Complex Numbers and Applications

ME50 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

06 & 11 January 2011

Complex Numbers

A complex number is an ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers x and y. For example, (2.1, 3.5), (, 2),
(0, 0) are complex numbers.
Let z = (x, y) be a complex number. The real part of z, denoted by Re z, is the real number x. The
imaginary part of z, denoted by Im z, is the real number y.
Re z = x
Im z = y
Two complex numbers z1 = (a1, b1) and z2 = (a2, b2) are equal, written z1 = z2 or (a1, b1) = (a2, b2) if
and only if a1 = a2 and b1 = b2. For example, if (x, 2) = (3, c) then x = 3 and c = 2.
Since a complex number is denoted by an ordered pair (x, y) of real numbersd x and y, then we
may view the complex number (x, y) as the point with abscissa x and ordinate y. The complex plane
consists of all the points that represent the complex numbers. For example, let us indicate the following
complex numbers in the complex plane:
z1 = (3, 2), z2 = (0, 1), z3 = (4, 2), z4 = (5, 1)

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z3

z2

z1

z4

The complex plane showing four complex numbers z1, z2, z3, and z4
1.1

Operations on Complex Numbers

Some binary operations on complex numbers are addition, multiplication, and division. They are defined
as follows: Let z1 = (a1, b1) and z2 = (a2, b2). Then
1. Addition. z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2, b1 + b2). For example, (2, 3) + (1, 2) = (1, 1).
2. Multiplication. z1z2 = (a1a2b1b2, a1b2+a2b1). For example, (2, 3)(1, 2) = ((2)(1)(3)(2), (2)(2)+
(3)(1)) = (4, 7)
3. Division. If z2 6= (0, 0), then
z1
=
z2

a1a2 + b1b2 a1b2 a2b1

,
a22 + b22
a22 + b22

For example,
(2, 3)
=
(1, 2)
2

8 1
,
5 5

A complex number z = (x, y) may be multiplied by a real number c and the result is
cz = (cx, cy)
For example, if z = (2, 3), then 5z = (10, 15). The additive inverse or negative of a complex number
z = (x, y), denoted by z, is defined by z = (1)z. For example, if z = (2, 3), then z = (1)z =
(2, 3).
Sometimes, we think of subtraction denoted by z1 z2. This is defined in terms of addition and
negative as follows: z1 z2 = z1 + (1)z2. For example, (1, 2) (2, 2) = (1, 2) + (2, 2) = (1, 4).
1.2

Conjugate

The conjugate of a complex number z = (x, y), denoted by the symbol z, is the complex number (x, y).
For example, if z = (5, 2), then z = (5, 2). Note that if we plot z and z on the complex plane, then
these two points are reflections of each other with respect to the x axis.
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A compex number z and its conjugate z

The following properties of conjugate are easy to verify.

1. z = z

1.3

3. z1z2 = z 1z 2

2. z1 + z2 = z 1 + z 2.

4.

 
z1
z2

z1
z2

Forms of a compex number

The norm of a complex number z = p

(x, y), denoted by kzk is the real number kzk = x2 + y 2. For
example, if z = (4, 3), then kzk = 42 + (3)2 = 5. Observe that kzk is numerically equal to the
distance from the point z in the complex plane to the origin (0, 0).
A complex number withnorm 
1 is called a unit complex number. Some examples of unit complex



numbers are 35 , 45 , (1, 0), 22 , 22 , (0, 1).
Of particular importance to us are the unit complex numbers (1, 0) and (0, 1). Observe that (1, 0)(x, y) =
(x, y) for all complex numbers (x, y). For this reason, we simply denote (1, 0) by 1. Let us denote the
unit complex number (0, 1) by i. Then i2 = (0, 1)(0, 1) = (1, 0) = (1)(1, 0) = (1, 0) = 1. Therefore,
i2 = 1. The reason why 1 and i are important unit complex nunmbers is because every complex number can be written as a linear combination of them. To see this, let z = (x, y) be any complex number.
Then
z = (x, y)
= (x, 0) + (0, y)
= x(1, 0) + y(0, 1)
=x1+yi
= x + iy
4

The form x + iy of the complex number (x, y) is called the Cartesian form. For example, the Cartesian
form of (2, 3) is 2 3i.
Operations on complex numbers become more convenient if we write complex numbers in Cartesian form and remember that i2 = 1. For example, to multiply (2, 3) and (1, 2), we do it this
way:
(2, 3)(1, 2) = (2 3i)(1 + 2i)
= 2 + 4i + 3i 6i2
= 2 + 7i 6(1)
= 2 + 7i + 6
= 4 + 7i
Let us observe that zz = kzk2. This helps in performing division because
z1 z1z 2
z1z 2
=
=
z2 z2z 2 kz2k2

As an example,
(2, 3) (2, 3)(1, 2)
=
(1, 2)
k(1, 2)k2
(2 3i)(1 2i)
=
(1)2 + (2)2
2 4i + 3i + 6i2
=
5
8 i
=
5
8 1
= i
5 5
Let z be a non-zero complex number and let P be the point denoting z. Join the origin to P ane let
be the angle measured from the positive x-axis to the line OP . Then it is easy to see that x = kzk cos
and y = kzk sin .
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We can therefore write

z = kzk(cos + i sin )
This is called the polar form of the complex number z.
Example. Write the complex number z = 3 4i in polar form.
6

SOLUTION. First, we get the norm kzk =

32 + 42 = 5. Next, we get the argument .

x
y
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y
x
4
=
3

tan =

 
4
= tan1
3
= 0.9273 radians
Therefore, z = 5(cos(0.9273) + i sin(0.9273)).
The Shorthand Notation. If the polar form of the complex number z is z = r(cos + i sin ) then for
simplicity, we shall write
z = r cis

This is known as the shorthand

notation
for
a
complex
number.
For
example,
if
z
=
2
cis
6 , then


z = 2(cos 6 + i sin 6 ) = 2 23 + i 21 = 3 + i

Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers in Polar Form.

We will need here the following trigonometric identities:
7

 cos(1 + 2) = cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2

sin(1 + 2) = sin 1 cos 2 + cos 1 sin 2
Let z1 = r1 cis 1 and z2 = r2 cis 2. Then
z1z2 = r1(cos 1 + i sin 1)r2(cos 2 + i sin 2)
= r1r2 (cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 + i(cos 1 sin 2 + sin 1 cos 2)) = r1r2 (cos(1 + 2) + i sin(1 + 2))
= r1r2 cis (1 + 2)
Example. Let z1 = 1 + i and z2 = 1 i. Find z1z2 using multiplication in polar form.
SOLUTION. In polar form we have
z1 = 1 + i

= 2 cis
4
z2 = 1 i
 

= 2 cis
4 

z1z2 = 2 2 cis

4 4
= 2 cis 0
= 2(cos 0 + i sin 0)
= 2(1 + i0)
=2
8

It is an easy exercise to prove that if z = r cis , then

1 1
= cis ()
z r
For example, if z = 1 + i, then

z = 2 cis
4
1

1
= cis
z
4
2
1
= (cos(/4) + i sin(/4))
2

1 
=
2/2 i 2/2
2
1 i
=
2 2
Now suppose that z1 = r1 cis 1 and z2 = r2 cis 2. Then,


z1
1
= (r1 cis 1)
cis (2)
z2
r2
r1
= cis (1 2)
r2
r1
= (cos(1 2) + i sin(1 2))
r2
De Moivres Theorem.
Let z = r cis be a complex number and n a positive integer. Then
z n = rn cis (n)
9

Exercise. Derive De Moivres theorem.

Example. Evaluate (1 + i)9.
SOLUTION. We first write 1 + i in polar form (shorhand). We have 1 + i =
9

2 cis 4 . Therefore,

9
9
2 cis
4

= 16 2 cis (2 + /4)

= 16 2 cis
4
!

2
2
= 16 2
+i
2
2

(1 + 1) =

= 16 + 16i
Roots of a Complex Number. Consider a complex number z = r cis . Since cosine and sine are periodic functions with period 2, then z = r cis ( + 2k) where k is any integer.
Let n be a positive integer and consider the complex number wk =
theorem, we have
wkn = r cis ( + 2k) = r cis = z
Therefore, wk is an nth root of z.
To summarize, the n nth roots of z = r cis are
10

r cis

+2k
n

. By De Moivres




+2k)
+2k
n
wk = r cos( n ) + i sin( n
, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1
Example. Find all the cube roots of 8.
SOLUTION. 8 = 8 cis 0. The cube roots of 8 are



0
+
2k
3
,
wk = 8 cis
3

k = 0, 1, 2

w0 = 2 cis 0
=2
2
w1 = 2 cis
3
!
1
3
=2 +i
2
2

= 1 + i 3
4
w2 = 2 cis
3
!
1
3
=2 i
2
2

= 1 i 3
Example. Find the cube roots of 8.
11

(8)2 + 12 = 8, =

+ 2k
3
wk = 8 cis
, k = 0, 1, 2
3

w0 = 2 cis
3
w1 = 2 cis
5
w2 = 2 cis
3
It is easy to see from the formula for the nth roots that these n roots are arranged evenly on the

circumference of a circle with center at the origin and radius n r. From a previous example, we show
below the three cube roots of 8, and the three cube rots of 8 in the complex plane
w0
w1

SOLUTION. 8 = 8 + 0i. r =

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r=2

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r=2

w0

w1

w2
Cube roots of 8

w2
Cube roots of 8

Seatwork
1. Find the two square roots of 1. (Answers: i and i)
9
13
2. Find the four fourth roots of i. (Answers: cis 8 , cis 5
8 , cis 8 , cis 8 )
12

Exponential Form

In elementary calculus, the following series are well-known and each series converges for all real
values of x:

X
xn
x
e =
(1)
n!
n=0

2n
X
n x
cos x =
(1)
(2n)!
n=0

(2)

2n+1
X
n x
sin x =
(1)
(2n + 1)!
n=0

(3)

If we assume that equation (1) is valid even for complex exponents, then for a real number ,
ei =

X
(i)n
n=0

n!

i i22 i33 i44 i55 i66 i77

+
+
+
+
+

=1+ +
1!
2!
3!
4!
5!
6!
7!




2 4 6
3 5 7
= 1 + + + i + +
2! 4!
6!
3! 5!
7!

2n+1
2n
X
X
n
n
(1)
=
(1)
+i
(2n)!
(2n + 1)!
n=0
n=0
= cos + i sin
= cis
13

Therefore, if z is a complex number with r = kzk, and argument , then in shorthand form z = r cis
and in exponential form.
z = rei
Let z1 = r1ei1 and z2 = r2ei2 . Then obviously
z1z2 = r1r2ei(1+2)
z1 r1 i(12)
= e
,
z2 r2
3

provided r2 6= 0

Logarithm of a Complex Number

Let z be a complex number with exponential form z = rei . We define the logarithm of z, denoted by
ln z, as follows:
ln z = ln r + i
Actually, ln is multiple-valued because z has infinitely many arguments. We can write z = r cis ( +
2k) = rei(+2k). Hence, ln z = ln r + i( + 2k) are all the logarithms of z. If we restrict to be in the
interval (, ] then ln r + i is called the principal
value of the logarithm of z, denoted by Log z.


As an example, if z = 3i, then z = 3 cis 2 and so Log z = ln 3 i 3
2.
As a second example, Log (3i) = ln 3 + i 2 .

14

Verify the following:

Log (1) = i
Log (1 + i) = 12 ln 2 + i 4
Log (1 i) = 12 ln 2 i 4
Log (1 + i) = 12 ln 2 + i 3
4
1
3
Log (1 i) = 2 ln 2 i 4
4

Complex Variables

Let w be a function of a complex variable z, i.e., w = f (z). We define derivative as follows:

f (z + z) f (z)
dw
= lim
z0
dz
z
if this limit exists. Other notations for derivative are f 0(z) or w0.
Let us observe that z is a complex number and is viewed as a point in the complex plane. The
notion of z 0 is more complicated since the complex number z may approach 0 following an
arbitrary path in the complex plane.
The so-called Cauchy-Riemann equations gives us a set of necessary and sufficient conditions for a
function f (z) to be differentiable at z. If we express f (z) in the form u(x, y) + iv(x, y), then the Cauchy-

15

Riemann equations are

u v
=
x y
v
u
=
y
x
Furthermore, if the Cauchy-Rieman equations are satisfied, then
f 0(z) = ux iuy
f 0(z) = vx + iux
Example. Verify that f (z) = z 2 satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations and find f 0(z).
SOLUTION. Let z = x + iy. Then f (x + iy) = z 2 = (x + iy)2 = x2 y 2 + i2xy. Therefore
u(x, y) = x2 y 2
v(x, y) = 2xy
We have the following partial derivatives:
ux
uy
vx
vy

= 2x
= 2y
= 2y
= 2x

Therefore, ux = 2x = vy and uy = 2y = vx. Therefore, the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied.

16

This means that the function f (z) is differentiable. The derivative is given by:
f 0(z) = z 2
= ux ivy
= 2x i(2y)
= 2x + i2y
= 2(x + iy)
= 2z
Notice that if we imagine z to be a real variable, and we apply the usual derivative formula, we
would get 2z as the derivative of z 2. It can be shown that if f (z) satisfies the Cauchy-Rieman equations,
then the usual derivative rules for real-valued functions of a real variable can be applied to find the
derivative of f (z).
1
As an example, let f (z) = . Then
z
1
f (z) =
z
z
=
zz
x iy
= 2
x + y2
x
y
= 2

i
x + y2
x2 + y 2

17

Therefore,
x
x2 + y 2
y
v= 2
x + y2

u=

By taking partial derivatives, one can verify that the Caushy-Rieman equations are satisfied provided
z 6= 0. Therefore, for every complex number z 6= 0, we have
f 0z) =

1
z2

This is easily obtained by writing f (z) = z 1 and then differentiating as f 0(z) = 1z 2 = z 2.

5

Loci Problems

Sometimes, we are interested to find all points (complex numbers) z satisfying a given mathematical
condition.


z i

Example. Find the locus of all points z satisfying the equation
z + 1 = 1.

18

SOLUTION.
kz ik = kz + 1k
kx + iy ik = kx + iy + 1k
kx + i(y 1)k = k(x + 1) + iyk
p
p
2
2
x + (y 1) = (x + 1)2 + y 2
x2 + (y 1)2 = (x + 1)2 + y 2
x2 + y 2 2y + 1 = x2 + 2x + 1 + y 2
2y = 2x
y = x
We identify this Cartesian equation as the straight line passing through the origin and having a slope
of 1. However, in the original complex equation given, z + 1 apears in the denominator. Therefore,
z cannot take the value 1. We need to check if this point is on the line or not. The complex number
z = 1 = 1 + 0i is represented by the point (1, 0). This point is not on the line y = x so there is
nothing to remove from the line.
Exercises. Describe the loci of the following equations by writing them in Cartesian form:
1. kz 4 + 3ik = 2


z 1

2.
z + 2 = 3


z + 2i

3.
z 3i = 1
19


4. arg

z+i
z1

= 4

20