TIME-VARYING ELECTRIC FIELDS RECAP: MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

Electromagnetic equations so far are NOT CONSISTENT

" $ #

with charge conservation =

%

free
( 0 )

"

&

&&&

&

'

=
" 0 #

=
) 3 4 5

&

&&&

&

"

free

We have
    6

Constitutive relationships for media:

$ ' 8



(
0 7

permittivity
3 8

So we must add Maxwells Displacement Current

!

(
4 

permeability (
7 ' 8

conductivity
6



(Maxwell 4)


Other useful information:

B 9 ' @ A C 5 & &&& & 0 8

Take divergence:
 !

Lorentz force
) 0 " D ' "F D

&&&

&

&

(next year)

But

(Maxwell 1), so now OK.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
i q i r s r p

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
=
p x s x q i v s w t ttt t u x w y

= =
y x q

ttt

For linear media, constitutive relationships:

S T Q I P

Take curl of
t tt x i i q

equation
x i s q v v

ttt

ttt

tt

Can apply the principle of superposition

i.e. can make a Fourier synthesis.

i q

Special case free space:

i t ttt t W Q X

Expand vector triple product and use

i q i i q i ttt t t p u

Wave equation for

x q

Maxwells equations (favouring

b

=
g c S P e eee e ` Y

= =
h g

By an exactly similar argument, we nd that wave equation also

x s

satises a

eee

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN FREE SPACE

THE MEANING OF
o n p q

Wave equation of components of equation is

r t t v x s { z u t w y x t

. Scalar wave

is a scalar differential operator.

is a vector eld where

w n

is the wave speed.

w | v

In Cartesian coordinates
g i e

is easy to compute, since Velocity of electromagnetic waves is

w

involves constants of vacuum, and is independent of

and THE BASIS VECTORS DONT CHANGE WITH

motion. Same for all observers. Maxwell noticed this in about 1865.
n

POSITION

. just has components

l

So in Cartesian coordinates,

Maxwells equations are consistent with Einsteins Special Relativity (1905).

n w

Of course,

can be evaluated in any coordinate

is dened to be 299,792,458 m s
n

system. . .
m mmm m m mmm m

But its tricky! (Its easier to evaluate )

metre is dened in terms of

t n  w |

and the second.

t v }

Fm

PLANE WAVES IN ISOTROPIC MEDIA

PLANE WAVES II

Look for plane wave solution propagating along the

axis.

The other curl equation:

No variation with

Written out in components:

Look at

equation.

(Transverse

(Transverse

Written out in components:

(Longitudinal)

(Transverse

Electromagnetic waves in free space are TRANSVERSE.

Longitudinal elds are static.

(Transverse

) 4 transverse equations:

2 for (Longitudinal) 2 for

2 independent polarisations

PLANE WAVES IN FREE SPACE III PLANE WAVES IN FREE SPACE IV

Look at

equations

Ratio

is real and constant.

Eliminating, we recover the wave equation (same for

Units:

Vm

Am

Impedance of free space:

Ohm

Solution is

This represents a wave of a single angular frequency

propagating in the positive -direction.

Relationships for both polarisations:

Same for

PLANE WAVES METHOD USING VECTORS

$ #

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES SUMMARY

% $ ' & ( )

More general case: wave number

0 1

. .

Phase is

Electromagnetic waves in free space are non-dispersive

all frequencies travel with the same speed

Look for solution of form

% 1 % 2 2 0 9 $ ' 6 78 ' 4 5 & ( ) 0 1

and
     3 %

are transverse and perpendicular to each other.

Two independent polarisations are possible:

'

78

'

&

and
2 #

.
@

Ratio

is constant and REAL

and

are constant vectors, so we have

A 2 $ B 9 BBB 4 B B BBB B 2

and

are in phase with each other.

"

Energy:
  "

&

"

M


E
#

Maxwells equations in free space become

Energy density in electric and magnetic elds is the same.

$ 2 $ C @ 4 5 & $ 2 @ $ & 5 @ 4 C 2 )D B BBB 4 BBB B B 5 5 5 B 5 4 )E 5 ( 5

&

MORE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ENERGY FLOW

HH

HHH

Work is done by forces when the point of application moves in the direction of the force.

XY

HHH

In electromagnetism

The work.

term is perpendicular to

, so cannot do any

Only the electric eld does work. Work done by us on the eld is
w

HHH

ip

where
u

is the unit vector along

,
u

and

are all at right angles.

The rate of doing work is

. For distributed charges the rate of work is

u

are a right-handed set.

If

is along the

axis, the two polarisations are as shown:

From Maxwell 4:
w d

ENERGY FLOW II POYNTINGS THEOREM

The rate of work done on elds in a volume is

h v u s r i t k

Rate of doing work in volume is

qqq

Manipulate using handy identity:

k k p g l q qqq q r

qqq

qq

Second term is the rate of change of stored electromagnetic energy, as expected.

Rate of work
p k k v u y t

First term is the rate of energy ow across the surface containing the volume (outwards through surface).

qqq

qq

Divergence
x u } v u y r t k l u l w w u

Maxwell 2

Energy ow per unit surface area is

qqq

If medium is linear:
u v u o k v s k

is the Poynting vector and describes the energy ux (power per unit area) in an electromagnetic eld.

RADIATION PRESSURE AND MOMENTUM

POYNTING VECTOR

Radiation momentum density Total momentum in volume

Poynting vector

. , elds. element

Poynting vector is a non-linear function of the

Cant superpose Poynting vector patterns.

Apply to electromagnetic wave travelling in

direction: Force:

All momentum is absorbed in time .

Radiation pressure:

If the surface reects the radiation then

for wave is in positive

direction and What is the relationship between

and ? Use special relativity: energy-momentum invariant

where

is the energy density.

(for photons)

Electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum.

Energy in volume

Electromagnetic waves exert a force when reected or

absorbed.

PLANE WAVES IN MEDIA WAVES IN INSULATING MEDIA

We will deal with three cases

Insulating medium

are constant. Velocity of waves:

Medium with free electrons plasma.

Medium with conduction electrons metals. Refractive index:

INSULATING MEDIA

(Often

in optics, so

Impedance of medium

Polarisation

(in phase).
m

Magnetisation

(in phase).

Energy densities of electric and magnetic elds are equal

Everything like free space case with

Energy ux

m.

WAVES IN PLASMA II

WAVES IN PLASMA
G F H B B I A C

Electric eld of wave:

D E E T C

Plasma has free electrons and ions. Electrons have lower

A

Steady-state displacement:

mass so are more mobile.

e
E W

electrons dominate electromagnetic properties.

A X Y C E ` C T `

dipole moment:

.
U

Thermal motions ignored also collisions.

A a

electrons per unit volume

a b a E W X C C Y ` W B

Equation of motion of an electron in a plasma

      

.
U

e
g

(N.B. charge
A   %

in this section.)
c C

"

In free space
 $

"

p
C ` C W ` U c V

&

&

'

If
0 ) 1 2 " 3 4 5 6

the

term is negligible.

Consider electron in plane wave

) " 3 4 5

Dene plasma frequency:

At xed
e
) 5 4 3 " @

equation becomes

p e

Steady-state solution:
9

p
C C `

Refractive index:

WAVES IN PLASMA III

DISPERSION OF PLASMA WAVES

Conditions above plasma frequency:

d d f e f d

Plasma frequency:

p e
g h i

Characteristic frequency of a plasma determines the

n

electromagnetic properties.

waves are dispersive.

for transverse waves

Different frequencies travel with different speeds.

k d o r f p f h d q l m i k j

Phase velocity is

always
u u s

but is negative for

p

Group velocity is

Summarised by dispersion relation

l u k

refractive index is imaginary for frequencies below

u

p.
l l q v k w q f

p
x s

Hz.
o o f p

For ionosphere
p

MHz.

EVANESCENT WAVES

EVANESCENT PLASMA WAVES

Below
p

transverse plasma waves are evanescent.

Below plasma frequency dielectric constant

y y z

refractive index

is imaginary. Magnetic eld:

).

is

behind

in phase.

No longer a travelling wave decays with .

No variation of phase with

Poynting vector

all parts of wave in phase

mean energy ux is zero.

WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA

Constitutive relations for isotropic medium:

WAVES IN PLASMA

Waves incident on a plasma having frequencies below

p

are reected.

Maxwell 4:

Long wave radio transmissions are reected from the

Earths ionosphere and bounce around the Earth.

Look for oscillating solutions:

At

all the plasma oscillates together.

Longitudinal plasma oscillations also occur at

p

Effective dielectric constant is

WAVES IN METALS

WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA II

Refractive index is complex:

         # ! "      % $   

Effective dielectric constant

is complex

(c.f. plasma dielectric constant is real.)

#  1 " & ' )0 ( & 3

Typical values: Copper

Wave travelling in the

   

direction


"

So for light waves

and all lower frequency



waves the real part of

is negligible.

Characteristic length

is the skin depth.

   @  & A 

For metals we can approximate:

)0

(ignores displacement current).

G

Refractive index is complex: travelling wave

decay in

Wave travelling in the negative the direction of propagation.

&

direction also decays in

&

"

PROPERTIES OF WAVES IN CONDUCTORS

Q R

Real part refractive index

W UV T i

for Copper at

SKIN EFFECT

=100 MHz is
r s d u t

gh

. m) is
l m

skin depth at 100 MHz ( Wire carrying current

l v

m.

oscillating at frequency
o p

:
q r rrr r s

T y g a x w d r

Attenuation in

is very severe. Poynting vector

Decays by factor of

in every wavelength.

points perpendicular to, and into the surface of the conductor.

Flow of energy into the wire.

r
Y u d l j k x U

Treat as travelling wave in the surface of the conductor. For plane surface

lags
w l

by

in phase (wave

).

yz

yz

Amplitude of surface wave decays into the wire.

Poynting vector has mean in the positive

v

direction.

Ohmic loss, Joule heating.

RESISTANCE OF WIRE AT HIGH FREQUENCY

SKIN EFFECT II

Suppose radius of wire is

Plane surface skin depth

We can approximate the circular case by unwrapping the

Oscillating currents conned to surface. Skin depth gets

cylindrical surface into a plane surface of width Total current in wire is

thinner as the frequency increases.

Take

on the surface and let other limit

Qualitatively the same effect for a circular wire:

conned to depth

near the surface.

Real part of current:

No magnetic eld in the middle.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN MEDIA SUMMARY

)

RESISTANCE OF WIRE AT HIGH FREQUENCY II

Power dissipated per unit volume:

Conduction

electrons

complex (=

complex
r

Total power dissipiated per unit length of wire

Free

electrons

a) real

b) imag

a) real

Resistance per unit length:

Power dissipated

real

Dielectric

medium

real

Effective cross-section area of wire

just as if current were owing uniformly in skin depth

b) imag