higher.
ASTM D523 Test Method for Specular Gloss

Lengthy visual evaluations (primarily paint object evaluations) performed in the late 1930s demonstrated that the 60 degree angle provides the best overall estimate of gloss. The 60 degree method was adopted by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) in ASTM D523 (last revised in 1989). Today, this method is more widely used than any other gloss test procedure. ASTM D523 Standard Test Method for Specular Gloss covers the measurement of the specular gloss of nonmetallic specimens for gloss geometry of 20, 60 and 85 degrees. A major problem with the use of industrial gloss instrumentation is the misuse of various geometries. Three separate gloss angles were selected to provide the best correlation with visual gloss evaluation. ASTM standard D523 clearly defines the instrument geometry to use: The 20 degree geometry is used for high gloss finishes (advantageous for comparing specimens having 60 degree gloss values higher than 70 gloss units). The 60 degree geometry is used for comparing most specimens and for determining when the 20 or 85 degree geometry may be more applicable. The 85 degree geometry is used for comparing specimens for sheen or near grazing shininess. It is most frequently applied when specimens have 60 degree gloss values lower than 10 gloss units.
Glossmeter Design
Gloss values are stated in gloss units. Gloss measurement is a mathematical comparison of the surface being measured to a defined standard, usually black polished glass, with a known gloss value. Measurement is done using a glossmeter. The geometry of these instruments is prescribed by national and international standards such as ASTM D523. Since glossmeters have a green filter located in front of the light source, they are not sensitive to any color differences between objects. Light that is projected onto the surface of the object at 60 degrees to the normal (perpendicular to the surface) is the most important angle used to characterize gloss. Reflected light at this angle is collected at the angle opposite to the incidence, based on the principle that the angle of incident light equals the angle of reflected light. Light that is collected is analyzed using a photodetector, and a gloss value is interpolated. With some glossmeters, a second detector is used at the light source to correct for lamp aging and differences in filaments. This detector also indicates when a lamp change is required to ensure instrument performance and stability.
3.8
Section 4: Visual Quality Control

Visual Color Evaluation
By definition, visual color evaluation will always be subjective. Standardization is extremely important when attempting to communicate color results within companies or to suppliers and customers. Once standard conditions for visual evaluation have been established and a standardized language for communicating what is seen can be agreed upon, visual color evaluation can be a very effective way to perform color quality control. Even when instrumental color quality control programs are used, methods for visual color evaluation need to be established. Visual color evaluation will: Ensure that there is a correlation between what the instrument and software calculate versus what the eye actually sees. Serve as the final judge when any discrepancy arises. Color Standards and Sample Preparation The importance of good color standards cannot be overstated. Consistent results can be obtained only when everyone is comparing to the same standard. Color Vision Testing While you cannot control human color vision, you can test individuals to determine their ability to see small color differences. Metamerism Evaluation Since many colored materials are used under various light sources, it is important to evaluate them under multiple light sources to detect for metamerism. Communicating Color Differences In order to communicate color differences effectively, a common language is needed.
4
Visual Quality Control
Light Source Selection

Consider these factors when you select a light source to view a color: If you need to communicate color and appearance with others (other manufacturing plants, suppliers, customers, etc.), make certain that you all use the same light sources. If you are following an established procedure or standard method, choose the specified light source(s). If you are free to choose your own light source(s), choose a light source that fits your needs. For choosing light sources, the most important question to answer is, Under what lighting conditions will my product or materials be viewed? Because so many different light sources are used in industry, it is generally recommended that you evaluate color under two or more light sources. Ideally, you should select two very different sources, and one of the sources should be artificial daylight. Products like the GretagMacbeth SpectraLight and The Judge are designed to allow you to evaluate colors using multiple sources.
4.1
ASTM D1729-89
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) provides guidelines to establish standardized conditions for visual evaluation of color difference of opaque materials in standard D1729-89. ASTM D1729-89 uses the term color difference to relate a target color to a color from a production run. Color difference is what people consider most important when they are judging acceptable product appearance.
Establishing Your Visual Color Evaluation Program

In establishing your own visual color evaluation program, you should account for all the factors that relate to the observer situation (light source, object and observer). The key elements that should be addressed are: Light Source Selection To obtain consistent results, everyone who judges product color should be viewing these products using the same light source. Viewing Conditions Viewing angle, background and surround must also be controlled for accurate and reproducible color comparisons.
Natural Daylight Sources

Daylight is the preferred source for visual evaluation because it is visually more correct than other light sources. Other light sources tend to influence our color judgment. North Sky Daylight was originally chosen because it is more consistent year round. This means a person can make color evaluations using light that enters a room from a north-facing window (south-facing in the southern hemisphere) at any time of year. The choice of North Sky Daylight was validated by industries that are required to grade and sort whites and off-whites, such as textile, paper and graphic arts products. The blue source found in North Sky Daylight makes it easier to see subtle differences in whites, off-whites and yellow printing inks.
recommended industry practices or international standards that pertain to a specific product or application. The abbreviations D50, D65, and D75 are used to designate the phases of daylight that are recognized by the CIE. North Sky Daylight at 7500K (D75) is the light produced from a moderately overcast sky as one faces north in the northern hemisphere (south in the southern hemisphere). Average North Sky Daylight at 6500K (D65) conforms with international standards in Europe, the Far East, and South America. It is also used to provide correlation with instrumental measurements. The Detroit Color Council, in conjunction with the SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers), has recently adopted the use of D65 for visual evaluation of automotive interiors and exteriors. Noon Sky Daylight at 5000K (D50) is the desired light source for performing color quality and uniformity evaluation in the graphic arts industry, as specified in ANSI standard PH 2.32 and ISO standard 3664.
Artificial Daylight Sources

With the advent of viewing booths, light sources that simulate daylight are preferred for visual color evaluation since they are more consistent than their natural counterparts. Furthermore, natural daylight is not available at night or in interior rooms. The choice of a specific daylight source is based on
Common Light Sources
Daylight D75
Horizon Daylight
Cool White Fluorescent
Illuminant A (Incandescent)
4.2
Fluorescent Light Sources

Fluorescent light sources are commonly found in office buildings, factories, stores and increasingly in the home. Cool White Fluorescent (CWF) at 4150K is a common wide band fluorescent light source that simulates US office or store lighting. Other available sources include TL84 at 4100K, a commercial narrow band fluorescent used in Europe and Ultralume 30 at 3000K, a commercial narrow band fluorescent used in the US.
Viewing Geometry
light source
observer 45
Incandescent Light Sources (Illuminant A)

Incandescent and tungsten light sources are commonly found in homes and used as accent lighting in stores. Illuminant A at 2856K is used to simulate these environments.
surface 0/45 viewing geometry
Horizon Daylight
Horizon Daylight at 2300K is provided by using a tungsten halogen lamp operated at half power. It provides the light quality that is found in early morning sunrise or late afternoon sunset. If you can get an acceptable color match using Horizon Daylight (when the sky is the reddest) and North Sky Daylight (when the sky is the bluest), you will probably have a good match in any phase of daylight (all day long).
observer
Viewing Conditions
When performing visual color evaluation it is critical to control the conditions associated with viewing geometry and sample surround.
object 90 a maintaining proper viewing geometry
Viewing Geometry
To obtain consistent results when performing visual color evaluation, it is important to control both the viewing angle (direction from which object is viewed) and the incident angle (direction from which light strikes the object). ASTM D1729-89 recommends the use of 0/45 geometry. In this configuration, the object is laid flat on the table or in the viewing booth and light strikes it from directly above. The viewer observes the object by looking down at an angle of 45 degrees. An easy way to ensure that the viewing angle is maintained at 45 degrees is to make sure that the distance from the object to the observer is equal to the distance from the surface to the observers eye. This is shown in the second figure to the right, maintaining proper viewing geometry .
light source
observer 45
45/0 viewing geometry
su rfa ce
4.3
Equivalent results can be obtained when light strikes an object at 45 degrees and is viewed from 0 degrees (45/0 geometry). In this situation, light originates from above the observers head while the object is tilted 45 degrees away from the person. The observer views the object at an angle of 45 degrees away from the light source. Using 45/0 viewing geometry is subject to error. Common errors that occur are: The sample is mounted on a stand in the viewing booth to maintain the 45 degree angle accurately. However, this does not take into account observers of varying heights. A tall observer views the sample at a different angle from a short observer. The observer tilts the object by hand to create the 45 degree angle, while maintaining the proper viewing angle. It is difficult for the observer to ensure that the object is actually tilted at 45 degrees and that the sample is being viewed at 45 degrees from the light source.
white background, while differences in intermediate colors are best perceived using a neutral gray background. Dark and high gloss samples require a flat black or black velvet background to detect faint differences. Viewing booths should use a matte gray neutral surround with a Munsell notation between N 5/ and N 7/.
Metamerism Evaluation
Metamerism occurs when a sample pair appears to match under one set of viewing conditions, but not under another. The samples are metamers and the match is called a metameric match. Metamerism is very common. We have all experienced metamerism, but may not have known the technical term for it. A metameric match can be determined by a visual evaluation of samples in a viewing booth equipped with multiple light sources. Metameric Pairs have the same color coordinates (XYZ values) for a given set of viewing conditions, yet have different spectral reflectance (or transmittance) curves. In spectrophotometry, metamerism can be identified when the reflectance curves of two samples cross over one another three or more times. In this instance, they will provide a conditional match, meaning that under a specified set of viewing conditions they will not match.
Neutral Surrounds
Neutral surrounds should be used for color evaluation to eliminate phenomena such as simultaneous contrast, chameleon effect and complementary afterimage. Neutrals are gray, white or black. Color differences are more easily detected when the background color is the same value (lightness or darkness) as the color being evaluated. Subtle differences in white or off-white colors are best perceived on a
Metamerism Evaluation
100
daylight
75
reflectance %
50
samples appear to match under one light source, i.e., daylight
fluorescent
25
400 nm
500 nm
600 nm
700 nm
=
reflectance curves of a metameric pair
samples do not match under other light sources, i.e., fluorescent
4.4
Observer Metamerism can also occur when samples that appear to match to a group of observers, do not match to an individual observer. In reality, this individual could have slightly variant color vision. This situation becomes even more difficult when this individual is the customer. Color vision and discrimination tests provide some insight into the differences between observers. Geometric Metamerism is exhibited when a pair of samples match at one angle of illumination, but do not match when the angle of illumination or viewing angle is changed. This situation often occurs with materials that are directional such as velvets, suedes, broadlooms, and plastics. Consistent sample preparation is critical for proper evaluation of these materials.
Representation: Does the standard accurately represent the product color? Surface texture? Gloss? Angular dependency attributes (e.g., metallics, pearlescents)?
Color Standard Storage

To maintain your color standards, it is important they are stored properly. The following general guidelines should be followed. Protect standards from exposure to light, heat and airborne contamination. Paper specimens are commonly stored in airtight black plastic bags in a freezer. Be sure the selected storage method will not deteriorate the sample. For example, some highly acidic papers can react with the standard, and plastic bags that contain plasticizers can alter standards. Create duplicates of the standards (when possible) by dividing a single sample into swatches or producing multiple standards within the same production run. Store these samples under controlled temperature and humidity.
Color Standards and Sample Preparation

To make visual color evaluations, a trial (batch) must be compared to a target, or standard, as it is commonly called. A physical standard is a piece of material that exhibits an acceptable color to all concerned parties. The color standard should represent the ideal color. Many times a customer submits a master standard to a vendor. The vendor produces a trial for approval as the working standard. Agreement of acceptability is critical in determining color limits or tolerances for a product. Since visual assessment is the ultimate judge of acceptability, it is important that the vendor establish good communications with the customer.
Sample Preparation
Some of the factors to be considered when evaluating a specimen (standard or trial) are: Directionality Opacity, translucency or transparency Photochromism Thermochromism Fluorescence Surface uniformity texture smoothness flatness and curvature thickness backing Surround Pressure or tension Size and overall shape This list is not complete. It is intended to encourage you to investigate the physical aspects of your materials so that you can better interpret both visual and instrumental color and appearance assessments. Directionality occurs if the appearance or color data changes when the sample is rotated 90 degrees. If this occurs, sample orientation is critical for proper evaluation. Products that demonstrate directionality include textiles, extruded plastics, aluminum and many coatings.
4.5
The Ideal Color Standard

Physical specimens are affected by a variety of factors such as light, heat, age and other ambient variables. Therefore, it is important to consider the following characteristics when selecting a standard. Stability: How is the standard affected by light, temperature, heat, age, and other ambient variables? Reproducibility: Can the standard be reproduced by the manufacturing process, or does it represent a one-time-only color? Availability: If the standard is damaged or lost, can it be replaced? Consistency: How consistent is the color standard from run to run? Uniformity: Does the standard appear uniform? Does its uniformity impact color measurement?
Opacity is determined by holding the samples in question up to a bright light source. If light passes through these samples, they are not opaque. If a sample is not opaque, a substrate should be used to back the sample prior to visual evaluation. Photochromism is a reversible change of a materials color that is observed when it is exposed to light. Materials that demonstrate photochromism include various pharmaceuticals, plastics and cosmetics. These products must be evaluated using consistent levels of illumination or measurement results will vary. Thermochromism is a change in color that results from a temperature change. Colorists who work with molded plastics, ceramics, glass and baked-on coatings wait for samples to cool to room temperature before making a visual color evaluation. Colors that exhibit thermochromatic shifts include many yellows, oranges and reds. Fluorescence occurs when optical brighteners, whitening agents, and fluorescent dyes or pigments are added to products in an attempt to enhance their whiteness. Fluorescent agents absorb energy in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum and emit this energy in the blue region of the visible spectrum. The effect of such fluorescent agents makes white and yellow-white products appear whiter. Fluorescent colorants (dyes and pigments) are added to produce more brilliant colors. This include materials such as Day-Glo*. Optical brighteners, whitening agents, fluorescent dyes and pigments are found in
many textiles, plastics, and paper products. Fluorescent agents can be detected visually by using a viewing booth that is equipped with an ultraviolet source such as that found in The Judge II or SpectraLight II from GretagMacbeth.
Visual Tolerancing
When customers make color decisions, they are doing so based on the color difference between the standard and the trial submitted. (The observer should have the standard and trial touching when making this evaluation.) Rarely does a trial perfectly match the standard. The customers ability to observe a color difference is called perceptibility. The limits of acceptability (maximum acceptable difference) will hopefully be greater than those of perceptibility (minimum perceptible difference). Color difference acceptability is not absolute and is entwined with the psychology of color perceptions. To further complicate matters, the customer making the color decision may be affected by cost considerations, time of year, or a number of other factors. Munsell produces specialized color charts to help companies establish visual tolerances for their colors. Munsell Color Tolerance Sets for visual color control specify a target (or centroid) and two limits (tolerances) for each of the three dimensions of color (i.e., two hue limits, two value limits, and two chroma limits). The chart is arranged with a centroid color in the center surrounded by six limits. Apertures (windows) between colors facilitate comparison to color of products, packaging or specimens. Munsell color tolerance sets allow you to determine if a trial falls within an acceptable range (volume of acceptability). Even when color is controlled by instrumental measurements, a color tolerance set is a useful aid in visualizing limits of acceptability and reaching a clear understanding among buyers, sellers and producers.
Visual Tolerancing
color tolerance set
target color
Evaluating Color Vision

Normal color vision is the prerequisite for individuals making color judgments. However, it is not unusual to find individuals making color decisions who have never had their color vision tested. With the use of color computer systems, there is a tendency to downplay the need for color vision testing. However, the eye still makes the final color decision in most industries. Even when using color measurement
Munsell color tolerance set
4.6
instrumentation, the intent is to obtain meaningful numbers that agree with the human eye-brain decision.
Color Vision and Color Discrimination Tests

Several color vision and color discrimination tests are available to evaluate individual color perception. Standardized lighting at the recommended color temperature (usually illuminant C) is critical for administering these tests. Errors in color judgment may result if controlled viewing conditions are not used. Dvorine Book of Pseudoisochromatic Plates (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.) are designed so the normal observer will see two numbers on each plate. Red-green deficient observers see a group of unrelated dots. These systems are not suitable for quantitative color vision testing and are limited in their ability to identify the type of color deficiency. Farnsworth-Munsell 100 Hue Test (available from GretagMacbeth) offers a simple method for determining color vision abnormalities and testing color discrimination. The observer is required to arrange 85 samples, divided into four groups, in consecutive color order. This test makes it possible to sort observers with normal color vision according to their level of chromatic discrimination. This system was not designed to be a color aptitude test. However, it may be used with other tests to corroborate evidence of color deficiency.
Inter-Society Color Council Color Matching Aptitude Test (discontinued in 1988) requires an observer to match 48 chips with very small differences in saturation or chroma in four hues. This test was designed to identify individuals with superior color discrimination skills.
HVC Color Vision Skill Test (Lou Graham and Associates, Greensboro, NC) requires the observer to discriminate very small color differences in four hues. The color differences are below accepted tolerances for most industries. The objective is to categorize observers based on levels of superiority. This system was developed to replace the ISCC Color Matching Aptitude Test.
Communicating Color Information

Its one thing to be able to see color differences. Its another thing to be able to communicate them. For example, what does It needs more punch mean? An understanding of Munsells three attributes hue, value and chroma is a critical first step in being able to communicate color differences. Munsell offers a variety of educational materials to help teach the Munsell system, including the Munsell Student Color Set that teaches the system by having students arrange colored chips according to the Munsell system. Hue is generally communicated in terms of redder, yellower, greener or bluer. This is based on how the hue of the color being viewed compares to the standard. It depends on where the hue falls on the Munsell hue circle. For example, a red object might be yellower than the standard or it might be bluer. (It would have little meaning to describe one red object as redder than another.) A yellow object could be either redder or greener than a yellow standard. A green object could be either yellower or bluer than a green standard, and a blue object could be either greener or redder than the standard. Value is almost always communicated using the terms lighter and darker. Chroma is often described as more saturated or less saturated. Common terms used to communicate chroma differences are stronger and weaker. Whichever terms are chosen to describe chroma, it is best to have everyone use the same terms. Avoid using terms like dirtier, cleaner, punchier. Standardizing the language that is used to communicate color difference cannot ensure that two viewers will see color differences the same way. However, it does minimize the error caused by a miscommunication.
Japanese Color Aptitude Test (Japanese Color Research Institute) extensively evaluates an observers color aptitude. It provides tests in Color Naming, Color Memory, Recognition of the Three Color Attributes (Hue, Value and Chroma) and Ability to Distinguish Small Color Differences. This test requires two days to complete all five sections. It involves a large number of samples and cannot be self-administered. Farnsworth Lantern (available from GretagMacbeth, and also known as the Navy Lantern) was designed to screen the more severe forms of red-green color vision defects. It is used by all branches of the armed forces of The United States and Canada. Test lights subtend very small angles to simulate distant signal lights. The observer is required to identify random two-light combinations of red, green or white.
4.7
To add more meaning when describing color differences, use adjectives that indicate the magnitude of the difference, such as moderately or slightly. For example, a red sample might be slightly yellower, moderately lighter and slightly more saturated than the standard. To make sure different observers are using quantifiable terms like moderately or slightly in the same manner, it is best to create a few sets of samples of different colored objects and label them based on whether the differences are considered slight or moderate. Ideally, the samples used for this exercise should exhibit color change in only one direction (for example, value). This can be done by collecting different trials over a period of time.
Communicating Color Information
bluer than standard
standard
yellower than standard
changes in hue
Visual Color Evaluation Documentation

The best way to ensure that everyone is following your standard visual color evaluation method is to put it in writing. This written method should be communicated to customers, suppliers and anyone involved in making color decisions at your company. A sample outline for a visual color evaluation method is given below to encourage the use of similar methods for individual product applications or company-wide standardization and communication.
darker than standard
standard
lighter than standard
changes in value
weaker than standard
standard
stronger than standard
changes in chroma
Visual Color Evaluation Method

Viewing Conditions Lighting Product: GretagMacbeth SpectraLight II with UV Primary Light Source: D65 Filtered Tungsten Secondary Light Sources: Cool White Fluorescent, Color Analysis Color Vision Testing: Farnsworth-Munsell
100 Hue Test

Color Communication: Based on Munsell Hue Terms: Redder, Yellower, Greener, Bluer Value Terms: Lighter, Darker Chroma Terms: Stronger, Weaker Modifiers: Slightly, Moderately, Much
Illuminant A
Viewing Geometry: 0/45 Surround: Munsell N 7/ Color Standards & Sample Preparation Sample Size (standard and trial): 3" x 5" (desired) Sample Orientation: Side-by-side, always touching Color Standard Storage: Filed in nonacidic envelope Color Tolerance: Munsell Color Tolerance Set
4.8
Section 5: Instrumental Quality Control

Consistency in Color Communication
Consistency means doing things the same way each time, and this is important for effective color communication. We recommend that you establish a practice and, if possible, do not change it. Consistency is important in many aspects of color measurement. one to use. These advantages and disadvantages will be dependent on, but not limited to, the standards, instruments, procedures, and processes you use. Sample Preparation Determine a sample preparation method that is appropriate for your application. Instrument Selection and Configuration Determine what type of instrument is best for your application (sphere or 45/0, 10 nm or 20 nm, transmission or reflection, etc.). Once you have made your selection, determine what instrument configuration is appropriate for your application (large or small are a of view, specular component included or excluded, UV included or excluded, etc.). For more information on the options available, see the discussions in Section Four on spectrophotometers and sphere-based spectrophotometer operation. Mathematical Configuration Determine which mathematical configuration (illuminant, observer, color difference formula, indices, etc.) is appropriate for your application and use that configuration exclusively, if possible.
5
Instrumental Quality Control
Establishing Your Instrumental Quality Control Program

In establishing your own instrumental color quality control program, many factors need to be addressed. If possible, you should standardize your choices. However, in some cases you many need to use different options for different customer requirements or unique samples. Be aware that when you do this, the readings obtained with different options are not necessarily comparable. Color Standard Selection Determine whether a physical or numerical standard will be used. In the selection of a physical standard, consider the following: 1. What specific size limitations or requirements are there for the standard? For example, if you measure trials or batch samples using the small area view plate, should you consider using a small standard? 2. What specific shape requirements are there for the standard? Curved? Textured? 3. How thick is the standard material? 4. Is the material opaque, translucent or transparent? 5. If the standard is expendable, will you have to produce a quantity of acceptable standard material? 6. Can you substitute a more stable material to be used as a standard? For example, could you substitute a ceramic standard for a high gloss paint standard? Consider the advantages and disadvantages of the physical or numerical standard before deciding which
Color Standards and Sample Preparation

Color Standard Selection
When using an instrument, you can work from a physical or instrumental standard. In both cases, make certain that the color standard truly represents the desired product color and can be achieved in the manufacturing process.
Physical Standards
If a physical standard is used, make certain that the color standard meets the guidelines that we recommend in Section Three. Measure the physical standard using the spectrophotometer that best meets your needs and record the measurement in a data log (in duplicate when possible). You should also enter the standard in the colorimetric
5.1
software package of your choice. After you have completed your entries of standards, and before turning off the computer, backup your database. Check the standard regularly against the numerical data to monitor drift in color or appearance. If a standard begins to deteriorate, replace it. Make certain that you contact vendors to advise them on standard replacement procedures. Advantages of Physical Standards If the numbers are ever questionable, a trial can always be compared visually to the physical standard. A physical standard decreases dependency on absolute agreement between color measuring systems, provided the systems have at least the same optical design (geometry and spectral resolution). Disadvantages of Physical Standards Physical standards may change over time due to deterioration of the material, or from constant handling (fingerprints, scratches, soil buildup, etc.), or they may be lost. Depending on the material, it may be difficult to produce or obtain several pieces (for standards at separate sites) that match. At the heart of any successful color measurement program is a consistent method of specimen preparation and presentation. Individuals who make color measurements must be aware of how less than ideal the specimens are and what effect any preparation procedure may have on the optical properties of the specimens.
different from the one on which it was first measured. Reflectance values should be traded only between systems with a high level of agreement. Color coordinates typically require only three numbers to define the standard (in CIELab: L*, a* and b*), versus 40 spectral data points. However, because the standard is specified for only one illuminant, it is useless for measuring degree of metamerism. In addition, the standard can be used only on the system from which the original values came, because absolute accuracy of all color measuring systems is poor.
Sample Preparation
Most color measurement problems can be traced first to inconsistent sample preparation and measurement technique. Measuring your standards is an important point and should be a fundamental part of your color quality control program when using color instrumentation. Once a working standard has been established, it should be measured carefully. Color values should be stored in a database for future retrieval and comparison. This eliminates total dependence on the physical specimen by establishing a fixed numerical target, set when the standard was at its optimum. An added benefit is the capability to monitor change in the working standard so that it can be replaced when necessary. An average of two or more readings may be required to ensure repeatability between specimens (trials and standards) and operators. In most applications, a single reading will not represent the color accurately. This is a critical step in obtaining meaningful numbers that agree with the eye. Directionality is determined visually or by use of a spectrophotometer. In both cases, a sample is said to be directional if its appearance or color data changes when the sample is rotated 90 degrees. If this occurs, sample orientation is critical for proper evaluation. Products that demonstrate directionality include textiles, extruded plastics, aluminum and many coatings. Opacity can also be determined visually or through instrumental measurement. Samples in question are held up to a bright light source. If light passes through this sample, they are not opaque. If a spectrophotometer is to be used, transmission measurement is recommended. If this is not possible, a substrate should be used to back the samples prior to instrumental measurement.
Numerical Standards
A numerical standard is a set of reflectance values that were obtained either from a physical standard or by deriving a standard. The reflectance values may be stored on paper or electronically. Technically, standards in the database file are numerical standards. Ideally, a numerical standard is defined by spectral data rather than color coordinates. Advantages of Spectral Data Electronically stored numerical standards are easily accessible (just load them from the disk) and may be communicated quickly and easily by telephone, fax, e-mail, etc. In addition, numerical standards never change over time, as could a physical standard. Disadvantages of Spectral Data If the numbers were obtained from a measurement, the numerical standard may not be valid on a system
5.2
Photochromism describes the phenomenon of reversible change in color demonstrated by some materials when they are exposed to light. Materials that demonstrate photochromism include various pharmaceuticals, plastics and cosmetics. These products must be evaluated using consistent levels of illumination. Thermochromism is observed when color changes as a result of a change in temperature. Many industries are aware of this phenomenon. Colorists who work with molded plastics, ceramics, glass and baked-on coatings always wait for their samples to cool to room temperature before taking an instrumental measurement. Colors that exhibit thermochromatic shifts include many yellows, oranges and reds. Fluorescence occurs when optical brighteners, whitening agents or fluorescent dyes or pigments are added to products in an attempt to enhance their whiteness. The effect of such fluorescent agents makes white and yellow-white products appear whiter. Fluorescent colorants (dyes and pigments) are added to produce more brilliant colors. This include materials such as Day-Glo* additives. Optical brighteners, whitening agents, and fluorescent dyes and pigments are found in many textiles, plastics, and paper products. A spectrophotometer can be used to determine the effects of fluorescent agents provided its light source contains ultraviolet energy and a filter that can eliminate these energies. Two measurements are required, one with the UV included and one with UV excluded. If fluorescent agents are present, the two measurements may be quite different.
Daylight Illuminants
Light sources that simulate daylight are preferred for visual color evaluation because of the extreme range they cover, while their complementary illuminants are used for instrumental testing including color matching and metamerism testing. The two most common illuminants for simulating daylight are Illuminant C and Illuminant D65. They are essentially the same, but choose D65 if possible (it is more current and can be reproduced as a light source). The choice of a specific daylight source is based on recommended industry practices or international standards that pertain to a specific product or application. The abbreviations D50, D65, and D75 are used to designate the phases of daylight that are recognized by CIE. North Sky Daylight at 7500K (D75) is the light produced from a moderately overcast sky as one faces north in the northern hemisphere (south in the southern hemisphere). D75 is used for performing visual evaluation of opaque materials as recommended in ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) designation D1729. Average North Sky Daylight at 6500K (D65) conforms with international standards in Europe, the Orient, and South America. It is also used to provide correlation with instrumental measurements. The Detroit Color Council, in conjunction with the SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers), has recently adopted the use of D65 for visual evaluation of automotive interiors and exteriors. Noon Sky Daylight at 5000K (D50) is the desired light source for performing color quality and uniformity evaluation in the graphic arts industry, as specified in ANSI standard PH 2.32 and ISO standard 3664.
Illuminant and Observer Selection

Similar to visual evaluation, it is important to consider these factors when you select an illuminant: If you need to communicate color and appearance with others (other manufacturing plants, suppliers, customers, etc.), make certain that you all use the same illuminants. If you are following an established procedure or standard method, choose the specified illuminant(s). If you are free to choose your own illuminant(s), choose an illuminant that fits your needs. For choosing illuminants, the most important question to answer is, Under what lighting conditions will my product or materials be viewed?
Horizon Daylight
Horizon Daylight at 2300K is provided by using a tungsten halogen lamp operated at half power. It provides the light quality that is found in early morning sunrise or late afternoon sunset. If you can get an acceptable color match using Horizon Daylight (when the sky is the reddest) and North Sky Daylight (when the sky is the bluest), you will probably have a good match in any phase of daylight (all day long).
5.3
Incandescent Illuminants
Choose Illuminant A if the lighting conditions are tungsten (filament) lighting (light bulbs).
Fluorescent Illuminants
Most indoor fluorescent lighting is represented by Illuminant CWF-2. Other fluorescent illuminants are Illuminant DLF-7, Illuminant NBF-11, Illuminant TL83, Illuminant TL84 and Illuminant U30. Illuminant DLF-7 and Illuminant NBF-11 represent fluorescent sources common in the United States. Illuminant TL83 and Illuminant TL84 represent fluorescent sources common in Europe and Asia. Illuminant U30 represents a fluorescent source used in Sears and several other department stores. If you are using a GretagMacbeth SpectraLight Booth or Luminaire, it best to select the illuminants designed to match them. SPL Hor represents the Horizon setting on the SpectraLight booth. SPL D65 and SPL D75 represent the two most common Daylight settings.
also on the chroma of the standard and trial. For example, a hue angle change of 5 degrees may not be visible for a pale color, yet can be unacceptable for a highly saturated color. h (small h) is rarely, if ever, reported because it is virtually meaningless. For this reason, change in hue is expressed as the distance H* (with a capital H) along the chroma arc for the standard. Therefore, for a specific change in angle (lets say 5 degrees), H* is larger for a pair of colors that are far from the neutral axis, and smaller for a pair of colors near the neutral axis. Other common deltas include: L*: negative means the trial is darker, positive means the trial is lighter. a*: negative means the trial is greener (or less red), positive means the trial is redder (or less green). b*: negative means the trial is bluer (or less yellow), positive means the trial is yellower (or less blue). C*: negative means the trial is less saturated, positive means the trial is more saturated. H*: negative means the trial is located clockwise in color space from the standard, positive means the trial is located counter-clockwise in color space from the standard. The meaning of this must be interpreted with the location of the standard. For example, if the hue angle (h) of the standard is 90 degrees, positive H* means the trial is greener, negative H* means the trial is redder (more towards orange).
Observer Selection
For most quality control applications, it does not matter which observer you choose, 2 or 10 degrees, as long as you continue to use that same observer for all measurements. Most users choose a specific observer function because they need to be consistent with other users who have already specified an observer function. If you have no restrictions on which observer to choose, the 10 observer is the best choice. Numerical results will correlate better with visual results.
Total Color Difference

When a standard and trial are plotted in a uniform color space, the distance between them represents the total color difference. Total color difference in a uniform color space is always called E (Delta E). E is always positive, since a negative distance would have no meaning. E is a single value that tells the size of difference between the standard and trial; it tells nothing about the direction of the color difference. Two trials may have the same E versus the standard; one could be lighter with the correct hue and chroma, while the other might be darker, off hue and too high chroma. The general equation for calculating E is:
Color Difference in Color QC

Numerical comparison of trials to the standard is done by calculating color difference.
Deltas in Color Difference

The difference in absolute color coordinates between a trial and a standard quantifies the color difference between the two. These differences are called Deltas. Deltas may be positive or negative, and this affects how they are interpreted. Special Case: * Change in hue angle alone (h) is not meaningful, because the visual difference this represents depends
5.4
l 2
m2 n2
The values substituted for l, m, and n depend on the color space that is selected. For example, in CIELab, L*, a*, and b* are substituted respectively.
Color Differences
= standard
= batch
DE* DL* +a*
+b*
Db* Da*
rectangular coordinates L*a*b*
-b* -a*
+DE* +DL* +b*
= standard
+DH*
= batch
+DC*
neutral gray axis DH - delta hue angle
+a*
polar coordinates L*C*h*
5.5
For practical color quality control, E can be extremely useful for pass/fail decision making, because only one value needs to be checked. However, no uniform color space correlates perfectly with visual response. Therefore, equivalent E values (numbers) do not necessarily represent equivalent visual differences. Two color difference formulas attempt to account for this: CMC (l:c) and FMC-2. CIELab values (L*a*b*) can be used to identify the amount of change in color as a result of change in illumination. For example, a red sample might be evaluated under D65 daylight and then under illuminant F2 (Cool White Fluorescent). Under illuminant F2, the sample will appear slightly lighter, less red and less yellow. CIELab values also allow us to calculate color differences between an established product master or standard and a production trial or sample as shown in the example below.
of three axes along hue, chroma, and lightness based on CIELCh. Color values for samples are essentially the same as those for LCh. The mathematics of CMC change the size and shape of the ellipse as it moves through color space. CMC (l:c) refers to the elliptical tolerance. Samples with DEcmc less than 1.0 fall within an ellipse, while those samples with a DEcmc greater than 1.0 fall outside an ellipse. The equation is designed so that a color difference of 1.0 represents an acceptable color difference. The lightness-to-chromaticity ratio, (l:c), refers to the weighting factors for lightness and chroma. The CMC color difference equation provides adjustment of tolerance ellipses to allow more or less emphasis on lightness or chroma. Specific ratios and commercial factors have been identified by AATCC (American Association of Textile Colorists and Chemists) for use in textile applications. CMC remains the most popular method for elliptical tolerancing found in todays color measurement software.
Color Difference Numbers

Trial L* = 40.40 a* = 48.04 b* = 13.83 Standard L* = 39.90 a* = 54.39 b* = 17.18 Difference DL* = 0.50 Da*=-6.36 Db* = -3.35 Visual Terms Lighter Less Red Less Yellow
Tolerancing (Creating a Tolerance)

Before pass/fail analysis can be performed, it is necessary to determine what degree of color difference is acceptable, and what degree of color difference is not acceptable. This process of creating a tolerance is called tolerancing. Once a color standard has been established, acceptability limits (color tolerances) can be defined. In many color applications, separate color tolerances may be needed for each individual product color. Key factors to consider are: Consistency is critical. Select one color equation and document it accurately. Specify exact calculation. Color instrument software provides the user many selections and combinations. This alone is a major source of user confusion. Avoid fudge factors between different color equations. Use a single equation and specify Delta E in CIELab, FMC-2, CMC, and so forth. Numbers should be confirmed by visual acceptability. The goal of instrumental color analysis is to arrive at values that agree with human assessment.
Nonsymmetrical Color Perception in Color QC

The phenomenon of nonsymmetrical color perception and tolerancing was first defined by work of MacAdam in 1942. Using the 1931 CIE Diagram, MacAdam plotted just-noticeable color differences or color difference thresholds under constant lighting. The smallest differences were perceived in green, then yellow, followed by red. The greatest acceptable differences were found in the blue region of color space. MacAdams work became the basis for elliptical tolerancing that is found in color control software today. Ongoing work to refine color difference formulas continues. In 1983, CMC (Colour Measurement Committee of the Society of Dyers and Colourists) was introduced under British Standard 6923. CMC is a modification to the CIELab equation that improves correlation between visual and instrumental sample tolerancing. CMC defines ellipses made up
5.6
Color Spaces
hue chroma h C L lightness
Example
Pale Gray (nearly wht.) Medium Gray Brilliant Red Brilliant Yellow Green
X value
62.051 27.148 20.025 62.345 17.933
Y value
63.461 27.682 13.632 62.730 24.718
Z value
74.413 32.353 8.832 12.356 19.734
CMC (l:c)
FMC-2
CMC (l:c)
CMC is a color difference equation that was developed by the Color Measurement Committee of the Society of Dyers and Colorists. It was originally intended for pass/fail tolerancing within the textile industry. It has gained wide acceptance in a variety of industries, since its development. The CMC color difference equation resulted from a modification of the CIELab equation and is based on the lightness, chroma and hue of a color (L,C,h). This modification provides a numeric value, DEcmc, which describes the color difference between a standard and a sample in a more uniform color space. This enables the use of a single number tolerance for judging the acceptability of a color match in which the tolerance is independent of the color of the standard. This single number, DEcmc, represents the volume of the acceptance ellipsoid around the standard. The ellipsoid automatically varies in size/shape depending upon the position of the color in color space. The graphic shows how the equations allow the shape, size and orientation of the ellipse to change as it moves throughout CIELab color space with a DEcmc of 1.0.
The equation enables the user to alter the overall size of the ellipse to provide better correlation with visual acceptability of their product. The eye typically allows for greater shifts in the lightness direction than in either the chroma or hue direction. This is the purpose of the 1:c ratio within the CMC equation. A user can indicate the desired ratio of lightness to chroma in the ellipsoid. The ratio selected depends upon the product and the requirements for producing a color match. Generally, it is recommended that a ratio of 2:1 be evaluated and, if necessary, altered higher or lower depending upon performance. A CMC (1:c) ratio of 1:1 is recommended for the judgment of color difference perceptibilty, while a ratio of 2:1 is recommended for the judgment of color difference acceptabilty.
FMC-2
FMC-2 is not really a color space, but rather a color difference equation developed by Friele, MacAdam and Chickering (hence the abbreviation FMC). It was developed from test results based on justnoticeable difference. XYZxy values are simply tristimulus values and chromaticity coordinates and represent the absolute values displayed when FMC-2 is selected. DRG and DYB are the delta values between two colors. L is an abbreviation for Delta Light/Dark and represents change in lightness/darkness. DRG is an abbreviation for Delta Red/Green and represents change in redness/greenness. DYB is an abbreviation for Delta Yellow/Blue and represents change in yellowness/blueness. Delta E (E) represents total color difference. The FMC-2 equations are designed so that a E of 1.0 represents a just-noticeable difference, regardless of the color in question.
2.14
In many cases, but not all, the final judge is the human. Color is accepted or rejected based on its visual appearance. This reinforces the importance of control in visual and instrumental color assessment. Problems in Setting Color Tolerancing There is great confusion and misunderstanding about setting color tolerances. The following guidelines will help eliminate some of the confusion. It is better to start with a wide tolerance and tighten it to acceptable limits, rather than to begin with a very tight tolerance and widen it to fit the data. Avoid setting a tolerance at the minimum perceptible difference. In almost all applications, the limits of acceptability are greater than limits of perceptibility. Tolerances should agree with acceptability criteria that are established between a customer and supplier.
Tolerances
+ delta b* yellower
+1.0 +0.5
- delta a* greener + delta a* redder
-1.0
-0.5
+0.5 -0.5
+1.0
- 1.0
- delta b* bluer
rectangular tolerances
Tolerances Based on Individual Deltas

Individual tolerance values may be assigned to each of the deltas in color space. The combined tolerances define a volume of acceptability in color space. The shape of this volume depends on the color space chosen. Rectangular Tolerances In a rectangular-coordinate color space (CIELab, Lab), delta-value tolerances define a rectangular volume in color space. The main advantage is that this volume is easy to imagine. The main disadvantage is that colors near the corners, even though they are within tolerance, are likely to exhibit an unacceptable visual difference, or if the tolerance boundary cube is made too small, you could reject samples numerically that are visually acceptable. Polar Tolerances In a polar-coordinate color space (CIELCh), delta-value tolerances define a region shaped like a keystone. Imagine bending a rectangular wooden beam around until the ends meet, then cut a small section from the beam. The small section is typical of a volume defined by delta tolerances in a polar coordinate system. The main advantage is that this volume corresponds to visual assessment better than a rectangular volume (though not perfectly). The main disadvantage is that this volume is difficult to imagine and communicate.
Chroma
Hue
= Standard
polar tolerances
+ delta b* yellower
+1.0 +0.5
- delta a* greener + delta a* redder
-1.0
-0.5
+0.5 -0.5
+1.0
-1.0
- delta b* bluer
elliptical tolerances
5.7
Manual Tolerancing
Tolerances may be generated manually in any of the forms available (rectangular, polar, or elliptical). Tolerances can be created anew or simply be adjustments made to tolerances generated using any of the automatic techniques. Rectangular (Manual Tolerancing) Manual tolerances for CIELab or Hunter Lab color space define a rectangular volume of acceptance, because these are rectangular coordinate color spaces. The rectangular tolerance volume is specified by positive and negative tolerance values for L*, a* and b* (or L, a and b for Hunter Lab). The rectangular tolerance volume may not be symmetrical around the standard (for example, the +a* tolerance does not have to be of equal magnitude as the -a* tolerance). Polar (Manual Tolerancing) Manual tolerances for CIELCh color space define a keystone-shaped volume of acceptability. The tolerance volume is specified by positive and negative tolerance values for L*, C* and H*. A typical tolerance volume is slightly narrower (in the H* direction) for lower chroma values, and slightly wider for higher chroma values. For numerical delta calculation, both distances are considered the same. Numerical delta calculation correlates to the volume specified only if the tolerance for C* is not unreasonably large. Elliptical (Manual Tolerancing) An elliptical tolerance can be specified in any of the available color spaces (CIELab, CIELCh and Lab). CMC and FMC-2 are color difference formulas that apply an elliptical tolerance automatically. Major/Minor Axes An ellipsoid (a three-dimensional ellipse) is defined by the lengths of three axes, the longest of which is called the major axis. The two others are called minor axes. The standard is located at the center of the ellipsoid. To define the axes in CIELab (or Hunter Lab), one axis is defined by L* (or L), the second is defined by a* (or ( a), and the third is defined by b* (or b). To define the axes in CIELCh, one axis is defined by L*, the second is defined by C*, and the third is defined by H*.
Total Color Difference Tolerances

Tolerancing based on total color difference (E) is easy to implement because only one value (E) needs to have limits. Setting a tolerance for CIELab E* creates a spherical volume of acceptability in CIELab space. Theoretically, a E* of 1.0 represents the typical threshold of acceptability. In practice, the proper value depends on the material, the color of the standard, and ultimately what is acceptable to the concerned parties. Because CIELab is not a perfectly uniform color space, E* should be used to call attention to suspicious trials rather than as an absolute pass/fail determinant. If a trial fails the established E* tolerance, inspect the component Deltas, and perform a visual assessment. Setting a tolerance for CIELCh E creates a spherical volume of acceptability in CIELCh space. In fact, the results are exactly the same as setting a E tolerance in CIELab space. Theoretically, a E of 1.0 represents the typical threshold of acceptability. In practice, the proper value depends on the material, the color of the standard, and ultimately what is acceptable to the concerned parties. Because CIELCh is not a perfectly uniform color space, E should be used to call attention to suspicious trials, rather than as an absolute pass/fail determinant; if a trial fails the E tolerance, inspect the component deltas, and perform a visual assessment. Setting a tolerance for CMC (l:c) E creates an ellipsoidal volume of acceptability in CIELCh space. The Ecmc equation was designed such that the shape and size of the ellipse change depending on the location of the standard in CIELCh space, and so that the ellipse for E of 1.0 represents a justnoticeable-difference from the standard. Therefore, Ecmc can be used more confidently as a pass/fail determinant. If a trial fails the Ecmc tolerance, a visual assessment is recommended. FMC-2 E color difference equation was developed based on research on just-noticeable-difference perception. The complex equation converts MacAdam ellipses into spheres of the same size. The radius of these spheres is 1.0 MacAdam units. Therefore, if the EFMC-2 between trial and standard is less than 1.0, the difference between trial and standard should not be visible under normal circumstances.
5.8
Pass/Fail Analysis (Applying a Tolerance to Color Data)

The whole purpose for generating tolerances is to allow pass/fail analysis to be performed on measured samples. Pass/fail analysis is performed as follows: A trial is measured. If the trial falls inside the tolerance volume, it passes. If the trial falls on or outside the tolerance volume, it fails. If a trial fails, we recommend using visual evaluation. This will help verify that the tolerances are appropriate, or help identify a process problem. If an unacceptably large number of trials fail, tolerances may need to be adjusted or the process may no longer be under control.
If a trial fails, what should I do? If a trial fails, but you are not sure why, check the following items: 1. Check the trial Delta E values for all illuminants. If all Delta E values pass, 2. Check the component delta values for all illuminants. If all the component deltas seem to pass, 3. Check the color plot for all illuminants; the trial may be outside the volume of acceptability defined by the current tolerancing options. If the trial appears to be inside the volume for all illuminants, 4. Check the lightness component delta value; if the lightness delta value is large enough, the trial may still be outside the volume of acceptability defined by the tolerance options, but still appear as if it falls within all three component delta tolerances.
Special Pass/Fail Situations

A trial fails based on two general criteria: If the trial plots outside the volume of acceptability defined by the component delta tolerances (for example, Delta L*, Delta a*, etc.), or If the total color difference (Delta E) between the trial and the standard is larger than the total color difference tolerance. With elliptical tolerancing, the component deltas define the lengths of the ellipse axes. Mathematically, the deltas for a trial may fall within the values of the tolerance, but fall outside the ellipse defined by the tolerances. To understand this, think of the ellipse as a rectangle with its corners rounded off; the trial may plot within that portion of the rectangle that is cut off by applying elliptical tolerancing. For this reason, component deltas for a trial may be indicated as failing, even though the delta is less than the allowable delta (the tolerance value). When CMC is the selected equation, pass or fail is determined on Delta E alone (using the current l:c ratio and Delta E tolerance values). When FMC-2 is the selected equation, pass or fail is determined based on the component delta tolerance values as well as the Delta E tolerance values.
Indices
Interpreting color coordinates can be tedious, depending on exactly which characteristic of the material you need to quantify. Indices are single values that are calculated differently from color coordinates. Most of them are intended to provide a single value for assessing the sample, rather than having to interpret the meaning of color coordinates.
Yellowness Indices
Yellowness is defined by ASTM as the attribute by which an object color is judged to depart from colorless or a preferred white toward yellow. Negative values denote blueness (ASTM designation E284-93a). The ASTM Yellowness indices are intended to be used for near-white samples that have a dominant (or complementary) wavelength between 570 and 580 nm. For samples that do not meet these criteria, these index values may be meaningless. The Yellowness indices report a zero value for measurements that match the preferred white. Positive values indicate the sample measured deviates from the preferred white towards yellow. Negative values indicate the sample measured deviates from the preferred white towards blue. ASTM D1925 Yellowness Index was developed specifically for determining the yellowness of homogeneous, nonfluorescent, nearly colorless transparent
5.9
or nearly white translucent or opaque plastics, as viewed under daylight lighting conditions. It can also be applied to materials other than plastic fitting this description. The equation for YI D1925 is:
YI = 100 x (1.28X 1.06Z) Y
Values greater than 100 indicate a bluish white, while values less than 100 indicate a yellowish white. Berger (59) Whiteness Index is specified for illuminant C and 2 observer function only. However, the equation is commonly used with other illuminants and observer functions, and therefore the value shown will depend on the primary illuminant and the observer function you have chosen. The equation for this whiteness index is:
WIBerger(59) = 0.333Y + 125 Z X 125 Z0 X0
where Y and Z are the tristimulus values for the sample calculated using CIE Illuminant C. ASTM E313 Yellowness Index has been applied successfully to a variety of white or near-white materials, including paints, plastics and textiles. The definition of yellowness for this method is the attribute by which an object color is judged to depart from a preferred white toward yellow. Negative values denote blueness. The equation for YI E 313 is:
YI =100 x 1 0.847Z Y
where X, Y and Z are the tristimulus values for the sample, and X0 and Z0 are tristimulus values for the illuminant/observer combination. Values greater than 33.33 indicate a bluish white, while values less than 33.33 indicate a yellowish white. Stensby Whiteness Index is defined by the equation:
WIStensby = L 3b + 3a
where X, Y and Z are the tristimulus values for the sample calculated using CIE Illuminant C.
where L, a and b are Hunter Lab color coordinates. Values greater than 100 indicate a bluish white, while values less than 100 indicate a yellowish white. Taube Whiteness Index is specified for the illuminant C and 2 observer function only. However, the equation is commonly used with other illuminants and observer functions, and therefore the value shown will depend on the primary illuminant and the observer function you have chosen. The equation for this whiteness index is:
WITaube = 400 Z 3Y Z0
Whiteness Indices
Whiteness is defined by ASTM as the attribute by which an object color is judged to approach the preferred white. A variety of whiteness indices are available. Regardless of which one you choose, it is important to understand how the numerical value relates to visual assessment. It is also important to communicate which one you chose to other affected parties. If other parties have specified which one to use, be sure to use the one specified. CIE Ganz Whiteness Index is specified by the CIE for the D65 in combination with either 2 or 10 observer function. However, the equation is commonly used with other illuminants, and therefore the value shown will depend on the primary illuminant you have chosen. The equation for this whiteness index is: WICIE = Y - 800(xn - x) - 1700 (yn - y) where Y is the tristimulus value for the sample, x and y are chromaticity coordinates for the sample as calculated using the illuminant/observer combination, and xn and yn are chromaticity coordinates for the illuminant/observer combination.
where Y and Z are the tristimulus values for the sample and Z0 is a tristimulus value for the illuminant/ observer combination. Values greater than 100 indicate a bluish white, while values less than 100 indicate a yellowish white Hunter (60) Whiteness Index is defined by the equation:
WIHunter = L 3b
where L and b are Hunter Lab color coordinates. Values greater than 100 indicate a bluish white, while values less than 100 indicate a yellowish white.
5.10
Strength Indices
In general, the strength indices are used for determining the difference in strength between the standard and sample. If the standard and sample are prepared from different batches of the same colorant, the difference in strength between the two batches can be measured. The strength indices allow you to determine how strong or weak a trial is in relation to the standard. Strength adjustment of spectral data adjusts the spectral data of trials to be equivalent in strength to the standard; the adjusted spectral data is used for all subsequent calculations (color coordinates, indices, etc.). This is useful for determining color difference only, regardless of strength differences. Chromatic Strength Index is the ratio of (K/S) for the trial versus (K/S) for the standard, expressed as a percentage, at a single wavelength. It can be calculated at any user-specified wavelength:
versus the sum of (K/S) values at all visible wavelengths for the standard, expressed as a percent:
(K / S) Strength% = 100 x (K / S)
400 700 400
700
trial
std
(K / S) =
( 1 R )2 2R
where R is reflectance at the wavelength of maximum absorbance (minimum reflectance), expressed as a decimal fraction (for example, 20%R = 0.20R). For transmission measurements:
R = log10 (1/T)
where T is transmittance expressed as a decimal fraction (for example, 20%T = 0.20T). Percent strength greater than 100% indicates the trial is stronger than the standard. Percent strength less than 100% indicates the trial is weaker than the standard. Percent strength equal to 100% indicates the trial is equal in strength to the standard. Apparent Strength Index considers the difference in reflectance at all wavelengths to determine the strength of the trial. The choice of illuminant/observer combination has no bearing on this strength index. Integrated Strength Index is the ratio sum of (K/S) values times the sum of the weighting function values for the illuminant/observer combination at all wavelengths for the trial versus the sum of (K/S) values times the sum of the weighting function values for the illuminant/observer combination at all wavelengths for the standard expressed as a percentage:
Strength% = 100 x
(K / S)trial (K / S)std
(K / S) =
(1R)2 2R
where R is reflectance at the wavelength of maximum absorbance (minimum reflectance), expressed as a decimal fraction (for example, 20%R = 0.20R). For transmission measurements:
R = log10 (1/T)
where T is transmittance expressed as a decimal fraction (for example, 20%T = 0.20T). Percent strength greater than 100% indicates the trial is stronger than the standard. Percent strength less than 100% indicates the trial is weaker than the standard. Percent strength equal to 100% indicates the trial is equal in strength to the standard. Chromatic Strength Index is named chromatic because it is calculated at one wavelength only, usually at the wavelength of maximum absorbance (minimum reflectance), because this wavelength usually affects the color of the material more than any other wavelength. The choice of illuminant/observer combination has no bearing on this strength index. Apparent Strength Index is the ratio of the sum of the (K/S) values at all visible wavelengths for the trial
(K / S)(f + f + f ) Strength% = 100 x (K / S)(f + f + f )

x y
400 700
700
z trial
z std
400
(K / S) =
( 1 R )2 2R
where R is reflectance at the wavelength of maximum absorbance (minimum reflectance), expressed as a decimal fraction (for example, 20%R = 0.20R). fx, fy and fz are the weighting function values for the illuminant/observer combination.
5.11
For transmission measurements:
R = log10 (1/T)
where T is transmittance expressed as a decimal fraction (for example, 20%T = 0.20T). Percent strength greater than 100% indicates the trial is stronger than the standard. Percent strength less than 100% indicates the trial is weaker than the standard. Percent strength equal to 100% indicates the trial is equal in strength to the standard. The Integrated Strength Index is affected by the weighting functions for the illuminant/observer combination. For example, a comparison for a red colorant will have a smaller apparent strength difference if Illuminant D65 is chosen, than if Illuminant A is chosen.
(2) If the MI value is significantly greater than zero (greater than about 1.0 or 2.0), the trial is likely to exhibit a noticeable color difference from the standard under the source represented by the secondary illuminant. You may be able to achieve an acceptable color difference for both primary and secondary illuminants, and decrease the MI. If you are concerned about color difference with one illuminant only, your goal is to decrease E for that illuminant alone. If you are concerned about color difference with two illuminants, your goal is to decrease MI between the two illuminants.
Orange Juice (OJ) Index

This index was developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture for use with the GretagMacbeth Color-Eye 2020+ or GretagMacbeth Color-Eye 3000 spectrophotometers equipped with an orange juice test tube holder accessory.
Metamerism Index
The Metamerism Index (MI) indicates how likely a pair of specimens will exhibit the same color difference under two different light sources (represented by the primary and secondary illuminants). The equation is:
MI = (L *1 L *2 ) + (a *1 a* 2 ) + (b *1 b *2 )
2 2 2
TAPPI Brightness and Opacity

You can obtain any of the following standards directly from TAPPI (Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Industries) in the United States: Telephone (USA): 1-800-332-8686 Write: TAPPI, Technology Park/Atlanta, P.O. Box 105113, Atlanta, GA 30310 T 452 TAPPI Brightness (1977) is typically used only in the paper industry for evaluating the quality of untreated pulp, paper, and paperboard. TAPPI Test Method T 452 (1977) is not recommended for evaluating the normal color appearance of whites, especially if fluorescent agents are present; use one of the whiteness indices instead. T 452 TAPPI Brightness (1987) provides equivalent results to that described in TAPPI official Test Method T 452. It was originally designated the official standard in 1987. The result is typically used only in the paper industry for evaluating the quality of untreated pulp, paper, and paperboard. Test Method T 452 (1987) is not recommended for evaluating the normal color appearance of whites, especially if fluorescent agents are present; use one of the whiteness indices instead. T 525 TAPPI Brightness (1986) provides a measure of the diffuse brightness of pulp (d/0). Diffuse reflectance is measured at an effective wavelength of 457 nm. The method is used to evaluate the diffuse blue reflectance factor (diffuse brightness) of pulp by measuring handsheets prepared using TAPPI
where L*1, a*1, b*1 are the Delta CIELab color coordinates between standard and trial calculated with the primary illuminant and L*2, a*2, b*2 are the Delta CIELab color coordinates between standard and trial calculated with the secondary illuminant. If the MI is low, the color difference between the pair is essentially the same for both illuminants. This means the visual difference between the pair will be the same under both light sources represented. The colors may not necessarily match, but the color difference will be the same. If the MI is high, the color difference between the pair is not the same for both illuminants. This means the visual difference between the pair will be different under the two different light sources represented. The pair may match under one source, but not under the other. A practical use for this index is as follows: (1) If a trial exhibits a very low color difference for the primary illuminant, it will match the standard under the source represented by the primary illuminant.
5.12
Test Method T 218, Forming Handsheets for Reflectance Tests of Pulp. TAPPI Test Method T 525 (1986) is not recommended for evaluating the normal color appearance of whites, especially if fluorescent agents are present; use one of the whiteness indices instead. TAPPI T 425 Opacity is a measure of opacity (sometimes called hiding power or contrast ratio). Basically, it is a measure of how opaque a substance is. It is the ratio of Y tristimulus for the sample measured over a black substrate divided by Y tristimulus for the sample measured over a white substrate, expressed as a percentage:
XYZ Ratios
XYZ ratio compare a tristimulus value (X, Y and Z) for the trial versus the corresponding tristimulus value for the standard, expressed as a percentage. The ratios are calculated as follows: 100 (Xtrial/Xstd), 100 (Ytrial/Ystd), 100 (Ztrial/Zstd). The XYZ ratios can be used to determine relative strength of a trial versus the standard.
Limitations of Color Measurement Systems

Color measurement systems (instrument and software together) are excellent for color quality control and formulation. However, there are some limitations that are important to consider when implementing these systems.
100 x
Yoverblack Yoverwhite
This calculation is based on the 1931 standard observer (2 degree observer) and Illuminant A. A contrast ratio of 100% means the substance is totally opaque (Y is the same no matter what the substrate is, black or white). In theory, a perfectly clear sample would have a contrast ratio of 0%; the lowest practical value is about 1%. TAPPI T 519 Diffuse Opacity is a measure of printing opacity and should not be confused with TAPPI T 425, Opacity of Paper (15 degrees/ diffuse Illuminant A, 89% reflectance backing and paper backing) measurement of the opacity. This calculation is based on the 1931 standard observer (2 degree observer) and Illuminant C. The method indicates the extent to which a single sheet of paper hides (obscures) printed matter on underlying sheets of similar composition.
Correlation with Visual Response

Color coordinates, differences, indices, and so forth that are calculated with the existing mathematical models correspond fairly well to visual response, under certain conditions. Most of the models were developed in conjunction with visual assessment experiments. However, the conditions are usually quite limited, and therefore the numerical results should always be interpreted in conjunction with visual assessment. The numerical results should never be represented as absolute, because they depend on a large number of variables. For example, never consider the CIELab values printed on the back of a tile as absolute. The values are there for reference only. They should be used only as absolute targets for the instrument specified, and only for the instrument and software configuration specified. Also, values depend on the illuminant/observer combination. When developing a standard and tolerances for color coordinates or index values, be sure to correlate the results you get with visual assessment. Continue to use visual assessment until the correlation with numerical results is established and well understood. Then, visual assessment can be decreased, sometimes to the point where it is necessary for exceptions only. Visual assessment should always be used for exceptions (rejects or returns). If the color measurement system rejects a production sample, verify with visual assessment. If a customer rejects a shipment, reassess the shipment instrumentally and verify with visual
5.13
AATCC Gray Scales

The following are special gray scales developed by the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC). AATCC Gray Scale for Color Change assesses color fastness by using a gray scale for determining changes in color and complies with ISO 105-A02-1978 (E). A 5-step scale consists of five pairs of non-glossy gray color chips (or swatches of gray cloth) that illustrate the perceived color differences corresponding to fastness ratings of 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1. AATCC Gray Scale Staining assesses color fastness by using a gray scale for determining staining of adjacent fabrics and complies with ISO 105-A03-1978 (E). A 5-step scale consists of five pairs of non-glossy gray or white color chips (or swatches of gray cloth) that illustrate the perceived color differences corresponding to fastness ratings of 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1.
assessment. Above all, make sure you understand your customers requirements, and how they determine if those requirements are met.
Companies that use proactive color control are not faced with the same excess scrap materials produced at sites that evaluate color reactively.
Interinstrument Agreement
Theoretically (and ideally), two instruments of the same design should measure a sample exactly the same. All measuring devices are subject to variability; spectrophotometers are complex devices with many inherent variables. Therefore, even two instruments of the same design will exhibit slight differences in measurement results. Most modern spectrophotometers of the same exact design can measure the same sample to within 0.2 CIELab E of each other. The more differences between the instruments being compared, the greater difference in absolute values you can expect. Instruments do not need to be accurate (meaning able to provide absolute measurements of a specimen that can be verified by another similar instrument) because of the way they are used. They are best used for color difference measurement, not for absolute color measurement.
Cost of Poor Color Quality

In todays business it is difficult to assign a dollar value to acceptable color quality. It is far easier to measure the cost of scrap, mismatched goods, production downtime, and the cost to rework in terms of lost throughput, labor, and material. In general, the more color applications you involve in your process, the more complicated the color management process becomes. For example, an automobile manufacturer must manage color for its paint, plastics, textile and ink components. The large community of subassembly suppliers to automotive manufacturers needs accurate color specifications so that the car interior is acceptable and harmonious to its users. Plastic parts must match the painted parts, and both must look right next to fabrics or leather upholstery.
Phases of a Color Quality Program

There are several key phases in the development of a color quality program. No single phase in the following list is any more important than its neighbor. Every phase of the process has a beginning (color desired) and end (color achieved). Design and color specification. Color matching and formulation. Visual and instrumental (hardware/software) analysis. Quality control of the color manufacturing process. Applications procedures and methods. Training and education. Retail and consumer preferences. Reducing variability between the desired color and the color achieved can be accomplished only through effective communication throughout the supply chain. This communication must include: Accurate specification of the desired color. Accurate color formulation. Accurate visual assessment of color. Accurate instrumental assessment of color.
Instrumental Color QC A Summary

Color quality can be affected by many dependent and independent variables. As one color formula constituent increases, for example, the color will change in a predictable way (deeper, darker, lighter, and so forth). If independent outside variables such as temperature, humidity, ultraviolet exposure, pressure, or other external phenomena occur, color can also be affected. For example, temperature can cause thermochromatic changes, while ultraviolet exposure could result in color fading.
Proactive Color Control

Before the final color is determined in the manufacturing process, it can be checked throughout each critical step and evaluated for acceptability in a defined range or color tolerance. In most cases proactive color control can be conducted with Pass/Fail criteria. This process is proactive, because it is traceable to a specific part of the color manufacturing process. The approach is cost effective because it can isolate and fix those variables that cause the process to go out of control.
5.14
Accurate quality control of color manufacturing process. Effective training and educational materials. Satisfaction of all of these requirements delivers the customer satisfaction that results in increased sales and ultimately improved share of market for your product.
Instrumental Color Evaluation Method

Instrumental Analysis
Color Measurement Spectrophotometer: GretagMacbeth Color-Eye 7000A
Sphere-Based (D8)
CIE Observer: 10 degree CIE Illuminant: D65
Instrumental Color Evaluation Documentation

The best way to ensure that everyone is following your standard visual and instrumental color evaluation method is to put it in writing. This written method should be communicated to customers, suppliers and any persons involved in making color decisions at your company. A sample outline for a comprehensive color evaluation program is given to encourage the use of similar methods for individual product applications or company-wide standardization and communication. The information provided serves as guidance. Successful color control programs bring together all the factors relating to the light source, object and human observers and apply control, consistency and communication. Then and only then can color data be produced that is meaningful and agrees with our visual evaluations and those of our customers. This is the final goal of any color analysis and brings everything back to the starting point, the eye and brain combination and how color and appearance are perceived.
Secondary Illuminants: Cool White Fluorescent,
Illuminant A
Color Scale: L*a*b* (CIELab) Measurement Mode: Reflectance, SCE,
UV included, LAV
Number of Measurements: Average = 3 Color Difference: CIELab Delta E* 1.0 with no
single component greater than 60% of total

Gloss Measurement Glossmeter: 60 degree Target Gloss and Tolerance: 45 2 gloss units
Visual Analysis
Viewing Conditions Lighting Product: GretagMacbeth SpectraLight II with UV Primary Light Source: D65 Filtered Tungsten Secondary Light Sources: Cool White Fluorescent,
Illuminant A
Viewing Geometry: 0/45 Surround: Munsell N 7/ Color Standards Sample Size (standard and trial): 3'' x 5'' (desired) Sample Orientation: Side-By-Side, Always Touching Color Standard Storage: Filed in nonacidic envelope Color Tolerance: Munsell Color Tolerance Set Color Analysis Color Vision Testing: Farnsworth-Munsell 100 Hue Test Color Communication: Based on Munsell Hue Terms: Redder, Yellower, Greener, Bluer Value Terms: Lighter, Darker Chroma Terms: Stronger, Weaker Modifiers: Slightly, Moderately, Much
5.15
Glossary of Terms
A
Absorbance
Absorbance is light-stopping ability. The higher the value, the more light the sample absorbs. Values typically range from 0 to 3.0. Mathematically, absorbance is calculated A = log10(1/T) where T is transmittance, expressed as a decimal from 0 to 1 (for example, 0.5R is 50%R). This is the same equation used to calculate density in graphic arts and photography applications.
B
Beers Law
Describes the mathematical relationship between the absorption of light energy relative to the concentration of a dye or pigment.
Black Body (Planckian) Locus

The set of points on a chromaticity diagram representing the colors of perfect radiators having various color temperatures.
G
Glossary
Achromatic Color
A neutral color (white, gray or black) that has no hue.
Black Body Radiator

In theory, an object that absorbs all energy that comes into contact with it.
Additive Color Mixture

Mixing of the three primary color lights (red, green and blue) to obtain colors. For example, combining green and red creates yellow, red and blue creates magenta, and blue and green creates cyan.
Brightness
Both the saturation and lightness of product color.
Adaptation
The ability of the eye to adjust to different light sources or light levels. This allows the visual system to adjust its sensitivity to different lighting conditions.
C
Chroma
Attribute of color used in the Munsell Color System to indicate the degree of departure from a gray of the same value. Correlates with dimension of saturation.
Angle of Incidence
The angle at which a beam of light strikes the surface of an object compared to the perpendicular to the object surface.
Chromatic
Having color (hue); not neutral (black, white or gray).
Angle of Reflection
The angle at which a beam of light is reflected from the surface of an object compared to the perpendicular to the object surface.
Chromaticity Diagram
In practical terms, a two-dimensional graph on which a color may be plotted according to its hue and chroma. The third dimension of this graph is the luminance factor, or lightness, which is independent of hue or chroma. The location of a point on this graph indicates roughly what color it is (red, green, blue, purple, and so forth) and how saturated it appears. This information must be interpreted with caution, since the coordinates of neutral colors differ with each illuminant. The coordinates can rarely be interpreted with appearance unless the illuminant is specified. A plot of all colors has a characteristic horseshoe shape.
Angle of View
The angle at which a sample is viewed compared to the perpendicular to the surface.
Apparent Color Temperature

The color appearance of a light source related to the absolute color temperature of a black body radiator having the same color.
Attribute
Distinguishing characteristic of a sensation, perception or mode of appearance.
CIE
The abbreviation for the French title of the International Commission on Illumination, Commission
G.1
Internationale de lclairage. The Commission is devoted to standardization in illumination and related areas that include color. The CIE operates through a series of committees.
Color Attribute
Three-dimensional characteristic of the appearance of an object. One dimension usually defines the lightness, the other two together define color.
CIE Luminosity Function (Y)

A plot of the relative magnitude of the visual response as a function of wavelength from about 380 to 790 nm, adopted by CIE in 1931.
Color Constancy
Relative independence of perceived object color to changes in color of the light source.
Color Difference, Visual CIE Standard Observer

The observer data for a 2 degree field of view, adopted by the CIE in 1931 to represent the response of the average human eye, when adapted to an equal energy spectrum. A supplementary 10 degree observer was adopted in 1964. The difference between two colors that the human eye sees. It is usually described in qualitative terms such as lighter, darker, redder, greener, bluer, yellower, paler, more saturated, and so forth.
Color Difference, Numerical

The difference between color coordinate values for two different samples. Numerical color difference quantifies the difference between two colors.
CIE Tristimulus Values

Amounts (in percent) of the three components (RGB) necessary in a three-color additive mixture required for matching a color.
Color Difference Equations

Mathematical equations that calculate the magnitude of difference between two colors. Some equations convert CIE coordinates into more uniform differences that more closely simulate visual perception of color difference.
CIELab
A uniform (opponent color scale) color space in which colors are located within a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system; the three dimensions are lightness (L*), redness/greenness (a*) and yellowness/blueness (b*). CIELab is part of the current CIE recommendations. A uniform color space utilizing an Adams Nickerson cube root formula, adopted by the CIE in 1976 for use in the measurement of small color differences. Pronounced see-lab and also referred to as L*a*b* (pronounced, el-star, ay-star, bee-star).
Color Matching Function

Relative amounts of the three additive primaries (red, green and blue) required to match wavelengths of light.
Color Measurement Scale

A system of specifying numerically the perceived attributes of color.
CIELCh
A uniform (opponent color scale) color space in which colors are located within a three-dimensional polar coordinate system; the three dimensions are lightness (L*), chroma (C*), and hue angle (h). CIELCh is part of the current CIE recommendations. To pronounce CIELCh, just say the letters.

Measure of the amount of color change that objects exhibit when illuminated by a light source as compared with the color of those same objects when illuminated by a reference source of comparable color temperature.
Color Space CMC

Also CMC (l:c). A color difference formula based on the CIELCh (opponent color scale) color space, in which equivalent total color difference values represent equivalent visual differences, regardless of the color. In general, a collection of systematically ordered colors, or a system of ordering colors. A color space can be defined by a physical collection of samples or by a mathematical system. In the context of instrumental color measurement, a three-dimensional volume defined by a set of equations, in which any color may be located precisely based on instrumental measurement. For example, the three-dimensional volume described by the CIELab system is called CIELab color space (CIELab is an opponent color scale).
Color Aptitude
The ability to work with and understand color; includes both inherited skills and work experience.
G.2
Color Tolerance
An acceptable color difference between a standard (master) and a trial (batch).
Delta Reflectance
The difference in reflectance values, at each wavelength, between trials and the standard. Positive delta reflectance means the trial reflects more light than the standard. Negative delta reflectance means the trial reflects less light than the standard.
Colorant
Any dye or pigment that provides color to a material or mixture.
Delta Transmittance Colorant Mixture

A mixture of dyes or pigments. The difference in transmittance values, at each wavelength, between trials and the standard. Positive delta transmittance means the trial transmits more light than the standard. Negative delta transmittance means the trial transmits less light than the standard.
Colorimeter
An instrument designed to measure light reflected or transmitted by a sample, which can be correlated with a psychophysical description of color.
Delta Value Conditional Match

A set of samples which appear to match under a limited set of conditions such as light source or viewing angle. A conversational term for delta color coordinate; sometimes, the word deltas is used. For example, in CIELab calculations, Delta L*, Delta a* and Delta b* are all called CIELab delta values or CIELab deltas. This term is used to facilitate spoken communication.
Correlated Color Temperature

The temperature in degrees Kelvin of a point on a black body locus which most closely resembles the light source.
Dialog Box
A window that appears temporarily to request information. Many dialog boxes have options you must choose before Microsoft* Windows* can carry out a command.
D
Delta Absorbance
The difference in absorbance values, at each wavelength, between trials and the standard. Positive delta absorbance means the trial absorbs more light than the standard. Negative delta absorbance means the trial absorbs less light than the standard.
Diffuse Reflection
Reflection in which light energy is scattered in many directions by diffusion at or below the surface.
Diffuse Transmission
Diffusion of light energy being transmitted through a sample and subject to the laws of refraction.
Delta E
E or DE. The generic name for total color difference, and is used to indicate total color difference for all uniform color spaces. Total color difference (Delta E) is a single number that expresses the magnitude (size, degree, amount) of difference between two colors. The value tells nothing about the nature of the color difference.
Diffused Light
Nondirectional or scattered light.
E
Ellipsoid
A solid whose plane sections are all ellipses (closed curves produced when a cone is cut obliquely to its axis by a plane).
Delta K/S
The difference in K/S values, at each wavelength, between trials and the standard. Positive delta K/S means the trial has a higher absorption-toscattering ratio than the standard. Negative delta K/S means the trial has a lower absorption-toscattering ratio than the standard.
G.3
F
Flair
The change in hue of a sample when the light source is changed; the opposite of color constancy.
reflected at selected specular angles, such as 20 degrees from the perpendicular, 45, 60, 75, and 85 degrees. Results obtained are very dependent on instrument design, calibration technique used, types of samples, and so forth.
Fluorescence
Process by which energy, usually UV, is absorbed by certain chemicals or materials and re-emitted at other, usually longer, wavelengths.
Goniochromatic
Adjective used to describe a colored material that exhibits goniochromatism.
Goniochromatism
The phenomenon where the color of a material changes as the angle of illumination or viewing is changed.
Fluorescent Lamp
A low pressure mercury electric-discharge lamp in which a fluorescing coating (phosphor) transforms some ultraviolet energy generated by the discharge into visible light.
Goniospectrophotometer
An instrument used to measure a spectrophotometric curve at various angles of incidence and reflectance. The angles of incidence and reflectance can be changed or are offered at fixed intervals (e.g., 15, 45, 75, 110 degrees).
Fluorescent Whitening Agent (FWA)

A fluorescent dye or pigment that absorbs UV energy and re-emits the energy at a higher wavelength as visible light (violet blue) thereby causing a white appearance.
H
Haze
The scattering of light by a specimen responsible for the apparent reduction of contrast of objects viewed through it or contrast of objects viewed by reflection at the surface.
FMC-2
A color difference equation developed by Friele, MacAdam and Chickering. The equation was derived from the results of an extensive visual assessment experiment. For most colors, a total color difference (Delta E) value of 1.0 represents a justnoticeable difference.
Hue Foot Candle

The quantity of light at a point on a plane surface one foot from and perpendicular to a standard candle. The attribute of color used in the Munsell Color System by which we distinguish red from green, blue from yellow, and so forth.
G
The characteristics associated with light distribution from an object including gloss, haze, texture, shape, viewing angle and surround.
I
Illuminant
An illuminant is a mathematical representation of a theoretical real light source, used for calculating tristimulus values from a spectrophotometric measurement. The numbers represent relative power of the theoretical source at each point in the visible spectrum. The relative power distribution of a real source could be used for calculation, but real sources are difficult to standardize.
Geometric Metamerism
The property exhibited by a pair of samples (usually highly textured) that appear to match at one illumination and viewing angle, but no longer match when either the angle of illumination or viewing angle is changed.
Illuminant A Glossmeter
An instrument used to measure the amount of gloss (a term used to describe the relative amount of mirror-like (specular) reflection from the surface of a sample). These instruments measure the light
G.4
Mathematical representation of tungsten halogen (incandescent). Color temperature: 2856K. Uses include metamerism testing. Simulates typical home or store accent lighting.
Illuminant C
Mathematical representation of filtered tungsten halogen (daylight). Color Temperature: 6770K. Uses include metamerism testing. Simulates the CIE average daylight.
Illuminant SPL (D65)

Mathematical representation of GretagMacbethpatented Filtered Tungsten Halogen as found in SpectraLight (Daylight). Color temperature: 6500K. Uses include critical evaluation of color, metamerism testing, providing visual correlation with spectrophotometric instrumental readings, conformance with European and Japanese standards, and agreement with the current Automotive standard. Simulates average north sky daylight.
Illuminant CWF-2 (F2)

Mathematical representation of commercial, wide band fluorescent used in the USA (Cool White Fluorescent). Color temperature: 4150K. Uses include metamerism testing. Simulates typical office or store lighting in the USA.
Illuminant SPL (D75)

Mathematical representation of GretagMacbethpatented, Filtered Tungsten Halogen as found in SpectraLight (Daylight). Color temperature: 7500K. Uses include critical evaluation of color, metamerism testing, and visual evaluation of opaque materials as outlined by ASTM D1729. Simulates north sky daylight.
Illuminant D50
Mathematical representation of noon sky daylight. Color temperature: 5000K. Uses include general evaluation of color, metamerism testing, and evaluating color uniformity and quality in the graphic arts industry.
Illuminant D55
Mathematical representation of noon sky daylight. Color temperature: 5500K. Uses include metamerism testing. Simulates the CIE average noon sky daylight.
Illuminant SPL (HOR)

Mathematical representation of Tungsten Halogen as found in SpectraLight (Horizon). Color temperature: 2300K. Uses include metamerism testing. Simulates early morning sunrise or late afternoon sunset.
Illuminant D65
Mathematical representation of average north sky daylight. Color temperature: 6500K. Uses include general evaluation of color, metamerism testing, providing visual correlation with spectrophotometric instrumental readings, and conformance with European and Japanese standards. Simulates average north sky daylight.
Illuminant TL83
Mathematical representation of commercial, rare earth phosphor, narrow band fluorescent used in Europe and the Pacific Rim. Color temperature: 3000K. Uses include metamerism testing. Simulates typical office or store lighting in Europe and the Pacific Rim.
Illuminant D75
Mathematical representation of north sky daylight. Color temperature: 7500K. Uses include general evaluation of color, metamerism testing, and visual evaluation of opaque materials as outlined by ASTM D1729. Simulates north sky daylight.
Illuminant TL84
Illuminant DLF-7
Mathematical representation of commercial, wide band fluorescent used in the USA (Deluxe). Color temperature: 6500K. Uses include metamerism testing.
Illuminant TL85
Illuminant NBF-11
Mathematical representation of commercial, narrow band fluorescent used in the USA. Color temperature: 4000K. Uses include metamerism testing. USA equivalent to TL84.
Illuminant U30
Mathematical representation of commercial, rare earth phosphor, narrow band fluorescent. Color temperature: 3000K. Uses include metamerism testing. Simulates typical store lighting for Sears. USA equivalent of TL83.
G.5
Incandescent
A lamp in which light is produced by a filament heated by an electric current so that it glows.
Light Source
That element in an instrument or in the visual observing situation that furnishes radiant energy in the form of light.
Integrating Sphere
A sphere coated inside with a highly reflective, diffuse material and used to collect for measurement the light reflected or transmitted by a specimen.
Lightness
One of the three dimensions describing color. The attribute by which observers distinguish white objects from gray objects and light colored objects from dark colored objects.
K
K/S (K over S)
The ratio of the absorption coefficient (K) versus the scattering coefficient (S) for a reflectance measurement. The ratio is derived mathematically from the reflectance measurement as follows:
Log Absorbance
The base 10 logarithm of absorbance values at each wavelength. A spectral plot (log absorbance versus wavelength) shows that vertical distances between two curves (samples) are virtually the same for all wavelengths. Therefore, the vertical position of the curve relates directly to the colorant concentration or sample thickness. Also, the shape of the curve is independent of colorant concentration or sample thickness.
2R where R is reflectance expressed as a decimal (for example, 60%R is 0.6R).
(K / S) =
(1R)2
Log K/S Kubelka-Munk

Phenomenological turbid-medium theory relating the reflectance and transmittance of scattering and absorbing materials to optical constants. Theory includes variables where K represents the absorption coefficient and S the scattering coefficient for the concentrations of colorants. Also known as K over S data, this relationship is the basis of virtually all computer color matching calculations. The base 10 logarithm of K/S values at each wavelength. A spectral plot (log K/S versus wavelength) shows that vertical distances between two curves (samples) are virtually the same for most wavelengths. Therefore, the vertical position of the curve relates directly to the colorant concentration. Also, the shape of the curve is almost independent of colorant concentration.
Luster
L
Lab (Hunter Lab)
A uniform (opponent color scale) color space in which colors are located within a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system; the three dimensions are lightness (L), redness/greenness (a), and yellowness/blueness (b).
The appearance characteristic of a surface that reflects more in some directions than it does in other directions but not of such gloss as to form clear mirror images.
M
MacAdam Ellipses
Ellipsoids plotted on the chromaticity diagram that correspond to a just-noticeable difference from the color represented by the center of the ellipsoid. The size and shape of the ellipsoids depend on their location on the chromaticity diagram.
Lamberts Law
The flux reflected per unit solid is proportional to the cosine of the angle measured from the normal (perpendicular) to the surface.
MacAdam Unit Light

Electromagnetic radiation that has a wavelength in the range from 380 (violet) to about 770 (red) nanometers (nm), and can be perceived by the normal, unaided human eye.
G.6
A unit of color difference as calculated by the FMC-2 equation. One (1:0) MacAdam unit corresponds to a just-noticeable diffference, based on experimental results.
Match
Generally, two colors match if they appear to be the same (have the same color coordinate values). The word match is often used to indicate a spectral match, which means the two colors will appear to be the same (have the same color coordinates) regardless of illuminant or observer.
Opponent Color Theory

Theory explaining conceptually how the human visual system (eye and brain combination) perceives color. To the human visual system, red and green are opposites, and yellow and blue are opposites. To a human observer this means that something that is red has no green in it (it may also be blue or yellow), while something that is yellow has no blue in it (it may also be red or green). Something that is neither red nor green is neutral with respect to redness/greenness. Something that is neither yellow nor blue is neutral with respect to yellowness/ blueness. If a color is neutral with respect to both, it is a colorless neutral (such as a black, gray or white). This theory is the basis for most uniform color spaces (especially CIELab, CIELCh, and Lab).
Matte Finish
A surface which displays no gloss when observed at any angle; a highly diffusely reflecting surface.
Metameric Pair
A pair of colors which match when viewed in a described way, but no longer match if the viewing conditions change.
Metamerism
A phenomenon exhibited by a pair of colors which match under one or more sets of real or calculated conditions and not match when these conditions are changed.
P
Photochromism
A reversible change in color of a specimen due to exposure to light.
N
Narrow Band Fluorescent
Generic term for fluorescent lamp products such as Ultralume and TL84 that produce narrow bands of visible light energy as a function of their phosphor blend.
Photopic Vision
Adjective used to describe vision mediated by the cone receptors in the retina of the eye, which give rise to the sensation of color occurring at high and medium levels of luminance.
Psychophysical Nonmetameric Match

A pair of colors which appear to be identical to all observers under all conditions of illumination and viewing; an unconditional match. A term used to describe the area of color science which deals with the relationship between physical description and the sensory perception resulting from them.
Normal Color Vision

Vision of a normal observer who exhibits no symptoms of anomalous or defective color response.
R
Reflection
The process by which incident light leaves a surface or medium from the side on which it is incident.
O
Observer Metamerism
A pair of colors which match when viewed by one observer, but no longer match when viewed by another observer.
S
Saturation
The attribute of color perception that expresses the degree of departure from a gray of the same lightness; grays have no saturation.
Opaque
Term used to describe complete opacity, i.e., the degree to which a specimen obscures the substrate beneath it; opposite of transparent.
G.7
Scattering
The process by which light passing through granular, fibrous or rough surface matter is redirected over a range of angles.
International de lclairage (CIE) in 1931. This is based on the results of a color matching experiment that used a 2 degree field of view.
Subtractive Color Mixture Scotopic Vision

Vision mediated by rods alone at very low levels of illumination; night vision. Colorant mixture which must take into account both the absorption and scattering of two or more of the individual pigments used in the mixture.
Spectral
Pertaining to the visible spectrum, thus, having to do with color.
Supplemental Observer (1964, 10 Degree Observer)

The 10 degree visual field observer is the supplementary observer adopted by the Commission International de lclairage (CIE) in 1964. This is based on the results of a color matching experiment that used a 10 degree field of view.
Spectral Power Distribution (SPD)

Graphical or numerical representation of radiant energy per unit interval of wavelength for a given light source.
Surround Spectrophotometer
A photometric device for the measurement of spectral transmittance or spectral reflectance. Portion of the visual field immediately surrounding the central field or pattern of interest.
Specular
Having the qualities of a speculum or mirror; a smooth reflecting surface.
T
Thermochromism
A reversible change in color of a specimen due to change in temperature of the specimen. This is typical of highly saturated (vivid) colors (such as bright reds, yellows, and oranges).
Specular Component Excluded (SCE)

Measurement of reflectance made in such a way that specular reflectance is excluded from the measurement; diffuse reflectance only.
Tint Specular Component Included (SCI)

Measurement of the total reflectance from a surface, including the diffuse and specular reflectance. A color produced by the mixture of white pigment or paint with a chromatic pigment or paint.
Total Color Difference ( or Delta E) Specular Gloss

Relative luminous fractional reflectance from a surface in the mirror or specular direction. A single number that expresses the magnitude (size, degree, or amount) of a difference between two colors. The value tells nothing about the nature of the color difference.
Specular Reflection
Reflectance of a beam of radiant energy at an angle equal but opposite to the incident angle; the mirrorlike reflectance.
Translucency
Appearance state between complete opacity and complete transparency; partially opaque.
Standard Illuminant
The relative energy emitted by a real or imaginary light source that is mathematically defined at each wavelength across its spectral distribution.
Transmission
Process by which incident light is transmitted through a material or object.
Transmittance (of Light) Standard Observer (1931, 2 Degree Observer)

The 2 degree visual field observer is the standard observer recommended by the Commission That fraction of the emitted light of a given wavelength which is not reflected or absorbed, but which passes through a material or object.
G.8
Transparent
Adjective to describe a material which transmits light without diffusion or scattering.
Volume of Acceptability
The volume of acceptability is used to represent the location of acceptable trials in that color space. It is a three-dimensional region that surrounds a standard and is defined by tolerance values. If a trial falls within this volume, it is acceptable according to the tolerance criteria. If it falls outside this volume, it is unacceptable according to the tolerance criteria.
Tristimulus Values
Amounts (in percent) of the three components necessary in a three-color additive mixture required for matching a color; in the CIE System, they are designated as X, Y and Z. The illuminant and standard observer color matching functions used must be designated; if they are not, the assumption is made that the values are for the 1931 observer (2 degree field) and Illuminant C.
W
White Reflectance Standard
A physical white standard of an imperfectly diffusing material, such as white ceramic, that is calibrated in reference to the perfect diffuser.
Turbidity
Reduction of transparency of a specimen due to the presence of particulate matter.
Whiteness
U
Ultraviolet
Radiant energy below 380 nm; portion of the electromagnetic spectrum between about 10 and 380 nm.
Attribute by which an object color is judged to approach the preferred white.
Wide Band Fluorescent

Generic term given to those fluorescent lamp products such as Cool White and Warm White that produce wide bands of visible light as a function of their phosphor blend.
Uniform Color Space

A color space in which equivalent numerical differences represent equivalent visual differences, regardless of location within the color space. A truly uniform color space has been the goal of color scientists for many years. Most color spaces, though not perfectly uniform, are referred to as uniform color spaces, since they are more nearly uniform when compared to the chromaticity diagram.
X
XYZ
The set of tristimulus values for numerically describing a color, calculated using ASTM E308-85.
xyY (Chromaticity Coordinates)
V
Value (in Munsell)
An attribute of color used in the Munsell color system to indicate the lightness of a specimen viewed in daylight, on a scale from 0 for the ideal black to 10 for ideal white, in steps that are visually approximately equal in magnitude.
A nonuniform color space in which colors are located within a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system; x and y describe the chromaticity (hue and chroma) of a color. Y describes the luminosity (lightness or brightness) of a color.
Visible Spectrum (Visible Region)

That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum between 380 nm and 770 nm that can be seen by the human eye.
G.9
References
ASTM Standards on Color and Appearance Measurement. Philadelphia, PA: ASTM, 4th Edition 1994. Berger Schunn, Anni. Practical Color Measurement, A Primer for the Beginner, A Reminder for the Expert. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994. Billmeyer, F.W., Jr., and Saltzman, M. Principles of Color Technology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2nd Edition 1981. Committee on Colorimetry, Optical Society of America. The Science of Color. Washington D.C.: Optical Society of America, 1963. Evans, Ralph M. An Introduction to Color. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1948. Evans, Ralph M. The Perception of Color. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1974. FSCT Inter-Society Color Council Committee, and FSCT Definitions Committee. Glossary of Color Terms. Blue Bell, PA: Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology, 1981. Hardy, Arthur C. Handbook of Colorimetry. Cambridge, MA: The Technology Press, 1936. Hunter, Richard S. and Harold, R.W. The Measurement of Appearance. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2nd Edition 1987. Judd, D.B., and Wyszecki, G.W. Color in Business, Science, and Industry. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 3rd Edition 1975. Kelly, K.L., and Judd, D.B. Color Universal Language and Dictionary of Names. Washington D.C.: National Bureau of Standards (U.S.) Spec. Publication 440., U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976. MacAdam, David L. Color Measurement, Theme and Variation. New York: Springer Verlag, 1981. MacAdam, David L. Sources of Color Science. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1970. McDonald, Roderick (Editor). Colour Physics for Industry. Bradford, England: Society of Dyers and Colourists, 1987. McLaren, Keith. The Colour Science of Dyes and Pigments, Second Edition. Bristol, England: Adam Hilger Ltd., 1986. Munsell, A.H. A Color Notation. New Windsor, NY: Macbeth Division of Kollmorgen, 14th Edition 1979. Overheim, R. Daniel, and Wagner, David L. Light and Color. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1982. Rea, Mark S. (Editor). Lighting Handbook. New York: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 8th Edition 1993. Wright, W.D. The Measurement of Colour, Fourth Edition. New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1969. Wyszecki, G.W., and Stiles, W.S. Color Science. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2nd Edition 1982.
R
References
R.1
GretagMacbeth delivers solutions for controlling color throughout the entire color development process. GretagMacbeth solutions allow you to correlate instrumental assessments with visual evaluation to balance the art and science of color. Solutions for Design & Specification
The Munsell Books of Color make it simple to specify and communicate precise color selections. Munsell provides custom color standards to enable companies to establish color standards and tolerances for products, packaging and more. The affordable SolSource desk lamp delivers accurate daylight simulation for consistent color evaluation throughout the production process.
Solutions for Color Formulation

ProPalette software provides the accurate color matching of opaque, translucent and transparent plastics, coatings and inks not possible with many applications. Textile Color Formulation software is the expert color matching solution for textiles. The GretagMacbeth Color-Eye 7000A is the premier reference spectrophotometer in the industry. It is used by leading innovators in plastics, coatings, inks and textiles. The compact and affordable Color-Eye 2180 benchtop unit provides excellent agreement with Color-Eye 7000A. For visual assessment, the SpectraLight II provides the most accurate simulation of daylight available, with your choice of four additional light sources.
Solutions for Production & Color QC

Optiview is a full-featured color QC software. For simple pass/fail assessment, Optiview Lite Color QC software provides everything you need in three easy-to-read screens. GretagMacbeth spectrophotometers include the compact benchtop Color-Eye 2180, the portable Color-Eye 580, the Color-Eye 3100 and the Color-Eye 7000A reference spectrophotometer. The Judge II viewing booth assists you in making accurate color decisions under a variety of light sources. GretagMacbeth overhead luminaires can be configured to provide proper illumination on the manufacturing floor. Munsell Color Tolerance Sets let you visually evaluate color difference from a specific color standard. The Farnsworth-Munsell 100 Hue Test offers a simple method to determine your color discrimination ability.
Solutions for Retail

ColorExpress software lets retailers formulate paint with both the speed and accuracy needed in this fast paced market. GretagMacbeth offers a variety of affordable, compact spectrophotometers for retail paint formulation. Both Judge II and SolSource allow for accurate visual evaluation. The Auto-Eye goniospectrophotometer delivers precise color matching in the automotive refinishing arena.
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Fundamentals of Color and Appearance

About this Book

Fundamentals of Color and Appearance

Table of Contents Section 1: Introduction to Color and Appearance

Section 2: Quantifying Color

Section 4: Visual Quality Control

Section 5: Instrumental Quality Control

Section 1: Introduction to Color and Appearance

Color and Appearance

Artificial Light Sources

Additive Color Process

10-3 10-2 1.0-1

105 106 107 108 109

green yellow cyan white red blue green

1010 1011 1012 1013 1014

subtractive color process

Subtractive Color Mixtures

Object Interaction with Light Energy

Light Distribution from Objects

Primary Types of Light Distribution from Objects

diffuse reflection incident specular reflection incident specular reflection

small flakes of aluminum or mica

transparent object matte object

Cross Section of the Human Eye

fovea lens cornea iris

ciliary muscle vitreous humor optic nerve

Factors That Affect Color Vision

Factors That Affect Color Vision

Munsell Color Order System

Munsell Color Order System

Munsell color space

Color Naming Conventions and Standards

Definition of a Color Order System

Section 2: Quantifying Color

Quantifying Sources, Objects and Observers

CIE Chromaticity Diagram (1931)

The CIE System

CIE 1931 Chromaticity Diagram

source A source B source C source D source E

CIE standard illuminants

chromaticity diagram showing isothermic lines

Quantifying Light Sources

Color Rendering Index

Spectral Power Distribution

Color Evaluation Illuminants

Quantifying Light Sources

Color Rendering Index

normalized spectral power (W/%NM/1000000 LM)

100 100 32 60 94 21 -.44

GretagMacbeth D65 fluorescent

normalized spectral power (W/%NM/1000000 LM)

Daylight SPD Curves

commercial daylight D65

0 400 wavelength (nm) 700

normalized spectral power (W/%NM/1000000 LM)

SPD Curves for Common Illuminants

normalized spectral power (W/%NM/1000000 LM)

Cool White Fluorescent

normalized spectral power (W/%NM/1000000 LM)

normalized spectral power (W/%NM/1000000 LM)

Quantifying Objects Using Spectral Data

spectral reflectance curve

white white fluorescent red