8.why is bus protocol imp??

A bus can be point-to-point, connecting two specific components or it can be a common pathway that connects a number of devices, requiring these devices to share the bus (referred to as a multipoint bus. Because of this sharing, the bus protocol
(set of usage rules) is very important.

13. What are the four types of bus arbitration?

Bus arbitration schemes fall into four categories: 1. Daisy chain arbitration 2. Centralized parallel arbitration. 3. Distributed arbitration using self-selection. 4. Distributed arbitration using collision detection. 151 null and lobur
14. Explain the difference between clock cycles and clock frequency.

Every computer contains an internal clock that regulates how quickly instructions can be executed. The CPU requires a fixed number of clock ticks to execute each instruction. Therefore, instruction performance is often measured in clock cycles- the time between clock ticks-instead of seconds. The clock frequency (sometimes called the clock rate or clock speed) is measured in MHz Synchronous buses are clocked, and things happen only at the clock ticks (a sequence of events is controlled by the clock). Every device is synchronized by the rate at which the clock ticks, or the clock rate. 151 153 N & L
15. How do system clocks and bus clocks differ?

Generally when we mention the term clock, we are referring to the system clock, or the master clock that regulates the CPU and other components. However , certain buses also have their own clocks. Bus clocks are usually slower than CPU clocks, causing bottleneck problems.
16. What is the function of an I/O interface?

Input and output devices are not directly connected to the CPU. Instead there is an interface in between and that is I/O interface. This interface converts the system bus signals to and from a format that is acceptable to the given device.CPU communicates to these external devices via input/output registers.
17. Explain the difference between memory-mapped I/O and instruction-based I/O.

In memory mapped I/O the registers in the interface appears in the computers memory map and there is no real difference between accessing memory and accessing I/O device. In instruction based i/o the CPu has specialized instructions that perform the inpout and output
18. What is the difference between a byte and a word? What distinguishes each?

8-bits make a byte

word, on the other hand, can have different meanings, depending on what your CPU is. If it's a 16-bit CPU, then your word is 16-bits, or 2 bytes. If it's a 32-bit CPU, then your word is 32-bits, or 4 bytes. In other words, it's just the number of bits the CPU can handle at once.

19. Explain the difference between byte-addressable and word-addressable.

Byte addressable, means that each individual byte has a unique address. Word addressable, means each word( not necessarily each byte) has its own address.
20. Why is address alignment important? 21. List and explain the two types of memory interleaving and the differences

between them. High order interleaving the more intuitive organization distributes the addresses so that each module contain consecutive addresses Low order interleaved memory places consecutive words of memory in different memory modules.
22. Describe how an interrupt works and name four different types.

Interrupts are the events that alter the normal flow of execution in the system Mask-able, non-maskable, synchronous, asynchronous
23. How does a maskable interrupt differ from a nonmaskable interrupt?

Maskable interrupt can be disabled or ignored Nonmaskable interrupt is a high priority interrupt cannot be disabled and must be acknowledged
24. Why is it that if Computer has 4K words of main memory, addresses must have

12 bits?

It is the characteristic of the MARIE, a simple architecture.

25. Explain the functions of registers IR, AC, OutReg, InReg, MAR, MBR, PC.

AC : Accumulator which holds data value, general purpose MAR : the memory address register which holds the memory address of the data being referenced. MBR : memory buffer register, which holds either the data just read from memory or the data ready to be written to memory. PC : Program Counter, holds the address of the next instruction to be processed. IR : Instruction register, holds the next instruction to be executed. InREG : input register, holds data from the input device. Outreg : output register, holds data for the output device.
26. What is an opcode?

Code that specifies instructions to be executed.

27. Explain how each instruction in MARIE works.

Each instruction of MARIE consist of 16 bits. The most significant 4 bits, bits 12-15, make up the op-code. The least significant 12 bits, bits 0-11, form and address, which allows for a maximum memory size of 2^12-1.
28. How does a machine language differ from an assembly language? Is the

conversion one-to-one (one assembly instruction equals one machine instruction)?

Machine language is the actual bits used to control the processor in the computer, usually viewed as a sequence of hexadecimal numbers (typically bytes). The processor reads these bits in from program memory, and the bits represent "instructions" as to what to do next. Thus machine language provides a way of entering instructions into a computer (whether through switches, punched tape, or a binary file). Assembly language is a more human readable view of machine language. Instead of representing the machine language as numbers, the instructions and registers are given names (typically abbreviated words, or mnemonics, eg ld means "load"). Unlike a high level language, assembler is very close to the machine language. The main abstractions (apart from the mnemonics) are the use of labels instead of fixed memory addresses, and comments. An assembly language program (ie a text file) is translated to machine language by an assembler. Adisassembler performs the reverse function (although the comments and the names of labels will have been discarded in the assembler process). machine language faster than assembly language even than assembly language depend upon machine language

Yes, Is the conversion one-to-one (one assembly instruction equals one machine instruction
29. What is the significance of RTN?

The symbolic notation to describe the behavior of microoperation is called Register transfer notation
30. Is a microoperation the same thing as a machine instruction?

Nope, machine level instruction seems to be simple but actually there are multiple operations involves, these operations are known as micro operation
31. How does a microoperation differ from a regular assembly language instruction?

above Same as 32. Explain the steps of the fetch-decode-execute cycle. From the book 33. How does interrupt-driven I/O work? When the cpu executes the input and output instruction, the appropriate I/O device is notified. The cpu then continues with other useful work until the device is ready. At that time, the device sends an interrupt signal to the cpu. The cpu then processes the interrupt, after which it continues with the norma fetch decode execute cycle
34. What is an embedded system? How does it differ from a regular computer?

Embedded systems are sytems in which the computer in integrated into a device that is not typically a computer
35. Provide a trace (similar to the one in Figure 4.13) for Example 4.1. 36. Explain the difference between hardwired control and microprogrammed control.

The approach in which all the all the control lines are physically connected to the actual machine instruction. The instructions are divided up into fields, and different bits in the instruction are combined through various digital logic components to drive the control lines. This is hardwired control.it is fast but complex and difficult to design

All machine instructions are input into a special program, the microprogram, to convert the instructions into the appropriate control signal. The microprogram is essentially an intrepeter, written in micro code, stored in firmware. It is flexible, simple in design
37. What is a stack? Why is it important for programming? 38. Compare CISC machines to RISC machines.

CISC machines have large number of Instruction se, of variable length, with complex layouts. Instructions are complicated. RISC number of instructions is reduced, main objective is to simplify instruction so they can execute more quickly
39. How does Intels architecture differ from MIPS? 40. Name four Intel processors and four MIPS processors.