OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

PHYSICS

STUDENT GUIDE

09/16/09

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

FOR TRAINING USE ONLY

The uncontrolled information contained in these training materials is FOR TRAINING USE ONLY. In no way should it be interpreted that the material contained herein may be substituted for facility procedures or SOPs. When copies of SOPs or procedures are given, they are intended as examples and information only, and the latest revision of the material in question should be obtained for actual use. If you have any questions, contact your supervisor.

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Contents:
1Chapter: Fundamental Dimensions...................................................................................1
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................1 Fundamental Dimensions.........................................................................................................................1 Units...........................................................................................................................................................2 Systems of Units........................................................................................................................................3 Units for Mass, Length, and Time...........................................................................................................3 Derived Dimensions..................................................................................................................................6 Unit Conversion Factors...........................................................................................................................9 Steps for Unit Conversion......................................................................................................................10 SI Prefixes and Powers of 10..................................................................................................................14 Chapter 1 Summary................................................................................................................................17 Unit Conversion Practice Exercises.......................................................................................................18

2Chapter: Newtons Laws of Motion.................................................................................25

Natural Laws...........................................................................................................................................25 Newtons First Law of Motion...............................................................................................................26 Newtons Second Law of Motion...........................................................................................................26 Newtons Third Law of Motion.............................................................................................................27 Chapter 2 Summary................................................................................................................................30 Newtons Laws of Motion Exercises......................................................................................................31

3Chapter: Motion................................................................................................................31
Motion......................................................................................................................................................32 Linear Motion..........................................................................................................................................32 Scalars and Vectors.................................................................................................................................33 Adding Vectors in One Dimension.........................................................................................................33 Graphical Representation......................................................................................................................36 Vector Graphics in Two Dimensions.....................................................................................................36 Vector Components and Resultants......................................................................................................38 Distance verses Displacement................................................................................................................41 Speed........................................................................................................................................................41 Velocity.....................................................................................................................................................43 Acceleration.............................................................................................................................................44 Chapter 3 Summary................................................................................................................................46
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Linear Motion Practice Problems.........................................................................................................48

4Chapter: Forces and Equilibrium....................................................................................51

Force.........................................................................................................................................................51 Weight......................................................................................................................................................53 Review......................................................................................................................................................54 Tensile, Compressive, and Shear Forces...............................................................................................55 Stress........................................................................................................................................................56 Strain........................................................................................................................................................57 Friction Force..........................................................................................................................................59 Net Force and Force Equilibrium..........................................................................................................61 Center of Mass and Center of Gravity..................................................................................................65 Pressure....................................................................................................................................................65 Pressure of confined fluids (liquids and gases).....................................................................................66 Chapter 4 Summary................................................................................................................................70 Force Practice Problems.........................................................................................................................72

5Chapter: Principle of Momentum....................................................................................75

Momentum...............................................................................................................................................75 Force and Momentum............................................................................................................................77 Conservation of Momentum..................................................................................................................78 Conservation of Momentum Problem Solving:....................................................................................80 Collisions:.................................................................................................................................................81 Chapter 5 Summary................................................................................................................................84 Momentum Practice Problems..............................................................................................................85

6Chapter: Work and Energy..............................................................................................88

Work.........................................................................................................................................................88 Energy......................................................................................................................................................89 Thermal Energy......................................................................................................................................90 Mechanical Energy.................................................................................................................................90 Conservation of Energy..........................................................................................................................93 Chapter 6 Summary................................................................................................................................99 Work and Energy Practice Problems..................................................................................................100

7Chapter: Power................................................................................................................104
Power......................................................................................................................................................104 Chapter 7 Summary..............................................................................................................................107 Power Practice Problems......................................................................................................................108
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8Chapter: Simple Machines..............................................................................................110
Simple Machines....................................................................................................................................110 Types of Simple Machines.....................................................................................................................111 Chapter 8 Summary..............................................................................................................................116 Simple Machines Practice Problems...................................................................................................117

9Chapter: Properties of Matter........................................................................................118

Material Science:...................................................................................................................................119 Thermal Stress and Thermal Shock:..................................................................................................120 Characteristics of Engineering Materials...........................................................................................122 Material Failures...................................................................................................................................125 Chapter 9 Summary..............................................................................................................................127 Properties of Matter Practice Problems.............................................................................................128

10Chapter: Appendices.....................................................................................................129
Appendix A............................................................................................................................................129 Appendix A-1.........................................................................................................................................129 Physics Formulas..................................................................................................................................131 Physics Formulas (Continued).............................................................................................................132 Unit Conversions...................................................................................................................................133 Unit Conversions (Continued).............................................................................................................133 SI General Information........................................................................................................................134

List of Figures:
Figure 1-1 Length..................................................................................................................2 Figure 1-2 Mass......................................................................................................................2 Figure 1-3 Time......................................................................................................................2 Figure 1-4 The pipe is 5 long?...............................................................................................2 Figure 1-5 SI verses English.................................................................................................3 Figure 1-6 Plane Area............................................................................................................6 Figure 1-7 Volume..................................................................................................................6 Figure 1-8 Density..................................................................................................................7 Figure 1-9 Speeding Car.......................................................................................................7 Figure 1-10 Directed Speeding Car......................................................................................7
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Figure 1-11 Changing Velocity!............................................................................................7 Figure 1-12 Railroad Track Method..................................................................................10 Figure 1-13 Butterfly Valve.................................................................................................15 Figure 2-14 Planet Orbits Sun............................................................................................25 Figure 2-15 Two Pairs of Opposing Forces.......................................................................28 Figure 2-16 Action / Reaction on a Bathroom Scale.........................................................29 Figure 3-17 Two Legs of Trip..............................................................................................32 Figure 3-18 Compass...........................................................................................................33 Figure 3-19 East = - West....................................................................................................34 Figure 3-20 North = - South................................................................................................34 Figure 3-21 East = - West....................................................................................................34 Figure 3-22 South = - North................................................................................................34 Figure 3-23 Rectangular Coordinate System....................................................................36 Figure 3-24 East 4 Miles......................................................................................................36 Figure 3-25 Northwest Vector.............................................................................................37 Figure 3-26 Vector Graphics in 2-D With X-Y Position Specified..................................37 Figure 3-27 Vector Graphics in 2-D With Specified Angle..............................................38 Figure 3-28 Resultant Vector Graphically.........................................................................38 Figure 3-29 (Graph 3-1)......................................................................................................39 Figure 3-30 Resultant by Graphing Method.....................................................................40 Figure 3-31 Hypotenuse of Right Triangle........................................................................40 Figure 3-32 Distance Verses Displacement........................................................................41 Figure 4-33 Applied Force in Same Direction as Motion.................................................52 Figure 4-34 Applied Force in Opposite Direction of Motion..........................................52 Figure 4-35 One Pound Mass of Bread..............................................................................53 Figure 4-36 Tension.............................................................................................................56 Figure 4-37 Compression....................................................................................................56 Figure 4-38 Shear.................................................................................................................56 Figure 4-39 Normal Force...................................................................................................60 Figure 4-40 Same Direction................................................................................................61 Figure 4-41 Opposite Direction..........................................................................................62 Figure 4-42 Opposite Direction..........................................................................................62
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Figure 4-43 Net Force Applied...........................................................................................62 Figure 4-44 Summing Forces in a Given Direction..........................................................63 Figure 4-45 Pressure............................................................................................................66 Figure 4-46 Deep Water Snorkeling...................................................................................66 Figure 4-47 Pascal Principle...............................................................................................68 Figure 5-48 System Boundary............................................................................................79 Figure 5-49 Rifle/Bullet System..........................................................................................81 Figure 5-50 Elastic Collision...............................................................................................82 Figure 5-51 Momentum Conservation During Collision.................................................83 Figure 5-52 Collision in the Same Direction.....................................................................87 Figure 5-53 Collision in Opposite Directions....................................................................87 Figure 6-54 Force without Displacement...........................................................................89 Figure 6-55 Force with Displacement................................................................................89 Figure 6-56 Force and Displacement Not Collinear.........................................................89 Figure 6-57 PE of Suspended Mass....................................................................................91 Figure 6-58 KE of 1000 kg Truck at 60 km/hr..................................................................93 Figure 6-59 Pile Driver........................................................................................................95 Figure 6-60 Dragster Truck................................................................................................97 Figure 7-61 Pump..............................................................................................................105 Figure 7-62 Load................................................................................................................105 Figure 8-63 Simple Lever..................................................................................................112 Figure 8-64 Inclined Plane................................................................................................113 Figure 8-65 Wheel and Axle..............................................................................................114 Figure 8-66 Pulleys in a Simple Block and Tackle..........................................................114 Figure 8-67 Simple Screw..................................................................................................115 Figure 8-68 Simple Wedge................................................................................................115 Figure 9-69 Types of Material Stress...............................................................................120 Figure 9-70 Thermal Stress Profile During- Heatup......................................................121 Figure 9-71 Thermal Stress Profile During- Cooldown.................................................122 Figure 9-72 Brittle Vs. Ductile Failure............................................................................125 Figure 10-73 Appendix A..................................................................................................129 Figure 10-74 Appendix A-1...............................................................................................131
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List of Tables:
Table 1-1 Fundamental Dimensions.....................................................................................3 Table 1-2 Approximate Lengths of Familiar Objects.........................................................5 Table 1-3 Approximate Masses of Familiar Objects...........................................................5 Table 1-4 Approximate Times of Familiar Events..............................................................6 Table 1-5 Derived Dimensions in SI and English Units.....................................................8 Table 1-6 Common SI Prefixes...........................................................................................14 Table 3-7 Comparative Speeds...........................................................................................42 Table 6-8 Energy Units......................................................................................................101 Table 9-9 Thermal Expansion Coefficients.....................................................................121 Table 10-10 Physics Equations.........................................................................................131 Table 10-11 Physics Equations Continued.......................................................................132 Table 10-12 Unit Conversions...........................................................................................133 Table 10-13 Unit Conversions...........................................................................................133 Table 10-14 SI System.......................................................................................................134

References:

Isaac Asimov, Understanding Physics, Barnes & Noble, 1993. Department of Energy Handbook, Classical Physics, June 1992. Lewis Carroll Epstein, Thinking Physics, Insight Press, 1995. Patrick C. Gibbons, Ph.D., Physics, Barrons Educational Series, Inc., 1992. Paul G. Hewitt, Conceptual Physics, Seventh Edition, Harper Collins, 1993. Linda Huetinck, Ph.D., Physics, Cliffs Notes, Inc., 1993. John H. Saxon, Jr., Physics: An Incremental Development, Saxon Publishers, Inc., 1993. Paul E. Tippens, Applied Physics, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1985. The Essentials of Physics I, Research & Education Association, 1993. Science/Physics references on the Internet: Shocked Science http://www.ppsa.com/ppsa/science/science.html Astro-Physical Calculator
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http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constants/calc.html Physics Education Software http://www-hpcc.astro.washington.edu/scied/physics/physsoft.html CyberTextBook Project
http://rip.physics.unk.edu/CyberTextBook/CyberTextBook.html

Measurements Converter http://www.mplik.ru/~sg/transl/ The Math and Physics Help Home Page http://www2.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/kenny/

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TO 1.0 EO 1.1 EO 1.2 EO 1.3

CONVERT units within and between the English System and the International System (SI). DEFINE the Physics dimensions length, mass, and time. DEFINE the Physics terms unit. Given unit conversion tables and problem specifications, SOLVE unit conversion problems.

Introduction
Why study physics? This is a question you may be asking yourself. Physics and mathematics are basic subjects necessary for comprehension of future courses. They form the foundation upon which other subjects build new concepts. For example; fluid flow, heat transfer, nuclear science, mechanical science, electricity, and instrumentation and control all rely on your mastery of math and physics in order to understand concepts presented in these subjects. Now lets take a look at what physics really is, and its history. Ancient Greek scholars were the first to closely examine the known universe. They developed a systematic collection of knowledge and human reasoning to try and understand the operation of the universe. They were called philosophers by their society, which means, lovers of wisdom. The Greek word for nature is physikos from which we get the word physics. Physics then is the science of the universe outside of ourselves. Physicists seek only to understand the laws of nature and the natural environment. Engineers apply the information discovered by physicists to develop and invent things which make our life easier and more rewarding. All of the facilities and equipment at WTP were designed and developed by engineers and scientists who have a good working knowledge of physics. An understanding of physics will help you better comprehend the theory behind the equipment you work with daily. This, in turn, will make you a more informed and knowledgeable employee. Good luck in your studies!

Fundamental Dimensions
Physics is a science based upon measurement of physical quantities. We will define dimension as "a physical quantity that is measurable. Length, time, area, speed, and energy are examples of quantities that are measurable. These quantities are called dimensions. Dimensions can either be fundamental or derived. Fundamental dimensions are dimensions that are independent of other dimensions. In classical physics there are three fundamental dimensions. These three fundamental dimensions are mass, length, and time.

More recently, it has been necessary to add more fundamental dimensions. We will discuss only these first three fundamental dimensions to lay the foundation for the concepts and principles presented in this course in classical physics. Length (l) Length is the straight line distance between two points. We use length to locate the position and to describe the size of a physical object or system. Examples include the distance between two points on a piece of pipe, the distance between one building and another, or the distance between one town and another. Length can be measured in feet, kilometers, and many other units.

Figure 1-1 Length Mass (m)

Mass is the amount of material present in an object. This measurement describes how much material makes up an object. The mass of an object is constant anywhere in the universe. It is a property of the material, not related to where it is located. Mass is often confused with weight. Weight (a derived dimension, not a fundamental dimension) describes the force exerted on an object due to gravity. Weight varies from place to place in the universe because weight depends upon the gravitational attraction between objects. Time (t) Time is simply the duration between two events. The common unit for measuring time is seconds, although it can be measured in hours, days, years, and other units. Figure 1-2 Mass

Figure 1-3 Time

Units
Units, as you have probably guessed from the above discussion, are how we describe dimensions. We define a physical quantity by setting up a standard and assigning a unit. The unit then represents how we measure the dimension. A number alone is not sufficient to describe a physical quantity. All physical quantities must have both a number and a unit. For example, length is a dimension. The units of length are meters, feet, inches, or many other different units. To say "the pipe must be 5 long" has no meaning. A unit of measurement for length must also be specified, because we have no idea how long "5 long" is. By adding units to the number, it becomes clear how we measured the pipe, such as 5 feet long. Therefore, it is very important that we specify the units of a measured physical quantity. Figure 1-4 The pipe is 5 long?

Systems of Units
There are two unit systems in use at the present time; the English System and the International System of Units (SI), formerly called the Metric System. In the United States, the English System is predominant in industry, commerce, and engineering. Most units used at WTP are from the English System. Although most of our discussion will be in the English System, we will also provide you with a working knowledge of the SI. Units may be converted from a given unit system to another unit system by using unit conversion factors.

Units for Mass, Length, and Time

In the English System mass is described in pounds-mass (lbm) and weight is described in pounds-force (lbf). In the SI, mass is described in kilograms (kg) and weight is described in Newtons (N). Length is described in feet (ft) in the English system and meters (m) in the SI. The measurement of time is described in both the English and SI in seconds (s), minutes (min) or hours (hr). A listing of the fundamental units in both systems that are covered in this course is given in Table 1-1. Table 1-1 Fundamental Dimensions
Fundamental Dimensions in SI and English Units Dimension SI (metric) Name length (l) mass (m) time (t) meter kilogram second m Kg s Symbol foot pounds - mass second English System Name ft lbm s Symbol

Because operators, bartenders, technicians, scientists, and engineers -- including WTP employees -- need a consistent way to describe physical quantities, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures was established. It was founded near Paris in 1875. In 1971, the General Conference on Weights and Measures selected base units for the fundamental dimensions, some of which are shown in Table 1, and others of which will be covered in subsequent Fundamentals courses. This is the basis for the International System of units (SI), which replaced the Metric System. In all practical respects, SI is identical to the Metric System. The SI is universally endorsed, although it has not been officially implemented in the United States. The English System standard units are, however, defined in terms of SI units. One yard is defined as 0.9144 m (exactly), and one inch is defined as 2.54 cm (exactly). The pound-mass is defined to be 0.4536 kg. The time unit of a second is the same in both unit systems. The Metric System was originally invented with the goal that all units would be defined in terms of easily measured natural quantities. The meter was defined as a specific fraction of the Earth's circumference, the gram was based on the density of water, and the second was a specified fraction of a day. (These standards are no longer in use. More precise definitions are required for science and technology of today.) In addition, the Metric System had the goal that all units would be related by powers of 10. Thus, 1 meter (m) = 100 cm, and 1 liter (l) =

I'm Better!

No! I am!

SI

English

Figure 1-5 SI verses English

1,000 ml. This is distinctly different from the English System of inches, feet, and miles or ounces, quarts, and gallons.

Table 1-2 shows the approximate lengths, using SI dimensions, of several familiar objects. Note: a meter is approximately 39 inches long, or just slightly longer than a yard. Table 1-2 Approximate Lengths of Familiar Objects
Approximate Lengths of Familiar Objects Object Diameter of the sun Diameter of the earth Height of Mt. Everest Football field Height of a typical person Diameter of dime Thickness of a window pane Thickness of paper Diameter of a virus Length (meters) 1.4 x 109 1.3 x 107 9 x 103 1 x 102 1.7 x 100 2 x 10-2 1 x 10-3 1 x 10-4 1 x 10-8

We usually speak of the earth as being 8,000 miles in diameter, of Mt. Everest as being about 29,000 feet high, and of a football field as being exactly 100 yards long. Each of these examples uses a different unit for length - miles, feet, and yards; whereas in SI we use just one term, the meter. Thus, a football field is approximately 100 meters long, and Mt. Everest is 9,000 meters high. Table 3 shows approximate masses for several familiar objects. Table 1-3 Approximate Masses of Familiar Objects
Approximate Masses of Familiar Objects Object The sun The earth The moon The waters of the oceans An ocean liner A house An elephant A car A person A bowling ball A quart of water A rifle bullet A dime A postage stamp A speck of dust A virus A penicillin molecule An Uranium atom A proton An electron Mass 2.0 x 1030 6 x 1024 7.4 x 1022 1.4 x 1021 7.2 x 107 2 x 105 4.5 x 103 2 x 103 5.9 x 101 7.3 1 2.8 x 10-2 3 x 10-3 5 x 10-8 6.7 x 10-10 2.3 x 10-13 5.0 x 10-17 4.0 x 10-26 1.7 x 10-27 9.1 x 10-31 (kilograms)

In the English System, weight may be expressed in several different units (tons, pounds, and ounces). In the SI, the Kilogram is the unit for mass and the corresponding unit of weight is the Newton. The fundamental dimension of time has two aspects to consider. We may wish to know what time of day an event occurred and how long the event lasted. Consequently, any standard unit of time must answer two questions: At what time did it occur? and How long did it last?

Table 4 indicates the duration of various events. Although both the SI and English System use seconds as the time standard, we more typically measure human life in years, satellite rotation in minutes, and the rotation of the Earth in hours. Table 1-4 Approximate Times of Familiar Events
Approximate Times of Familiar Events Event Age of a pyramid Human life span Earths rotation around sun Earths rotation around axis Period of a typical satellite Time between resting heart beats Period of oscillation of a sound wave Period of oscillation of a 3 cm microwave Period of oscillation of a 1 MeV gamma ray Transit time for a fast neutron through a nucleus Time 1.2 x 1011 2 x 109 3 x 107 8.64 x 104 5.1 x 103 9.0 x 10-1 2.3 x 10-3 1.0 x 10-10 4 x 10-21 2 x 10-23 (seconds)

Derived Dimensions
A derived dimension is a physical quantity that is defined in terms of fundamental dimensions. This means that they are combinations of one or more fundamental dimensions or measurements. When fundamental dimensions are combined by multiplication or division, we get derived dimensions. For example, area is a derived dimension. The following are examples of derived dimensions. Area (A) Area is the product of two lengths (e.g., width X length for a rectangle). Therefore, it has the units of length squared, such as square inches (in2) or square meters (m2). Examples: 1 m X 1 m = 1 m2 and 4 in X 2 in = 8 in2

W L

Figure 1-6 Plane Area

Volume (V) Volume is the product of three lengths (e.g., length X width X depth for a rectangular solid); thus, it has the units of length cubed, such as cubic inches (in3) or cubic meters (m3). In the SI, the unit of volume is the liter ( l ). One liter is equal to 1000 cubic centimeters; 1 l = 1000 cm3. In the English system, one gallon is defined as 231 in3. Using this and the definitions for 1 in. and 1 l, we obtain 1 gal. = 3.7854 l , and 1 qt. = 0.9464 l. Example: 2 in x 3 in x 5 in = 30 in3

Figure 1-7 Volume

Density Density is a measure of the mass of an object per unit volume; thus, it has units of mass divided by length3 such as kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3) or pounds-mass per cubic foot (lbm/ft3). Example: 15 lbm/5 ft3 = 3 lbm/ft3.
IRON

ICE

Figure 1-8 Density Speed (v) Speed is the change in distance (length) per unit time. Thus, it has units such as kilometers per hour (km/h) or feet per second (ft/s). Figure 1-9 Speeding Car Velocity (v) Velocity is the change in directed distance per unit time. Similar to speed, it has units such as kilometers per hour or feet per second. What makes it different from speed, however, is that it has a direction. For example, we might express the velocity of the automobile in the illustration as 70 kilometers per hour, east. It is important to note that speed and velocity are measured relative to some other object. For example, if you are riding in the car you are Figure 1-10 Directed Speeding Car traveling at 70 km/h with respect to a stationary observer. Your velocity with respect to the car is zero. In short, an objects velocity is dependent upon the observers point of view. This point of view defines his inertial reference frame. (Inertial reference frames will not be discussed in great detail.)
W E S N

Acceleration (a) Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time. It has units of meters per second per second (m/s2) or feet per second per second (ft/s2).

Figure 1-11 Changing Velocity! Table 1-5 lists some derived dimensions and their typical units in the SI and English System.

Table 1-5 Derived Dimensions in SI and English Units

Derived Dimensions in SI and English Units SI Units English Units Name SI Units Name Symbol Newton N kgm/s2 pound lbf meters per second m/s feet per second ft/s meter per second m/s2 feet per second ft/s2 squared squared joule J Nm foot-pound force ftlbf watt W J/s horsepower hp square meter or m2 square foot or ft2 2 square centimeter cm square inch in2 2 Pascal Pa N/m Pounds force per psi lbf/in2 square in. cubic meter or liter m3, 1000 cubic feet or ft3 3 cm cubic inches in3 3 kilogram per cubic kg/m pounds per cubic lbm/ft3 meter or foot gram per cubic g/cm3 centimeter

Dimension / Symbol force (F) velocity (v) acceleration (a) energy (E) power (P) area (A) pressure (p) volume (V) density ()

Unit Conversion Factors

Personnel at DOE facilities are most often exposed to the English System, but occasionally SI units are used in their work. In some cases, the measurements that are taken or read from an instrument will be different from those required by a procedure. This requires the conversion of measurements to those used in the procedure. Unit conversion factors are based on relationships of equivalent units from different measurement systems. These unit conversion factors are applied to the given measurement to convert it to the required measurement. The equivalent relationships between different units of measurement are defined in conversion tables. In this course, we use the unit conversions that are provided in Appendix F. Recall from mathematics the fundamental property of fractions: when the numerator and denominator of a fraction are both multiplied by the same rational expression, the value of the fraction remains the same. In this way, we can convert fractions into different fractions of equivalent values. For example: Convert 3 to halves: Convert to sixteenths: Convert 4 to twentieths: Convert 0.5 to percent: Convert to percent: Note that in each of these examples, we multiplied a fraction (sometimes it was an integer or a decimal) by a rational expression equal to one. A rational expression equal to one is called a unit conversion factor. It is called a unit conversion factor because it is equal to one (that is, unity). In the first example it was 2/2. In the fourth and fifth examples it was 100%. In this physics course and in all subsequent fundamentals courses, we will use unit conversion factors to convert from one unit to another. Later, we will look at how unit conversion factors can help us to solve problems by dimensional unit analysis. But for now, we will concentrate on unit conversion factors only as conversion factors.

In every case, we will multiply the quantity we have by another quantity equal to one -- the unit conversion factor. We will introduce here the tool known as the "railroad track" method for multiplying fractions. Here's how it works: Example: Multiply Normally, we write Notice that since we multiply the numerators together and the denominators together, we could write this as: Now, if we agree that we can replace the indicated multiplication symbol (x) by a vertical bar (|), we can write this problem as:

Figure 1-12 Railroad Track Method

The name "railroad track" comes from which on longer problems begins to look something like a railroad track. Let's now divide using the railroad track method. Example: Divide Normally, we invert and multiply and thus write: On the railroad track this becomes: Now we'll look at how this applies to unit conversions. For example, how many inches are in five feet? First, write down the problem information as an equation:

Next, select the appropriate conversion factor. For this example, 1 foot = 12 inches. Now put the unit conversion factor into the railroad track with the desired units on top and the undesired or given units on the bottom or opposite the original undesired units.

Finally, we cancel out the common factors in the top and bottom and perform the indicated multiplication. = 60 in

Steps for Unit Conversion

Using the following examples, we will step through the process for converting from a given set of units to a desired set of units. Example: How many yards are in 38.5 feet?

Step 1. Write down the problem information as an equation with a railroad track on the right hand side.

First, we always write down the given quantity followed by an equal sign. This is an equation. We will multiply the right-hand side by rational expressions equal to one until we get the desired units. Step 2. Select an appropriate equivalent relationship from the conversion table. Since 3 ft = 1 yd, we will use this as our conversion factor. Step 3. Divide to obtain a fraction equal to 1 with . This is a unit conversion factor because Step 4. Put the conversion factor into the railroad track with the desired units on top:

Step 5. Cancel like units: The feet in the numerator cancel the feet in the denominator. Step 6. Perform the indicated multiplication and division to obtain the final answer. The answer is now: Example: How many feet are in 795 meters?

Step 1. Write down the problem information as an equation with a railroad track on the right-hand side.

Step 2. Select an appropriate equivalent relationship from a conversion table. 0.9144 m = 1 yd = 3 ft Step 3. Divide to obtain a fraction equal to 1 with : Step 4. Put the conversion factor into the railroad track with the desired units on top:

Step 5. Cancel like units: Step 6. Perform the indicated multiplication and division to obtain the final answer.

Now, lets do a problem with a longer calculation. For "chain calculations" involving several factors, this method is excellent.

Example:

A room has the following dimensions: Length = 28 ft; width = 19 ft. How many square yards of carpet will be required to cover the floor?

Step 1. Write down the problem information as an equation with the railroad track on the right-hand side. Write down that area, = length X width. Next, write this as an equation with the problem information on the left, and railroad track to the right:

Step 2. Select an appropriate equivalent relationship from the conversion table. Because we know that 3 ft = 1 yd, we will use that for our desired conversion factor. Step 3. Divide to obtain a fraction equal to 1 with .

Step 4. Put the conversion factor into the railroad track with the desired units on top: The most foolproof thing to do is write down the unit conversion factor for each measurement.

Step 5. Cancel like units

Step 6. Perform the indicated multiplication and division to obtain the final answer.

Notice that everything above the line is the numerator, and everything below the line is the denominator. We multiplied all the factors of the numerator together, and we multiplied all the factors of the denominator together. Then we divided and wrote down the final answer. Another example: How many acres are in a field Step 1. Write down the problem information as an equation with railroad track on the right-hand side.

Step 2. Select an appropriate relationship from the conversion table. 1 mi2 = 640 acres. Step 3. Divide to obtain a fraction equal to 1 with .

Step 4. Put the conversion factor into the railroad track with the desired units on top:

Step 5. Cancel like units:

Step 6. Perform the indicated multiplication and division to obtain the final answer.

A=

1 mi 3 mi 640 acres = 120 acres 2 8 1 mi mi

If we cannot find an equivalent relationship between the given units and the desired units in the conversion tables, we use multiple conversion factors. One final example: How many square meters are in 2.91 sq. miles?

Step 1. Write down the problem information as an equation with railroad track on the right hand side.

Step 2. Select an appropriate equivalent relationship from a conversion table. Since there is no direct conversion shown for square miles to square meters, we will use more than one conversion. For this example we will use the following: 1 mi = 5,280 ft 0.9144 m = 1 yd Step 3. Divide to obtain fractions equal to 1 with :

Step 4.

Put the conversion factors into the railroad track with the desired units on top:

Step 5.

Cancel like units and perform the indicated multiplication and division to obtain the final answer:

2.91 mi 2 =

2.91 mi 2.91 mi 5,280 ft 5,280 ft 0.9144 m 0.9144 m 1 mi 1 mi 3 ft 3 ft

= 21,932,278.32 m2 or 2.19323 X 107 m2

SI Prefixes and Powers of 10

Sometimes, the values we calculate are too large or too small to express conveniently. In the English system, our best choice is to express very large or very small numbers in scientific notation. In addition to scientific notation, SI gives us prefixes that help us state numbers that are very large or very small. For example, in the English system we might say the distance to the nearest star is about 23,480,000,000,000 miles, which can be expressed as 2.348 x 1013 miles. The second expression uses scientific notation and is more easily understood. In the SI, on the other hand, we may use an expression such as kilometers or gigameters or centimeters to express distance. In the English system, however, we do not say kilomiles or gigamiles or centimiles. The distance to the nearest star in SI is approximately 3.8 x 107 Gm (gigameters). Table 1-6 lists the commonly used SI prefixes and their powers of ten. Table 1-6 Common SI Prefixes
SI PREFIXES Prefix (symbol) giga (G) mega (M) kilo (k) centi (c) milli (m) micro ( ) nano (n) pico (p) one billion one million one thousand one one hundredth one thousandth one millionth one billionth one trillionth Value 1,000,000,000 1,000,000 1,000 1 0.01 0.001 0.000001 0.000000001 0.000000000001 109 106 103 100 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12

Using metric prefixes and powers of ten is another kind of unit conversion, and it follows the same rule: When the numerator and denominator of a fraction are both multiplied by the same rational expression, the value of the fraction remains the same. Example: Convert 1,000,000,000 meters to km. We follow the same steps for converting to new units. The conversion we will use here is 1 km = 1,000 m.

We could also have written 1,000,000,000 as 1 and 1000 as 1 x 103 m, and converted the following way:
.

Example: How many kg are in 1.68 x 1013 mg? The conversions we will use are 1 kg = 103 g and 1 g = 103mg.

1.68 1013 mg =

1.68 1013 mg

1g 10 3 mg

1 kg = 1.68 10 7 kg 3 10 g

Example: A Swedish firm is producing a valve that is to be used by an American supplier. The Swedish firm uses SI for all machining. Convert the following dimensions to conform to SI:
Valve stem length = 57.20 in. Valve inlet and outlet: Inside diameter = 22.00 in. Outside diameter = 27.50 in. For the valve stem:
INLET OUTLET HANDLE VALVE STEM VALVE DISC

Step 1. Write down the problem information as an equation with railroad track on the right-hand side: Figure 1-13 Butterfly Valve

Step 2. Select an appropriate equivalent relationship from a conversion table: 1 in = 2.54 cm and 100 cm = 1 m
Step 3. Divide to obtain a fraction equal to 1 with .

Step 4. Put the conversion factor into the railroad track.

Step 5. Cancel like units and perform the indicated multiplication and division to obtain the final answer.

Now, use the following steps as a guide and do the next two diameters yourself. For the inside diameter: Step 1. Write down the problem information as an equation with railroad track on the right hand side.

Step 2. Select appropriate equivalent relationships from a conversion table. ________________ = ________________ ________________ = ________________ Step 3. Divide to obtain a fraction equal to 1 with . Step 4. Put the conversion factor into the railroad track.

Step 5. Perform the indicated multiplication and division to obtain the final answer. Express your answer in meters.

For the outside diameter: Step 1. Write down the problem information as an equation with railroad track on the right hand side.

Step 2. Select appropriate equivalent relationships from a conversion table. ________________ = ________________ ________________ = ________________ Step 3. Divide to obtain a fraction equal to 1 with .

Step 4. Put the conversion factor into the railroad track.

Step 5. Cancel like units and perform the indicated multiplication and division to obtain the final answer. Express your answer in meters.

Chapter 1 Summary
The fundamental dimensions consist of: Length - distance between two points Mass - amount of material in an object Time - duration between two events The English system of units is based on the three standard units: Foot (ft) Pound Mass (lbm) Second (s) The SI system of measurement consists of the three standard units: Meter (m) Kilogram (kg) Second (s) Derived dimensions are combinations of fundamental dimensions to describe physical quantities. For example, Area and Volume are combinations of length, while density combines mass and length. Conversion tables list equivalent relationships. Unit Conversion Steps (the Railroad Track Method):

Step 1. Write down the problem information as an equation with the railroad track on the right-hand side. Step 2. Select an appropriate equivalent expression from a conversion table. Step 3. Divide to obtain a fraction equal to 1. Step 4. Put the conversion factor into the railroad track. Step 5. Cancel like units and perform the indicated multiplication/division to obtain the final answer. Metric prefixes are used in the SI system to express very large or very small numbers. A few examples are: Mega (M) = 106 Kilo (k) = 103 Centi (c) = 10-2 Milli (m) = 10-3 Micro () = 10-6 Nano (n) = 10-9 Pico (p) = 10-12

Unit Conversion Practice Exercises

1.

A dimension that is independent of other dimensions is called a _____________________ dimension. A dimension that is a physical quantity which contains some combination of other dimensions is called a ______________ dimension. What is the English standard unit for? a) b) c) Time______________________________ Length_____________________________ Mass______________________________

2.

3.

What is the SI standard unit for? a) b) c) Time______________________________ Length_____________________________ Mass______________________________

4.

Area is a derived dimension because it is the product of which two fundamental dimensions? __________________ and __________________

5.

The volume of a rectangular solid cube is determined by multiplying length times width times height. a) b) c) d) Width represents what type of dimension? ___________________ Height represents what type of dimension? ___________________ Length represents what type of dimension? ___________________ Volume represents what type of dimension? __________________

6.

Density is a derived dimension. a) It is a measure of which two fundamental dimensions? _________________ and ________________ b) What are the typical units for density in? SI____________________ and English System____________________

7.

Define length. Identify the standard units for length in the English System and in the SI.

8.

Convert the following lengths. Express your answers in the requested units.

a)

b)

c)

d) 0.73 mi =

9.

Convert the following masses. Express your answers in the requested units. a) b) c) d)

10.

Convert the following times. Express your answers in the requested units. a) b) c) d)

11.

Calculate the following areas. a) b) c)

d) 12. Calculate the following volumes. a) b) c) d)

13. a)

Calculate the following densities.

23.5 lbm, 6.0 ft by 9.0 in by 2.3 ft =

= ________

b) c) d) 14. Calculate the following speeds. a) b) c) d) 15. Answer the following questions about mass. a) What is mass?

b)

What are the standard units for mass for the English System and the SI?

16.

A cheetah has been clocked at a speed of 70.0 miles per hr. What is this speed in km per hr? In ft/s? In m/s?

17.

A high speed garden snail was recently clocked at the amazing speed of 0.0300 mi per hr. Calculate how fast this speedy animal was traveling in units of inches per second and feet per day.

18.

A frightened deer can run from a hunter at speeds up to 35 mi per hr. What is this speed in units of ft/s?

19.

The tallest building in Georgia is the 1050 ft high Nations Bank Tower in Atlanta. Express the height of this building in m.

20.

The Sears Tower in Chicago is currently the tallest building in the world with a height of 1454 ft. What is this height in m?

21. The highest recorded wind speed at Cape Hatteras, NC is 110 mi per hr. What is this speed in km per hr?

22.

At the top of Mt. Washington in New Hampshire a wind speed of 231 mi per hr has been recorded. What is this speed in units of km per hr?

23.

The Verrazano Narrows Bridge between Staten Island and Brooklyn, NY is 60 ft longer than the 1,280.098 meter Golden Gate Bridge and 2.671 times the length of the Brooklyn Bridge.

a) What is the length of the Verrazano Narrows Bridge in ft?

b) What is the length of the Brooklyn Bridge in ft?

24.

The land area of the state of South Carolina is 30,111 square mi. What is this area in units of square ft and square meters?

25.

The land area of the state of Georgia is 57,919 square mi. What is this area in units of square ft and square meters?

26.

The land area of the state of Alaska covers 570,373 square mi. What is the ratio of Alaska's area to South Carolina's?

27.

Fill in the missing volumes in the required units.

LITERS 3.8 1250 427 289 5.0 CUBIC CM - CM3 CUBIC IN - IN3

28.

Supply the missing volumes in the required units.

LITERS 2.0 750 12.0 5.0 1.0 MILLILITERS GALLONS

29.

List the following states in descending order according to the size of their land area. South Carolina: North Carolina: Georgia: Alaska: Rhode Island: Delaware: Texas: 30,111 square mi 4.8718 x 104 square mi 5.79 x 104 square mi 570,373 square mi 1045 square mi 5.450 x 1010 square ft 261,914 square mi

30.
a)

A New World record time of 9.85 sec. was recently set in the 100 meter run. Express this in the following units:
m/s

b) ft/s

c)

mi/hr

2 Chapter: Newtons Laws of Motion

TO 2.0 EO 2.1 EO 2.2 EO 2.3

EXPLAIN the relationship between an objects momentum and the net applied forces. RELATE changes to an objects momentum to the net applied force. EXPLAIN the relationship between the forces applied to an object and its mass and acceleration. EXPLAIN the action / reaction force pair relationship.

Natural Laws
To push a car on level ground, we must exert a force. If we push hard enough, the car will begin to roll. If we stop pushing, the car will slow down and stop. Must a force always be exerted to keep an object in motion? Our everyday experience says, "Yes". Is an object at rest in its natural state? Is motion, then, unnatural? For centuries, people had asked questions about natural laws. They had concluded that rest was the natural state and that a force must continuously be applied to keep an object, such as a car, in motion. In 1638, after years of research, the Italian scientist Galileo wrote a book entitled Two New Sciences. In this book he challenged the traditional ways of thinking about the natural world and how it works. He introduced the concept of uniform motion. He introduced objective experiments and measurements as part of the scientific method. Among Galileo's achievements were the invention of the telescope and his insistence that the earth and planets revolve around the sun. He was not the first scientist to believe this, but he was the first to prove it. He also argued that light travels very fast, but it is not instantaneous. His views were considered so radical that he was brought before the Inquisition, forced to deny his theories, and sentenced to house arrest for the final ten years of his life. His work was not published until after his death. Galileo died in 1642, 150 years after Columbus discovered North America. In that same year, Sir Isaac Newton was born in England. Newton is credited with discovering and writing down for the first time the fundamental physical laws governing the motion of everything from molecules to galaxies. Newton published his initial work The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (also known as The Principia) in 1686. Much of his work serves as a basis for this course. In this chapter we will introduce Newtons work and solve a few simple problems. In succeeding chapters we will consider implications of his work in greater detail. Figure 2-14 Planet Orbits Sun

Newtons First Law of Motion

The first misunderstanding that Newton addressed was the notion of the natural state of an object. Basically, he said that the natural state of any object is for it to continue doing what it's has been doing. That means that if an object has been at rest, it will continue to remain at rest. He refined Galileo's concept of uniform motion. Uniform motion is motion at constant velocity. Constant velocity means constant speed and constant direction. Remember, if either the speed or the direction changes, then the velocity also changes and the object is said to accelerate. If an object's velocity is zero, it is at rest. Newton found by experiment and logic that no force is required to maintain a constant velocity. A force is only required to change the velocity. This observation lead to Newtons First Law of Motion. Specifically, Newton's first law of motion states that: A body at rest will remain at rest and a body in uniform motion will remain will remain in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force. This is equivalent to saying that an objects momentum does not change unless acted upon by a force. In other words, an object cannot accelerate by itself. In addition, this law tells us that the only thing that can change an object's state of motion (velocity) is an externally applied force. It is important to note that velocity is dependent upon the inertial reference frame of the observer. With this in mind, Newtons first law can be thought of in terms of inertial reference frames. Consequently, this law is frequently called the law of inertia. Newtons first law of motion may be restated in alternate forms: If no net force acts on an object, its acceleration is zero. Or If the net external force acting on an object is zero, it is possible to find a set of reference frames in which that object has no acceleration. All three statements of Newtons first law of motion are equivalent.

Newtons Second Law of Motion

Statements of Newton's first law of motion state that in the absence of a net external force, a body remains in uniform motion. This implies logically that if the net external force is not zero, the object will not remain in uniform motion. Its velocity (either speed or direction) will change. That is, it will accelerate. But how much will it accelerate? Newton found that if he applied a constant force to several objects, the lighter objects had greater acceleration than the heavier objects. Newtons second law relates the net external force applied to an object to the mass and acceleration of the object. In words: Whenever an unbalanced force acts on a body, it produces in the direction of the force, an acceleration that is directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the body.

Stated more simply, we may use this definition: The acceleration is directly proportional to the applied external force and inversely proportional to the mass of the object. Equation Expressed mathematically, Newtons Second Law of Motion is given by: a = F/m Where: a is the acceleration F is the net applied force m is the mass The most common form of Newton's Second Law of Motion is: F = ma {Note that both force (F) and acceleration (a) are vectors and are represented as such by bold text.} This law tells us that any object acted upon by a constant force will move with a constant acceleration in the same direction as the applied force. Notice that this does not say that the velocity will be in the direction of the applied force, but only the acceleration. There are a few things to keep in mind when applying Newtons second law of motion. First, you must be quite certain to what object the law is being applied. Second, you must use the vector sum of all external forces that act on the body. The resultant vector sum of all external forces is the net applied force. Do not include forces internal to the object. (Vectors will be discussed in detail in chapter 3.) An object is always accelerated in the direction of the applied force. If the object is already moving and a force is applied in the direction of its motion, the force will increase the objects velocity. If the force is applied in the opposite direction to an object's motion, the velocity of the object will decrease. If the force is applied at an angle with the line of the object's motion, it will cause the object to turn. In all three cases, the object is said to accelerate in the direction of the applied force. An object accelerates if turned, even if it possesses a constant speed. The important point to remember is that the acceleration of an object is always in the direction of the net force In SI, force is measured in Newtons: and in the English system force is measured in pounds-force:

1 lbf =

1 lbm 32.2 ft 32.2 ft lbm lbf s 2

s2

Newtons Third Law of Motion

Forces come in pairs. When a hammer strikes a nail, it exerts a force on the nail. The hammer bounces back or reacts due to the nail exerting a force on the hammer. In a similar manner, if you push against a wall, the wall pushes back. Which object exerts the force and which receives it? Newton determined that neither is exclusively an "exerter" or a "receiver". Instead, both objects exert a force, and both receive a force. When the hammer exerts a force on the nail, the nail exerts a force back on the hammer. Both objects experience a change in their state of motion, and both objects experience an applied force. The nail will be accelerated and will be driven into the board. The hammer will experience an acceleration as it stops moving forward and then recoils away from the nail. When we exert a force,

that force does not exist alone. We push on a wall; it pushes back. We brace ourselves and push against the floor; the floor pushes back. One of these forces, (it does not matter which) is referred to as the action force while the other is referred to as the reaction force. Newton found that the action force and the reaction force have a consistent, predictable relationship. The action and reaction have equal magnitudes and opposite directions.

Here's how Newton stated this in his Third Law of Motion. To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction; or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and act in opposite directions.
Newton's Third Law is commonly stated as:

F1

F2

For every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction force.

F3

F4

Figure 2-15 Two Pairs of Opposing Forces The obvious questions are; If forces always come in pairs, equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, how does anything ever get moving? Why dont the forces cancel each other out? The answer is fundamental to understanding how to apply Newtons third law of motion. The force pairs always act on different bodies. In our example the action force is exerted by the hammer on the nail. The reaction force is exerted by the nail on the hammer. (Note: you could also say the action force is exerted by the nail on the hammer and the reaction force is exerted by the hammer on the nail.) In either case, the force pairs act on separate bodies. If two forces act on the same body, they cannot be action reaction force pairs even though they may be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

Newton's Third Law of Motion often seems theoretical and distant. It's not. We see it every day. For example, when we step on the bathroom scale, we exert a downward force equal to our weight. The scale exerts an exactly equal upward force, which it measures and indicates as our Figure 2-16 Action / Reaction on a Bathroom Scale weight. Expressed in equation form, Newtons third law becomes: FAB = - FBA Pay close attention to the order of the subscripts. This reads: The force exerted on object A by object B is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force exerted on object B by object A. In physics, the statement above, for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, always means this equation and nothing else.

Chapter 2 Summary
Newtons First Law of Motion Every object remains in a state of rest or uniform straight line motion unless acted upon by an external force. Newtons Second Law of Motion The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on that object, in the direction of the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

Newtons Third Law of Motion Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object (action), the second object exerts an equal and opposite force o the first object (reaction) FAB = - FBA

Newtons Laws of Motion Exercises

1. Consider a rocket flying through space at a constant velocity. What is the net force acting on the object? Why?

2. A 250 kg motorcycle with a constant force applied accelerates at a greater rate than a 500 kg motorcycle with the same constant force applied. Why? State the law of motion and the governing equation.

3. A sportsman fires a rifle at a target. The rifle experience a recoil during the shot. Briefly describe why. Include equations and verbal descriptions in your answer.

4. Match the following laws of motion to the corresponding statement that accurately describes the law. a) b) c) d) Newtons first law of motion Newtons second law of motion Newtons third law of motion Universal Law of Gravity

_____ When a body exerts a force on another body, the second body exerts a force on the first that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. _____ An object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion remains in motion unless acted upon by an external force. _____ The acceleration on an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on the object and inversely proportional to the mass of the object. 5. If the net external force acting on an object is zero, what is the maximum acceleration of the object?

3 Chapter: Motion
TO 3.0

APPLY the principles of velocity and acceleration to objects in motion.

EO 3.1 EO 3.2

DEFINE the term motion. DEFINE the following terms and LIST the units for each term: a) instantaneous speed b) average speed c) relative speed d) acceleration e) velocity f) gravity

Motion
In the world around us, everything moves. Objects which seem at rest are really moving when viewed from a different prospective. For example, if you could occupy a fixed point in space and view a point on the earth, the point on the earth would move with the rotation and movement of the earth. We must always relate the motion (or lack of motion) of an object to the motion of another object. This other object creates our frame of reference. In other words, motion is a relative term. For example, a bus moving down the highway would be in motion relative to the stationary highway. A person standing in the moving bus would be described as moving relative to the highway, but would be stationary relative to the inside of the bus. The bus and the highway are two separate frames of reference. This persons motion would be different for each of these frames of reference. Motion is the change of position of an object relative to a fixed reference frame.

Linear Motion
Motion is simply what happens when we change the position of an object. We call this change in position displacement. In this course, and particularly in this chapter, we will deal with motion in straight lines called linear motion. Motion that is not in a straight line is called nonlinear motion. A car moving along a winding mountain is an example of nonlinear motion. Included in our discussion will be consideration of linear motion in more than one direction. For example, a trip may consist of two parts or legs, the first being a ten-mile leg to the west and the second being a ten-mile leg to the south. The result of such a trip will obviously be a destination located to the southwest of the starting point. Figure 3-1 illustrates such a trip on graph paper.

Starting point of second ten-mile leg

Starting point of first ten-mile leg

Ending point This line is about 14 miles long

Figure 3-17 Two Legs of Trip

In this chapter we will introduce the terms needed to discuss linear motion. We will also describe how to measure and predict the linear motion of objects. All motion, including linear motion, can occur in any plane. In other words, it can be in a horizontal direction, a vertical direction, or any direction in between. A truck moving along a level road would be an example of motion in a horizontal direction or plane. A falling object such as a stone dropped straight down from a tall building would be an example of motion in a vertical direction or plane. An aircraft climbing to altitude after take-off is an examples of motion in a plane somewhere between horizontal and vertical. No matter what plane the motion is in, as long as its in a straight line, it can be called linear motion.

Scalars and Vectors

At this point it is necessary to introduce the concept of scalar and vector quantities. All physical quantities encountered in classical physics are either scalars or vectors. A scalar is defined as a quantity that is represented by magnitude only. Scalars do not include direction from a reference point. Scalars include time, volume, mass, and temperature. (There are many other examples of scalar quantities.) For our purposes, time represents a duration and moves only in one possible direction, making it a scalar. A vector is defined as a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. Direction is an essential part of a vector. A good example of a vector quantity is displacement. We also use the word displacement for change of position. Displacement is a directed distance from a particular point. To fully describe a displacement, we need both magnitude and direction. If someone asked, "How can I get to California from South Carolina?" our answer, "Go 2800 miles west!" uses a vector displacement. We would include both the magnitude (2800 miles) and direction of travel (west) to fully describe the displacement. If our answer were given as simply a scalar distance (2800 miles) the person might not know to travel West. They might assume they should travel east and end up in Spain. The only difference between distance (a scalar) and displacement (a vector) is that the vector has a direction. If we say, "we drove 500 miles yesterday", 500 miles without a direction is a scalar. If we say, "we drove 500 miles south yesterday, 500 miles South is a vector because it has direction. If we say, "we drove 500 miles to Florida yesterday", we have also used a direction (to Florida), and this represents a vector because it is a directed distance. Other examples of vector quantities include velocity, acceleration, and force. Notice that time (t), energy (E), temperature (T), and mass (m) are never vectors. They are always scalars.

Adding Vectors in One Dimension

If we say, "drive North 10 mi, then drive South 6 mi, we are specifying two inter-related vectors. To find out where "10 mi North, and 6 mi South" is, we can add the vectors. There is more involved than just adding the magnitude of these two vectors. Before the magnitudes can be added the vectors must be in the same direction. Signed numbers are used to accomplish this. For a vector, a negative sign means in the opposite direction. This results in the following relationship for any vector with magnitude and direction: the reverse of any direction is 180o from that direction.
Oo or 360o, N

Therefore: West = - East, or negative East, or minus East East = - West, or negative West, or minus West

315 , NW

45o, NE

270o, W

90o, E

225 , SW 180 , S
o

135 , SE

Figure 3-18 Compass

North = - South, or negative South, or minus South South = - North, or negative North, or minus North The same kind of relationship holds for any direction (South-southeast, Northeast, etc.) Be careful when working with degrees from North. The negative of 450 is not -450. We add 1800 to the given value to obtain the opposite direction. Thus the reverse of a trip in a direction of 45o is 45o + 180o, or 225o. Another example: Question: What is the reverse of a trip to the Southeast? Answer: A trip to the Northwest. A useful way to visualize vectors is to sketch them on a graph. Lets look at some examples. See Figures 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, and 3-6. Example 1: 20 miles in an Easterly direction = -20 miles in a Westerly direction: (Refer to Figure 3-3.)

20 mi in an Easterly direction

20 mi in a Westerly direction

Figure 3-19 East = - West Example 2: 10 m N = -10 m S. (Refer to Figure 3-4.)

N

Figure 3-20 North = - South Example 3: 3 miles East = -3 miles West. (Refer to Figure 3-5.)
E W

Figure 3-21 East = - West

South North

Figure 3-22 South = - North

Example 4: 5 km South = -5 km North. (Refer to Figure 3-6.)

These examples show that it is possible to express two vectors 180 apart as two vectors in the same direction. Once the two vectors are in the same direction their magnitudes are added using the rules of signed numbers. The direction of the resultant vector is the same as its component vectors. Therefore, 10 mi North, and 6 mi South can be added as follows. Step 1. Step 2. Step 3. 10 miles North + 6 miles South 10 miles North + (-6 miles North) 4 miles North

The previous problem can be worked out by converting 10 miles North to -10 miles South as well. Step 1. Step 2. Step 3. Step 4. 10 miles North + 6 miles South (-10 miles South) + 6 miles South -4 miles South 4 miles North

The last step is done in order to get a positive magnitude for the vector. In summary, use the following four steps to add vectors in one dimension. 1) Get all vectors in the same direction using the relationship A = -A ( 180) Where: A and -A are the magnitudes of the displacement. Denotes direction or angle. Denotes the amount or quantity of the direction or angle. 2) Add the magnitudes of the vectors using the rules for signed numbers. 3) The direction of the resultant is the same as the direction of its components. 4) Express the answer with a positive magnitude. Example: Add the following vectors: 3 90 (East) 4 270 (West) 8 90 (East) 3 90 + 4 270 + 8 90

Step 1.

3 90 + (-4 90) + 8 90

Step 2. (3 - 4 + 8) 90 Step 3. 7 90 (East) Step 4 is not needed since the answer already has a positive magnitude.

Graphical Representation
The examples above discuss vectors added in only one dimension: north-south, east-west, etc. Vectors can also be two-dimensional, and even three-dimensional. In this course we will study one-dimensional and two-dimensional vectors as they relate to the WTP Project. See Figure 3-7. Vector quantities are graphically represented using a rectangular coordinate system with an x-axis and a y-axis. The x-axis is normally a horizontal line, and the y-axis is normally a vertical line. The selection of a coordinate system is somewhat arbitrary. We will keep with standard convention and use typical x-y axis. The intersection of the x-axis and y-axis is known as the origin. On the x-axis, values to the right of the origin are positive (+), and values to the left are negative (-). On the y-axis, values above the origin are positive (+), and values below the origin are negative (-).
Y(+)

X (-)

X (+)

Y (-)

Figure 3-23 Rectangular Coordinate System

Vector Graphics in Two Dimensions

As shown in the examples on previous pages, a vector may be represented graphically, using an arrow. Vectors must be properly oriented on the graph, and must be of a proper size. Recall from the section on Vectors and Scalars earlier in this chapter that vectors are characterized by magnitude and direction. Thus the length of the graphical vector corresponds to the magnitude. The orientation of the vector describes its direction.
N (+)

For example, consider a typical displacement vector. If the direction is east, and the distance is four miles, the displacement vector will look like Figure 3-8. The vector has an arrowhead pointing to the right (east), and the tail of the vector is located at the point of origin. The vector (arrow) is four tick marks long, indicating four miles.

W (-)

E (+)

S (-)

Figure 3-24 East 4 Miles

Sometimes the vector will not fall on the x-axis or y-axis. For example, the displacement may be to the northwest. In this case, the arrow will point above and left of the origin, as shown in Figure 3-9.
W (-)

N (+)

E (+)

S (-)

Figure 3-25 Northwest Vector There are two methods used for locating the head of the vector (that is, the arrowhead). First method: Coordinates (x and y) may be provided. If so, these values may be used to locate the arrowhead (head of the vector). Example: See Figure 3-10. For a vector with a value of x = 4 and y = 5, a line 4 units long is drawn from the point of origin to the right (+ direction on the x-axis), and a line 5 units long is drawn from the point of origin upwards (+ direction on the y-axis). From the end of the first line, a line is drawn upwards. From the end of the second line, a line is drawn to the right. At the intersection of these two lines we locate the arrowhead of the vector. This is explained in more detail in the following section on Vector Components and Resultants.
Y (+)

Draw this line second (y = 5)

Draw this line fourth

Draw this line third

Draw the vector resultant last

X (+)
Draw this line first (x = 4)

Figure 3-26 Vector Graphics in 2-D With X-Y Position Specified Second method: Angle may be specified. In this case, the vector line is rotated counterclockwise from the zero degree (0o) point (corresponds to x (+)) to the proper direction.

Example: See Figure 3-11. 135o vector, displacement 5. First, determine the vector direction, then determine the vector length.
900

Now draw a line along the 1350 that is 5 units long.

First, the arc is rotated 1350 from 0 0.

1800

00 , or 3600

2700

Figure 3-27 Vector Graphics in 2-D With Specified Angle

Vector Components and Resultants

A vector quantity, for example, 5 miles east, may be represented by an arrow of appropriate direction and length. Such an arrow is known as a vector component. When two or more vector components are added, they yield a resultant vector. This was demonstrated on Figures 3-3 through 3-6 for vectors in one dimension.
North

C West A

B East

Resultants for vectors in two dimensions may also be shown graphically. For example, you could drive five miles east, then six miles north. On a graph (Figure 3-12), the first part of this trip would be shown as an arrow on the x-axis that points to the right (labeled as A on the graph). The second part of the trip would be shown as an arrow parallel to the y-axis and pointing up (arrow B). The resultant displacement is indicated by vector C. You can estimate the length of the resultant vector, as explained below under Calculating the Vector Resultant. In this case, the resultant is approximately 5.5 miles.

South

Figure 3-28 Resultant Vector Graphically

Student Exercise Using Graph 3-1 (Figure 3-13) below draw the vectors for a trip that started south for 4.5 miles, then turned east 5.5 miles, at which point the destination was reached. Each square on the graph represents one-half mile. Estimate the displacement.
North

West

East

South

Figure 3-29 (Graph 3-1)

Calculating the Vector Resultant As indicated above, the length of the vector resultant can be estimated. Such an estimate may be made by use of a ruler, as illustrated in Figure 3-14.

North On this scale, 1/4 inch is equal to the width of one cell of the graph. Therefore, each division represents approximately 1/2 mile. The length of the resultant, estimated to the nearest mile is obtained by counting the divisions on the scale and dividing by 2.

West

Resultant

South

5.5 Miles East

Figure 3-30 Resultant by Graphing Method There are just over 14 tick marks in the resultant vector. This means that the magnitude of the resultant is approximately 7 miles. Such an approach to determining the length of the vector resultant yields only an approximate answer. To determine a more exact result, a mathematical approach is used. If the vector components are at right angles, then a right triangle (a triangle in which one of the three angles is equal to exactly 90o) may be constructed. This triangle has as two legs derived from the original vector components, plus a third leg that is the resultant vector. The resultant vector is known as the hypotenuse of the triangle. We know the length of the component vectors, and we need to Y determine the length of the resultant, or hypotenuse. See Figure 3-15. The ancient Greeks provided us with a way to find the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle. The Pythagorean Theorem, named after the Greek mathematician Pythagoras, is used to find the length of the hypotenuse. It is expressed as this mathematical equation: c2 = a2 + b2 In this equation, c always stands for the hypotenuse and a and b stand for the other two sides of the right triangle. Thus the equation means
vector components

vector resultant (hypotenuse of the triangle)

Triangle of interest

b c a
.

Figure 3-31 Hypotenuse of Right Triangle

4.5 Miles south

East

that the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides.

For our example, the horizontal vector is 5.5 miles, and the vertical vector is 4.5miles. If we insert these values into the equation, this is what we get c2= 5.52 + 4.52. When we square the known values this becomes c2 = 30.25 + 20.25, or c2 = 50.5. What we seek is the value of c, not the value of c2. Thus we need one additional calculation in order to determine the value of the hypotenuse, that is, the length of the hypotenuse in miles. We will use electronic calculators to make this final calculation. The equation c2 = 50.5 is equivalent to the equation c = 50.5 , which can easily solved on a calculator. The result, in your calculator window, should say 7.106335, which means that the resultant vector is approximately 7.1 miles long.

Distance verses Displacement

Technically, there is a difference between Augusta distance and displacement. Distance is simply a measure of how far an object has D traveled to get from one point to the other. Displacement is the straight line directed Denver distance (as the crow flies) between the two points. The distance traveled between two points and the displacement between the two d points may or may not be the same value. Figure 3-16 shows the route that you might Figure 3-32 Distance Verses Displacement actually take when traveling from Augusta, Georgia to Denver, Colorado. You will notice that the total distance (d) you travel between the two locations is much greater than the straight-line displacement (s) between the two points. Displacement is a vector quantity whereas distance is a scalar quantity.

Speed
Objects in motion travel a certain distance in a given time. An automobile, for example, may travel some number of miles in an hour. Speed is a measure of how fast the automobile is moving or the rate at which distance is covered. Speed is the time rate of change of the position of an object. The speed of an object is always measured in terms of a unit of distance divided by a unit of time. In general, we can say mathematically that:

Any combination of distance and time units is acceptable when measuring speed. For example, with automobiles you will hear the units of miles per hour (mph or mi/h) or kilometers per hour (km/h). A speed of 55 mph means that if the auto would travel at a constant 55 mph for exactly one hour, it would travel a distance of 55 miles. For shorter distances, feet per second (ft/s) or meters per second (m/s) may be more useful. Table 3-1 shows some comparative speeds in different units.

Table 3-7 Comparative Speeds The speed of an object can be expressed in two ways: instantaneous speed, and average speed. Each is used to describe motion for a different purpose. Let us look at each of these in detail. Instantaneous Speed Instantaneous speed is how fast an object is moving at any particular point in time. It is the rate or measurement on the speedometer of your car as you glance at it. If a policeman asks you how fast you were going, and you answer "55 miles per hour, you are specifying an instantaneous speed. You are saying that at the instant in time that you observed the speedometer it read 55 mph. Average Speed A car does not always travel at the same speed. In fact, the speed usually varies a great deal. In many cases, such as when you're taking a trip, you need something other than instantaneous speed to keep track of your progress. A calculation of average speed can be very useful. Average speed (vavg) is the total distance (d) traveled, divided by the time (t) it took to go that distance, or: Approximate Speeds in Different Units 40 km/hr = 25.0 mph = 11.11 m/s = 36.66 ft/s 60 km/hr = 37.5 mph = 16.67 m/s = 54.64 ft/s 80 km/hr = 50.0 mph = 22.22 m/s = 73.33 ft/s

Average speed can be calculated very easily. Example: If we drive 40 miles in one hour, we say our average speed was 40 miles per hour (or 40 mph). If we travel 200 miles in 5 hours, we calculate:

If we know our average speed and the time traveled, we can rearrange our average speed equation to find the distance traveled on a trip: Total distance traveled = (average speed) X (total time). Or d = (vavg) X (t) If our average speed is 40 mph and we travel for 3 hours, we would cover 120 miles on the trip.

Example: If a car moves at an average speed of 60 mph for one hour, it will travel 60 miles. a) b)
c)

How far will it travel at this rate in 4 hours? How far will it travel at this rate in 7 hours? If the car started the trip at rest, and ended the trip at rest, would it be possible for the car to attain an average rate of 60 mph and never exceed a reading of 60 mph on the speedometer?

Solution: The distance traveled is the average speed time of travel, so

a) b) c)

Distance = 60 mi/hr 4 hr = 240 mi Distance = 60 mi/hr 7 hr = 420 mi No, if the trip started at rest and ended at rest, there will be times when the instantaneous speed is less than 60 mph. Unless there are compensating times with rates greater than 60 mph, it would not be possible to get an average speed of 60 mph.

Velocity
We often use the words speed and velocity interchangeably. Technically, this is incorrect. Speed is a quantity that describes only the magnitude (how fast) at which an object's position is changing. We look at only the magnitude and it is always a positive number. Recall that we refer to "magnitude-only" quantities as scalar quantities. Velocity describes both the speed at which an object is traveling and its direction. Remember, quantities that describe both magnitude and direction are referred to as vector quantities. Velocity is the time rate of change of the position of an object with respect to direction. In other words, velocity incorporates both speed and direction. Velocity has the same units as speed but with the added unit of direction. For example, it might be said that a motorcycle was traveling directly south at 45 miles per hour. This statement describes the velocity of the motorcycle. We distinguish between instantaneous and average velocities in the same way we do speed. Velocity, however, is also described relatively. That is, we must account for the frame of reference from which we observe the objects velocity. Additionally, we sometimes refer to objects as having a constant velocity. When something moves with a constant velocity, its speed and direction never change, and its instantaneous and average velocities are equal. (The same is true for speed.) When something moves at a constant velocity or a constant speed, equal distances are traveled in equal times. An object that travels with a constant velocity will always have a constant speed. However, an object that travels with constant speed does not necessarily have a constant velocity. For example, if an object that is moving at a constant speed changes its direction, its velocity changes. Relative Velocity Imagine riding in your car. You are traveling at 55 mph when another car passes you going 60 mph. The car passing is traveling 5 mph faster than you. So, from your perspective, it appears to be traveling only 5 mph. (Be careful not to compare its velocity to the stationary road.) In other words, it is only passing you at the same rate as it would have if it were only traveling 5 mph and you were stationary. The relative velocity between your car and the passing car is +5 mph with reference to your car. Conversely, suppose you are traveling 55 mph and meet an oncoming vehicle in the opposite lane traveling toward you at 60 mph. The velocity of the other car relative to you would be -115 mph. Note, the minus sign (-) indicates a velocity toward you (i.e., in the opposite direction to your reference vehicle). Relative velocity is simply the difference in the velocity of two objects in relation to each other. These objects may be moving toward each other, away from each other, or in the same direction. It is important to remember that relative velocity is dependent on the frame of reference of the observer. Relative to your car, the relative velocity can be positive or negative, depending on whether it is in the same or opposite direction. Mathematically we can express the concept of relative velocity as follows: vrelative = v2 - v1

Where:

vrelative v1 v2

= = =

the relative velocity the velocity of the reference object the velocity of the other object

Example: You are riding on a train traveling west at 70 mph on a two-track mainline and meet an oncoming train on the adjacent track traveling toward you at 50 mph. What is the relative velocity of the oncoming train with respect to you? Solution: v2 v1 = = speed of oncoming train = -50 mph. speed of your train (reference train) = +70 mph

(Note: Minus sign of v2 is because train is traveling in the direction opposite to you.) vrelative vrelative =
=

v2 - v1
-50 mph - (+70 mph) = -50 mph - 70 mph = -120 mph

Relative to you, the approaching train is traveling at a speed of -120 mph. This means that from your perspective the oncoming train is approaching at 120 mph.

Acceleration
Most of the motion we observe in nature does not occur at a constant velocity. Normally, speed and/or direction change. Motion in which speed or direction change is called accelerated motion. Acceleration is the time rate of change of velocity. Any object that experiences a change in speed or direction has been accelerated. Mathematically, acceleration is expressed as the rate of change in velocity divided by the time it takes for the velocity change to occur. Note that acceleration is also a vector quantity. Where a vfinal vinitial t = = = = acceleration final velocity (after the acceleration) initial velocity (prior to the acceleration time interval it took for the velocity to change

Note from the equation that if there is no change in an objects velocity, there has been no acceleration (acceleration = 0, or a = 0). This means that any object that experiences a change in speed or direction has been accelerated. Acceleration has units of distance per time squared. In the English system the units are ft per second squared (ft/sec2); and in SI the units are meters per second squared (m/sec2). The unit of time appears twice - once for the unit of velocity, and once for the time interval during which the change in velocity occurs. Example: Solution: A car is traveling at a rate of 30 ft/sec East. It takes 10 seconds to increase its speed to 50 ft/sec East. Calculate its acceleration during that time. The acceleration is calculated as follows: Note that since both the beginning and final velocities are in the direction of East, the acceleration vector will be in the same direction.

a=

50ft/s 30ft/s 20ft/s 20 ft = = = 2ft/s 2 East 10s 10 s s 10 s

Acceleration applies to increases or decreases in speed, and to changes in direction. If the object in question is being slowed, we refer to that as deceleration. To indicate that an object is being decelerated, we express the acceleration value with a negative sign. Objects in Free Fall The most common example of uniform acceleration is the acceleration of objects due to the force of gravity. Acceleration caused by gravity alone is denoted by the letter "g". When a falling object is free of all restraint (i.e., no air friction), and falls under the influence of gravity alone, the object is said to be in free fall. During free fall, an object will increase in velocity 32.17 feet per second for each second of free fall. This is 9.8 meters per second for each second in the SI system. So the acceleration due to gravity is 32.17 ft/s2 in the English System or 9.81 m/s2 in the SI. Acceleration due to gravity exists on any heavenly body which has mass. The moon, for example, has about 1/6 the acceleration of gravity as does the earth, or: gmoon = 1/6 x 32.17 ft/s2 = 5.36 ft/s2 The use of vectors, gravity, and other topics covered in this chapter will be of great importance as we resume the study of forces in Chapter 4.

Chapter 3 Summary
A vector has magnitude and direction. Some examples of vectors are: displacement, d, s, r acceleration, a velocity, v force, F gravity, g A scalar has only magnitude. Some scalars are: speed, v distance, d, time, t energy, E temperature, T mass, m (Component vector) + (component vector) = (resultant vector) In order to add vectors in one dimension use the following four steps. 1. Get all vectors in the same direction using the relationship A = - A 180 2. 3. 4. Add the magnitudes of the vectors using the rules for signed numbers. The direction of the resultant is the same as the direction of its components. Express answer with a positive magnitude.

Motion is the displacement of any object relative to a reference frame. Linear motion is motion in a straight line. Speed is the rate of change of the position of an object. It is the magnitude of velocity Distance is a measure of how far an object travels from one point to another. Displacement is a measure of the straight line distance from one point to another. Instantaneous speed is how fast an object is moving at a particular point in time. Average speed is the total distance traveled divided by the time it took, or the average of a final and initial speed.

Average speed =

total distance d final d initial d = = total time t final - t initial t

Velocity is the time rate of change of position in a given direction. Relative velocity is the difference in velocity of two objects in relation to each other. vrelative = v2 - v1 Where: vrelative = the relative velocity v2 = The velocity of the other object v1 = The velocity of the reference object

Acceleration is the time rate of change of velocity.

Acceleration = Change in velocity v = v final v initial = Time interval t t

Linear Motion Practice Problems

1. What is a scalar quantity?

2. What is a vector quantity?

3. For the following parameters, circle the ones that are scalar quantities. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) time displacement mass distance force volume velocity acceleration

4. For the following parameters, circle the ones that are vector quantities. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) time displacement mass distance force volume velocity acceleration

5. State whether the following motions describe acceleration. Justify your answer. a) a book lying on a table b) an automobile traveling on a straight level road in cruise control c) a vehicle slowing down for a stoplight d) the space shuttle returning to earth e) a line drive baseball hit f) an object dropped from the top of a tall building g) an airplane descending for a landing at constant airspeed h) an arrow shot directly up into the sky 6. State whether the following motions describe linear motion. Justify your answer. a) an Indianapolis 500 auto race b) a car driving down a curving mountain road c) a skydiver dropped from a moving plane d) a bullet fired upwards at an angle less than vertical 7. An airplane travels 450 miles non-stop in 3 hours. a) What is the speed of the plane in mph?

b) Is this average speed or instantaneous speed? Why?

c) Why would it be inappropriate to use the term velocity to describe the planes motion?

8. A man walks a mile in 15 minutes. What is his speed in miles per hour?

9. A vehicle uniformly accelerates from 0 to 60 mph in 6 seconds. What is the vehicles acceleration?

10. A car decelerates from 30 m/s to 20 m/s in 1 second. What is the cars acceleration?

11. A falling stone accelerates from rest and attains a speed of 96.51 ft/s in 3 seconds. What is the acceleration of the stone?

12. Two forklift trucks, each going 8 ft/s pass each other going in opposite directions. What is their relative velocity?

13. Your neighbor drives 3 hours west from Richland, then 70 minutes south to arrive at his destination. How much time would he have needed if there were a road straight to the destination? Sketch the trip on a graph, and perform calculations below. Assume that the speed was constant.

14. You travel due east from Kennewick to Idaho (use your imagination!), which is 75 miles, then you turn due north and drive 50 miles to the Worlds Greatest BBQ Eatery in Moscow. If you had been able to travel by Bee-Line Helicopter Services, how many miles would you have saved? Sketch the trip on graph paper, and perform calculations below.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

4 Chapter: Forces and Equilibrium

TO 4.0 EO 4.1 EO 4.2 EO 4.3

IDENTIFY the types of force and DESCRIBE their relationship to mass, and acceleration. DEFINE the term force. DEFINE the type of force known as weight. DEFINE the following types of forces. a) Tensile Force b) Compressive Force c) Shear Force d) Friction Force

EO 4.4 EO 4.5 EO 4.6

DESCRIBE the factors that affect the magnitude of the frictional force. DESCRIBE the terms net force and force equilibrium. DEFINE the term center of gravity.

Force
Newton's Laws of Motion lead directly to our discussion of force, and to calculations involving force. You will recall from Chapter 2 that a mass cannot change its state of motion unless a force is applied. This means that any time an object speeds up, slows down, or changes direction, a force had to cause the change. Force can be thought of simply as a push or pull, but is more clearly defined as an action on a body that tends to change the state of motion of a body. Force is defined as any action on a body that produces an acceleration of the body. The force applied to an object can be mathematically described as: F = m*a where: F = the force acting on the object (Newton or lbf) m = the mass of the object (kg or lbm) a = the acceleration experienced by the object (m/sec2 or ft/sec2).

The acceleration resulting from a force will always be in the same direction as the force. Consider a truck traveling on a level surface. Refer to figures 4-1 and 4-2. If a force is applied to the truck in the same direction the truck is traveling then the truck will speed up. If a force is applied opposite to the

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

direction of travel by applying the brakes then the truck will slow down. In this case, the acceleration of the truck is in the direction opposite to its motion. Note that the applied force and acceleration is in the same direction. Both are in a direction opposite to the direction of motion. We show this mathematically by attaching a minus sign (-) to the value of acceleration when the chosen positive direction is in the same direction of motion. We call negative acceleration deceleration.

F1

v1 a1 a2

F2

v2

Figure 4-33 Applied Force in Same DirectionFigure 4-34 Applied Force in Opposite Direction of Motion as Motion The unit for force in the SI is the Newton (N). The unit was named in honor of Isaac Newton, whose discoveries have been so influential for modern science. The Newton is unit equivalent to 1 kgm/s2, which we read as " one kilogram-meter per second squared. Note that it is the product of the SI unit for mass, the kilogram, and the SI unit for acceleration - meters per second per second (m/s2). Thus 1 kgm/s2 is exactly equal to 1 Newton. In the United States, the English system is preferred over the SI for most processes. The unit of force in the English system is the pound. Unfortunately, the unit for mass in the English system is also called the pound. The word pound, therefore, has two different meanings. In order to distinguish between force and mass, we refer to the unit of force as pounds-force (lbf) and the unit for mass as pounds-mass (lbm). Example: What force will it take to accelerate a 1000 kg car at 10 m/s2? Solution: F = m*a In this example, mass m = 1000 kg and the acceleration a = 10 m/s2 On substitution of the mass and acceleration into the formula we obtain:

F = 10,000

kg m s
2

F = 10,000 Newtons in the same direction as the applied force

Example: What force will it take to accelerate a 1000 lbm car from rest to 10 ft/s2? Solution:

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

In this example, mass is1000 lbm, and acceleration is 10 ft/s2 On substitution of the mass and acceleration into the formula we obtain:

F = 10,000

ft lbm s
2

in the same direction as the applied force

The lbm as a unit for mass is a recent addition to the English system of units. In fact, the English system did not originally specify a unit for mass. Instead, a derived unit for mass, called the slug was used. This was obtained by applying the equation F = ma and solving for mass. Dividing 1 pound force by 32.17 ft/s2 yielded 1 slug. As you might guess, this was a rather cumbersome unit of mass. The scientific community collectively created the pound mass (lbm). In short, one pound mass was assumed to be equivalent to the mass required to exert one pound force due to its weight. Therefore, one pound mass was said to weigh one pound force on or near the surface of the earth. In order to rectify the unit anomaly, a conversion constant (gc) was introduced.

gc =

32.17lbmft lbf s 2

The constant is used in the denominator of the equation F = ma in order to obtain the proper units for Force (lbf). Thus it is apparent that the force equation is modified in the English system; instead of F = ma, the equation becomes:

The use of gc enables us to cancel the units we dont want.

F = 310.85 lbf

Weight
As discussed above, a net external force must always produce an acceleration. The acceleration produced by the earths gravity is 32.17 ft/s2 (English system), or 9.81 m/s2 (SI). We identify this special case of acceleration by g instead of a. Anytime we want to know what is the force of gravity on a mass, we use the formula W = mg instead of F = ma. As with other types of force, we must use gc when solving problems involving the English system of units. Thus, the English system equation for weight becomes W = mg/ gc. Weight is a special type of force exerted by a massive body on another, usually less massive body. In order to better understand the relationship between mass and weight, let us work a simple problem involving these two topics. Example: What is the weight of a 1 lbm loaf of bread? Solution: W = mg/ gc

W=

1 lbm 32.17 ft lbf s 2 = 1 lbf 32.17 lbm ft s2

Figure 4-35 One Pound Mass of Bread

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

We find that the force exerted by earths gravity on a one pound-mass (1 lbm) is one pound of force (1 lbf). Similarly, the weight of a 150 lbm person on the earth is 150 lbf. On the moon, where the gravitational force of attraction is 1/6 of that on the earth. (This is due to the smaller mass of the moon.) Consequently, the mass of a person is the same as it is on the earth, but the person's weight would be 1/6 of that on earth. This leads us directly to the conclusion -- as already stated in Chapter 1 -- that the weight of an object will vary according to its location in the universe. The mass of the object, on the other hand, remains constant. If your mass on the earth is 190 lbm, your mass on the moon is 190 lbm. Your mass in outer space, where gravity is essentially zero, would still be 190 lbm. We do not need to use the conversion factor, gc, or an equivalent in the metric system because mass and force are identified by two different units: kg and Newtons. Although we dont normally work in the SI system here at the WTP, it is simpler once we understand it. Student Exercise: Convert your mass from lbm to kg, using the techniques covered in Chapter 1. Then determine your weight on earth in SI.

Review
In the English system, the unit of mass is the pound-mass (lbm). Force and weight are given in poundsforce (lbf). One pound-mass is defined as the mass that exerts one lbf in earths gravity. The conversion from mass to force involves the conversion constant gc. In the International System, the unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). Force and weight are in Newtons. The conversion from mass to force does not require a conversion constant. Examples: The following example combines what we have learned about speed, acceleration, force and conversions. From a complete stop, a 2500 lbm dragster travels 1600 feet in 5 seconds. Its final velocity is 180 ft/s. Find the: (1) Dragsters acceleration. (2) Force exerted on the dragster. (How is this force created?) (3) The final velocity in miles per hour.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

Solution: The acceleration is given as:

a=

180

ft ft 0 s s = 180 ft = 36 ft 5 s-0s 5 s2 s2

In the direction of motion

The force is given by F = ma.

F = 2500lbm 36

ft lbf s 2 s 2 32.17 ft lbm

F=2797.6 lbf In the direction of the acceleration The final velocity, 180 ft/s, is converted using proper unit conversion factors.

Another Example: What acceleration will 4000 lbf produce on a 2000 lbm vehicle? Solution: Neither velocity nor time is provided in the problem statement, thus we cannot use the acceleration formula from Chapter 3 to solve for acceleration. Therefore we begin with the formula for force, F = ma. F = ma Since we are working in the English system, we must include gc. F = ma/ gc Now, by dividing both sides of the formula by mass and multiplying both sides by gc, we obtain: a = F* gc /m.

a=

4000 lbf 2000 lbm

32.17 lbm ft ft = 64.34 2 2 lbf s s

Tensile, Compressive, and Shear Forces

In our everyday experience, forces are usually applied by direct contact. In order to determine how an object reacts to an applied force, we need to understand the different types of forces that may act upon the object. We often classify a force according to its effect on an object. A force can tend to pull an object apart; it can tend to push an object together; or it can tend to tear an object. These observable effects give us the names of three types of forces. This section classifies three such forces and describes how they affect the motion of objects.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

Tensile Force
T

Tension is a force that tends to pull a body apart. See Figure 4-4. Pulling on a rope or chain is an example of tension. When we talk about the tensile strength of a metal, we are talking about the force required to pull the metal into two pieces. Steel has a high tensile strength so it is used where a large tensile force is experienced. Examples include guide wires, crane cables and cargo hold-down straps.

Figure 4-36 Tension Compressive Force Compression is a force that tends to compress or push a body together. Crushing a pecan is an example of compression. See Figure 4-5. Compressing air with a mechanical air compressor exerts a compressive force on the air. Other compressive forces include the weight of an automobile engine on the coil springs and the weight of a building on the foundation.

C
Figure 4-37 Compression Shear Force Shear is a force which tends to cut or tear an object. See Figure 4-6. Scissors and knives exert shear forces. Tearing a sheet of paper or a piece of fabric is another example of shear forces. Shear pins are special pins or bolts that are designed to break before the part they are designed to protect. The bolts fail by being sheared into two pieces.

S S

Figure 4-38 Shear

Because these three types of force are vectors, they have direction as well as magnitude. Notice the directions of the arrows in Figure 4-4, 4-5, and 4-6. In tension, the vectors point away from the ends of the object (). In compression, the vectors point toward the center of the object (). In shear, the vectors point in opposite directions across the object (). As we solve problems involving force, the direction of the force will tell us whether the object is in tension, compression, or shear.

Stress
Stress (s or ) is a vector which is equal to a force divided by the cross-sectional area. That is, stress, (s) is given by: (Note: is the lower case Greek letter sigma and is frequently used as the symbol for stress.) Stress has units of

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

We usually talk about tensile stress, compressive stress, and shear stress. Example: A water bed measures 8 ft by 6 ft and holds 3,000 lbm of water. What is the stress exerted on the floor in pounds per square inch (psi)? What type of stress is this? Solution:

F A

We need to find F and A. F is the force that 3,000 lbm exerts, which is the weight. So F = 3,000 lbf. F is equal to 3,000 lbf, in a downward direction. "A" is the area of floor occupied by the waterbed.

Then, =

F 3,000 lbf lbf = ,down = 0.434 2 ,down = 0.434 psi,down 2 A 6,912in in

This is a compressive stress, because the waterbed tends to compress the floor. Example: A high-heeled shoe with a "spike" heel has a heel area of 1/8 in2. How much stress does a 150 lbm woman exert on a floor when she walks in these shoes? Assume all load is borne by the heel of the shoe. Solution: This problem is very similar to the previous one, where:

=
Then, =

F , A

and we need F and A.

We get F from the mass: F = 150 lbf down. And the area is given as 1/8 in2.

F 150 lbf 150 lbf 8 lbf = 1 2 down = down = 1,200 2 down = 1,200 psi down 2 A in in 8 in

This stress is more than half a ton! That's why high-heeled shoes may dent floors. Water beds don't generate a high local stress; they just weigh a lot. Which is of these two cases is harder on the floor?

Strain
A concept associated with stress is strain. Strain () is the relative amount of deformation of a body under stress. Strain is a unitless ratio and is determined by the displacement due to stress to the length over which it acts. (Note: although technically unitless, strain is usually expressed in units of L/L. For example, in/in, mm/mm, etc.)

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

Thus: Strain = displacement/length. Where: = Strain L = Change in length L = Original length Example: A test specimen whose original length is 10 cm. has a stress applied sufficient to cause it to elongate to a final value of 10.1 cm. What is the strain in the test specimen. Solution: or = L/L

L , Therefore we must first find L. L L = (10.1 cm 10 cm) =

0.1 cm cm or, = 0.01 10 cm cm
L = 0.1 cm

L = L final LInitial = L Therefore, L

Note: Note:

The units are completely arbitrary here. Strain is frequently reported as a percentage. In our case, there is 1% strain in the test specimen. By convention, positive strain tends to elongate the object. This occurs under a tensile stress. Negative strain tends to compress the object. This occurs under a compressive stress.

Stress and Strain Calculations: Stress and strain typically go hand in hand. It is the application of a stress that causes the strain. For tensile and compressive stresses in the elastic deformation region, there is a linear relationship between the applied stress and resulting strain. This relationship is most frequently referred to as Youngs Modulus (E). It can be defined as the ratio of stress to strain. E=

(Note: This modulus applies only when the material is in the elastic deformation region. Elastic deformation occurs under an applied stress such that when the stress is removed, the material assumes it original form.) Example: A steel rod has an axial force applied of 60000 N causing it to stretch (elastically) in the axial direction. Given the information below, find the stress, strain, and elongation of the rod. Given: Rod dimensions and properties Radius ( R ) = 10.0 mm, Length = 80 cm, E = 2.0 x 1011 N/m2

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

Solution: First we find the cross-sectional area of the rod. A= R2

A = (10mm) 2 (

1m 1m )( ) 1000mm 1000mm

A = 3.14 x 10-4 m2 Then, we find the applied stress.

F A

60000 N 3.14 x 10 -4 m 2

= 1.91 10 8

N m2

Next, we find the strain in the rod. E=

therefore:

N m2 = N 2 1011 2 m 1.91 10 8

= 9.55 10 4

mm mm

Note: this is equivalent to saying = 0.0955% Finally, we can find the amount the rod has stretched.

L L

L = L

L = 9.55 10 4

mm mm 80 cm 10 mm cm

L = 0.764 mm

Friction Force
Up to now, we have ignored the force of friction on our objects. Friction is kind of a love-hate relationship. Friction tends to slow things down, wear things out, and waste a lot of our input effort while trying to overcome it. On the other hand, our life would be very difficult without the presence of friction. We could not hold objects between our fingers, we could not write, and simple things like walking would become very complicated. Fastening devices would be useless, clothing would disintegrate, knots would fail, and tires on your car simply would not perform their function. So you can see, life would be dramatically different if friction were totally eliminated. In fact, there is no benefit to theorize about a world without friction. On the smallest level, friction results from a mutual attraction between atoms or molecules. While it can be reduced and somewhat controlled, friction can not be eliminated. Dry surface sliding friction occurs when two objects in contact slide past each other. The friction force always acts in a direction that opposes motion. For example, select any object (perhaps a book or cup) and slide it across a flat surface. Once you set the object in motion it should stay in motion unless acted upon by an external force. When you release the selected object it quickly comes to a complete stop. The external force acting on the object (and flat surface) is the friction force. Since the direction is opposite to the object motion, the object decelerates (or accelerates in the direction opposite of motion). Friction always opposes motion.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

The magnitude of the frictional force depends on two factors: the normal force and the coefficient of friction. Specifically; The magnitude of the frictional force is given by: Ff = f Fn. Where: Ff = Friction Force f = coefficient of friction Fn = Normal Force. (Note that Normal Force is frequently abbreviated as N.) Normal Force: Refer to figure 4.7. The normal force, Fn, is the perpendicular reaction force between an object and the surface against which it is pressing. An important feature of a normal force is that it is not always directed down. See figure 4.7. If a person leans against a wall, as shown in Figure 4-7, the wall exerts a normal force, Fn,x, which keeps the person from falling down. In this case the normal force is horizontal. The floor also exerts a normal force vertically, Fn,y, which opposes the person's weight. In both cases, the normal force acted perpendicular to the surface through which it was applied. It should be apparent that the normal force is a consequence of Newton's Third Law of Motion, or "for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction." Coefficient of Friction (f): The coefficient of friction is not quite as straight forward as the normal force. In general, the coefficient of friction, (f) is a unitless, dimensionless number which loosely describes the relative attraction between the contacting surfaces. A large value of f means a lot of friction. The coefficient of friction between two surfaces is not a constant under all conditions. Consider the case of pushing a heavy box or crate across the floor. Did you notice that it is more difficult to start the box moving than it is to keep it going? Thats because the coefficient of friction is not the same for static and kinetic conditions. The static coefficient of friction (s) applies when the object is at rest and the kinetic coefficient of friction (k) applies when the object is moving. In most cases the kinetic coefficient of friction is less than the static coefficient of friction. It is important to note that for a given set of conditions, the coefficient of friction will be essentially constant. If those conditions change, the coefficient of friction will also change. As long as the object is stationary, s is one constant value. If the relative motion between two objects in contact remains constant, then k will be a constant value. With this in mind, the equation for the magnitude of the friction force is modified to be: Ff = s Fn. Or Ff = k Fn. The selection of the equation is based upon the information provided in the problem statement. Notice that these equations give the magnitude of the force of friction. The friction vector Ff and the normal

Fn,x

Fn,y

Figure 4-39 Normal Force

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

force vector Fn are always at right angles to each other. Further more, the friction force direction is always in the direction opposite of the intended relative motion. We use the word intended since static friction occurs without actual relative motion. Now lets compare two objects that have the same weight but different shapes. For example, consider both a 10 kg ball and a 10 kg block resting on a horizontal surface. Both have the same mass and consequently the same weight. This means that the normal force required to support both objects is the same. The ball has the ability to roll in addition to sliding. Experience tells you that the ball will be easier to start moving and keep moving. It is fair to say that in general, rolling friction is less than sliding friction. In fact, this concept is heavily utilized by roller bearings where sliding friction is replaced by rolling friction. The net effect is that there is a lower friction force to overcome to sustain the desired motion. Now for a final twist, lets add a thin layer of oil between the block and the horizontal surface. The block now slides easier than it did before. The block now is ideally only in contact with the oil. We have replaced the dry sliding friction with fluid friction. Like rolling friction, fluid friction is generally lower than dry surface sliding friction. To review, friction causes a force that always opposes the direction of motion. The force vector always points in the direction opposite the direction of intended motion. The magnitude of the friction is dependant upon the normal force and the coefficient of friction. If there is no relative motion between the objects we use the static coefficient of friction. If motion exists between the two surfaces the kinetic coefficient of friction is appropriate. Rolling friction and fluid friction generally have lower magnitudes than dry surface sliding friction. We frequently attempt to reduce the affects of friction by replacing sliding friction with rolling or fluid friction.

Net Force and Force Equilibrium

Net Force Two or more forces may act upon an object. If the forces act in the same direction they will add and appear as one large force. If the forces act in opposite directions, they will subtract and possibly cancel out. The resulting acceleration will be based on the vector sum of the forces. When we observe an object's change in motion, it is not apparent whether the acceleration results from one force or from a combination of forces. All the forces acting on an object combine and act as one force to cause an object's motion. The net force is defined as the force which results from the vector addition of all the forces acting on a body. It is this net force which produces acceleration, according to Newton's 2nd Law of Motion. This acceleration is always in the direction of the net force. Figures 4-8, 4-9, and 4-10 illustrate how forces add algebraically. The figures show three ways a 20 and 30 unit force could be combined. In the first example (Figure 4-8), the forces F1 and F2 are both directed to the right giving a 50 unit net force (Fnet) to the right. Acceleration is also to the right because acceleration is in the direction of Fnet.
F1 =20 a1

Fnet=50
F2=30

Figure 4-40 Same Direction

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

In the next example (Figure 4-9) the forces are in opposite directions, resulting in a net force of 10 units to the left. This will result in an acceleration to the left. Such acceleration would slow the truck down, and is commonly known as a deceleration. In the final example (Figure 410), the forces are also in opposite directions, but this time the larger force is to the right. This results in the net force being 10 units to the right this time, with acceleration to the right. Force Equilibrium

F =-30

a2

F1 =20

net

= 10

Figure 4-41 Opposite Direction

F2=30 a3

F1=-20

Fnet = 10

Figure 4-42 Opposite Direction

Recall that we defined uniform motion as motion at constant velocity. Constant velocity means constant speed and constant direction. When an object is at rest, it has a velocity of zero, or a uniform motion that is mathematically equal to zero. Force produces a change in an object's motion. As stated previously, any change in motion is called acceleration. When forces act on an object, the result may be a change in the object's state of motion; that is, it may accelerate. However, if certain conditions are satisfied, the forces may combine to maintain a state of equilibrium, or "force equilibrium. Force equilibrium is a state of balance where an object is in a state of uniform motion. This condition applies to objects in motion with constant velocity and to objects at rest. When the sum of all the forces acting upon a body is equal to zero, the body is in force equilibrium. An object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion will remain in motion in a straight line, unless acted on by an external, unbalanced force. This is stated in Newton's First Law of Motion. The external force acts to take the body out of an equilibrium condition. That is, the net force (the external force) produces an acceleration, which is a change in the state of motion. To understand this more clearly, consider the book resting on the table in Figure 4-11.
(A) (C) Equilibrium: F net = 0 (B) Not in Equilibrium Fnet = Fapp Fapp W W = F n, therefore Fnet = Fapp Fn Fapp

Figure 4-43 Net Force Applied In Figure 4-11(A) the book is at rest. Even at rest, there are forces acting on the book. The weight of the book pushes downward and the normal force (the reaction force of the table, as explained earlier) pushes

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

upward. The book remains at rest because the weight of the book and the normal force are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. These forces add algebraically, and the net force on the book is zero. The book is in force equilibrium, and its state of motion does not change. In Figure 4-11(B), an additional force is applied horizontally to the book. The book is no longer in equilibrium. Since the weight of the book and the normal force still cancel, the net force will now be equal to the applied force. The book will accelerate in the direction of the applied force. Figure 4-11(C) shows the combination of these forces graphically. The weight of the book, W, is canceled by the normal force of the table, Fn. The net force, Fnet, is therefore equal to the magnitude of the applied force, Fapp, and the book accelerates in the direction of the net force. How would this free body diagram change if we were to include the friction force acting on the book as it slides across the table? Necessary Conditions for Equilibrium A body will be in equilibrium if the sum of all the forces exerted on it by its environment equals zero. In other words, the net force must equal zero (i.e., the vector sum of all the forces must be zero). In particular, this means that the sum of all the vertical forces must equal zero and the sum of all horizontal forces must equal zero. In Figure 4-11(C), the sum of the vertical forces is zero (the book isn't accelerating in the vertical direction), but there is an unbalanced horizontal force (the book is accelerating to the right). In general, we can write for an object to be in force equilibrium; F = 0, therefore Fnet = F1 + F2 + F3 +...+ Fn = 0. The vectors can all be resolved into their respective x or y axis. The above equation can now be simplified into the following two equations for the x vectors and the y vectors, Fx = 0 Fy = 0 Fx,net = Fx,1 + Fx,2 + Fx,3 +...+ Fx,n = 0, and Fy,net = Fy,1 + Fy,2 + Fy,3 +...+ Fy,n = 0

Example: Refer to Figure 4-12. Weight I has a mass of 1,000 lbm; weight II has a mass of 2,000 lbm, and weight III has a mass of 3,000 lbm. Find the force required in ropes A, B, and C to keep the weights from falling. First, let's name the vectors: A = tension in rope A B = tension in rope B

C 3000 lb m WIII B 2000 lb m WII A 1000 lb m WI

C
WIII + WII +WI

B
WII + WI

A
WI

C = tension in rope C Figure 4-44 Summing Forces in a Given Direction Note: Weight is a force and therefore a vector. Its direction is down because that is the direction of g. So it is directed in the "- y" direction.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

For Weight I:Fy,net = 0, therefore 0 = WI + A A = -WI WI = mIg/gc WI = -1,000 lbf and since A = -WI substituting in we get: A = -(-1,000 lbf) = 1,000 lbf

This says that the tension A is directed up, opposite to WI. Note also that tension in the rope also pulls down on Weight II. We change the sign to indicate that it acts downward on Weight II. For Weight II: Fy,net = 0 = A + WII + B Then B + A + WII = 0 B = -(A + WII) We already know A, and WII = mIIg A = -1,000 lbf and WII = -2,000 lbf And since B = -(A + WII) substituting in we get: B = -(-1,000 lbf + -2,000 lbf) B = -(-3,000 lbf) B = 3,000 lbf Note that B acts in the upward direction on Weight II. Also note that B pulls downward on Weight III. Once again, we will change the sign to show that it acts downward on Weight III. For Weight III:Fy,net = 0 = A + B + WIII + C We already know A, and WIII = mIIIg A = -1,000 lbf, B = -3000 lbf, and WIII = -3,000 lbf. C =-(-1,000 lbf + -2,000 lbf + -3,000 lbf) C = 6,000 lbf For this example, we might have been able to solve for A, B, and C without writing the statement of force equilibrium. There are many other cases, however, where the answer is not as obvious.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

Center of Mass and Center of Gravity

For a given body in a uniform gravitational field the locations for the center of mass and center of gravity coincide. Our discussion will be restricted to this condition. Consequently, we will use the terms interchangeably. Suppose you toss a claw hammer and a ball bearing across the room. The head, claw, and handle of the hammer all seem to behave quite differently. The motion of each component and indeed the motion of the hammer as a whole seems to be quite complicated. In fact, every single spot on the hammer behaves in a slightly different manner from every other spot on the hammer. The ball bearing, however, appears to take a simple parabolic path while in flight. However, if you look closely at the flight path of the hammer you will see that also follows a parabolic trajectory. While every spot on the hammer seems to be doing its own thing, the hammer as a unit behaves similar to the ball bearing. In fact, if you examine the hammer carefully you will find one special spot that follows a simple parabolic path, just like the ball bearing does. This one special spot also happens to be the spot at which the hammer would be perfectly balanced if placed upon a pivot point. Every object has such a point and it is called the center of mass. The center of mass then is the point in space that if all the mass of the object were concentrated at that point, the object would behave exactly the same way. From a practical sense, this means that for a given set of conditions, the trajectory of the center of mass remains constant regardless of the mass distribution. It is interesting to note that the center of mass for a given object does not have to actually be on the object. (It is likely that our hammer has a center of mass that is not actually on the hammer.) The location for the center of mass is related to the objects geometry and mass distribution. For an object of uniform density, the center of mass is at the geometric center. (Calculations to determine the center of mass are beyond the scope of this course.) Center of gravity is an important concept in Physics. It has many real world applications. Most notably, the center of gravity is primary factor in determining the stability of an object. (Calculations to determine stability are beyond the scope of this course.)

Pressure
Pressure is dimensionally identical to stress. That is, pressure, (P), is also given by P =

F . A

Note that pressure uses only the magnitude of the applied force, therefore pressure has no directional properties. lbf In the English system, pressure has units of (pounds per square inch, or " psi" ), in 2 lbf N N , that is, pounds per square foot. In SI, pressure has units of ; the quantity is ft 2 m2 m2 called a pascal (Pa). or We will deal with the Pascal in more detail later. Note that pressure is a scalar. The major difference between stress and pressure is that stress is a vector, and pressure is a scalar. We use the term pressure to talk about confined liquids and gases. As we will see later, pressure is exerted equally in all directions by a confined fluid or gas. It exists in all directions, so that pressure is not a vector. Now we will examine this special area of pressure - that of gasses and liquids.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

Pressure of confined fluids (liquids and gases)

Fluids: A fluid is defined as a substance that flows and readily conforms to the boundaries of its container. A fluid can only exert a force perpendicular to the walls of the container. It cannot sustain a force tangential to the container or to its own surface. This means that it cannot sustain a shear force. Sustain means over a long period of time. Some material (such as glass) take a very long time to conform to the container boundaries, but they eventually do so. Fluids at Rest: Any diver will tell you that the pressure increases with depth. Conversely, every mountain climber will tell you that the pressure decreases with altitude. Why does this occur? In both cases, the pressure felt is related to the weight of the fluid surrounding the sensor. Refer to the cylinder shown in figure 4-13. Pressure of the surrounding atmosphere acts at the surface of the water. Recall that weight is really a special case of force, caused by gravity. The bottom of the cylinder experiences the weight of the water above it. Pressure at the bottom of the cylinder is due to both the surrounding atmosphere plus the pressure created due to the weight of the water. This is true for any depth of water throughout the cylinder. It is important to remember that the pressure is related only to the depth of the fluid, not the horizontal dimensions. A 100 ft. vertical pipe would have the same pressure at the bottom as a 100 ft high dam. The pressure can be calculated by using the following equation. P = P0 + *g*z Where:

P ATM P ATM

P +P atm water column

Figure 4-45 Pressure

P = Pressure at the given depth P0 = Pressure at the reference level. (Note: this is usually atmospheric pressure) = fluid density g = acceleration due to gravity h = fluid depth below reference level. (Note that the down direction is positive when working this type of problem.) Example: Consider the diver shown in figure 4-14. The diver is at a depth of 50 ft. He is breathing through a long snorkel tube. (Very dangerous, do not try this at home.) What is the pressure exerted on the outside of his body? What is the pressure inside his lungs? Why is our snorkeler in serious trouble?
PATM

Figure 4-46 Deep Water Snorkeling

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

Given information and assumptions: Patm = 14.7 psia air = 0.0740 lbm/ft3 water = 62.35 lbm/ft3 Solution: Poutside = Patm + Pdepth/water Poutside = Patm +watergz

lbf 62 .35 lbm 32.17 ft 1 ft 2 lbf s 2 ) ( 2 ) (50 ft ) ( ) ( ) Poutside = 14.7 +( in 2 32 .17 lbm ft ft 3 s 144 in 2
Note that conversion to lbf/in2 is required. Also note the use of gc is required when using the English system of units. Poutside = 36.35

lbf in 2

Now to solve for the pressure inside his lungs. Pinside = Patm + Pdepth/air Pinside = Patm +air*g*z

lbf 0.0740lbm 32.17 ft 1 ft 2 lbf s 2 )( ) (50 ft ) ( )( ) Pinside = 14.7 +( in2 32.17lbm ft ft 3 s2 144in 2
Pinside = 14.73 To evaluate the imminent danger we must look at the difference in pressure across his lungs. There is greater than 21.6 lbf/in2 difference in pressure between the outside and inside of his lungs. In reality, his lungs would have collapsed long before he reached a depth of 50 ft. Why can free divers, without snorkels, dive to depths well below this depth? Measuring Pressure Consider the act of inflating a flat tire. Initially, you might consider the tire to be at zero pressure. The manufacturer calls for 35 psi inflation pressure. But does the tire really start at zero pressure? We know from the previous example that the pressure exerted by the atmosphere is 14.7 psi at sea level. Does this mean that we should only add about 20 psi more to the tire? The manufacturer implies, (though not specifically stated), that the tire should be inflated to a pressure of 35 psi above atmospheric pressure. We consider atmospheric pressure to be our reference pressure. When we typically measure pressure, we are referring to the pressure above the reference pressure. The difference between the reference pressure and measured pressure is normally called the gage pressure (Pg). If we let the reference pressure truly equal zero, the measured pressure is referred to as the absolute pressure (Pa). We measure the atmosphere (and a few other select applications), in terms of absolute pressure. The common value used for atmospheric pressure is the value at sea level, or 14.7 psia. The a at the end of the psi indicates the pressure is given in terms of absolute pressure. Inflating the tire to 35 psig means that the tire is inflated to a pressure of 35 psi above atmospheric pressure. The g at the end of the psi indicates that the pressure is given in terms of gage pressure. In practice, pressure is normally measured as a gage pressure and the g is frequently omitted.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

Converting gage pressure into absolute pressure: Pgage = PAbs - Pref Where: Pgage = Gage pressure (normally displayed on pressure gage) PAbs = Absolute pressure. Pref = Reference pressure.(normally atmospheric pressure or 14.7 psia) [Note: When working problems involving pressure, you must be sure to use consistent units. Also, some types of problems, (for example, PV = nRT), require the calculations be done in absolute pressure.] Pascals Principle: What do squeezing a full tube of toothpaste, operating a hydraulic floor jack, and playing with a squirt gun all have in common? All three are demonstrations of Pascals principle in action. Pressure exerted on an enclosed fluid at rest is transmitted equally and undiminished throughout the fluid and to the walls of its container. Refer to figure 4-15 for the following explanation. The tall cylinder is filled with an incompressible liquid. From the discussion above we can see that the pressure at the bottom would be equal to the sum of atmospheric pressure and the pressure created due to the height of the fluid. Now lets add a piston (whose own weight is negligible) onto the top of the cylinder. Weights are then placed on top of the piston. The force (weight) spread out across the piston area, and atmospheric pressure represents the external pressure exerted on the fluid. The pressure at a given point at any height in the cylinder can be found by: P = Pext +*g*z Where: P = Pressure at a given point in the cylinder Pext = Pressure applied from external sources

Piston

Weight

Patm + Pwater

Patm + Pweight + Pwater

Figure 4-47 Pascal Principle

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

*g*z = pressure created due to the weight of the fluid. It is of interest to note that the pressure varies with the fluid height, but the pressure resulting from the external applied source is equal everywhere in the cylinder. If more weight is added to the top of the cylinder, the pressure will increase by the same amount everywhere in the cylinder. The field of hydraulics makes extensive use of this principle. Archimedes Principle: We know from our own experiences that a beach ball will float on the surface of the water while a stone of similar dimensions sinks immediately. Odd as this may seem, both objects have buoyant forces at work. Archimedes principle states that: A body wholly or partially immersed in a fluid will be buoyed up by a force whose magnitude is equal to the weight of the fluid that it displaces. It is important to note that the force vector that results from buoyancy always points upward. Also note that the center of buoyancy will not be discussed here. For now, lets say that the beach ball has a volume of one gallon. (It is probably much larger than one gallon.) One gallon of water weighs approximately eight pounds. (There are several factors that would determine the actual weight of one gallon of water.) The maximum volume of water that can be displaced by the beach ball, (totally submerged) would be one gallon. The corresponding maximum weight of the displaced water would be approximately eight pounds. Therefore the maximum possible buoyancy force would be eight pounds in the upward direction. But wait, the beach balls own weight is far less than eight pounds. Why is there not a net force upward acting on the beach ball? The answer lies in the depth to which the beach ball sinks. If you look closely, only a small fraction of the beach ball is immersed in the water. Most of the volume exists above the surface. Only the volume of the beach ball that is submerged will cause water to be displaced. In fact, the beach ball will sink only until the volume of water displaced has a weight exactly equal to the weight of the beach ball. Now lets consider the stone of similar dimensions. There is still a maximum buoyancy force of eight pounds acting upwards on the stone. But this time, the weight of the stone exceeds the eight pounds of buoyancy force provided. The net force acting on the stone now acts in the downward direction, causing the stone to sink.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

Chapter 4 Summary
A force is a vector that produces an acceleration of a body. The force produces acceleration in the direction of the force.
Or F = ma

Weight is the force exerted on an object by gravity. On the earth it is the gravitational pull of the earth on the body. Or W = mg

The gravitational conversion constant, gC, must be used when working in the English unit system.
gc = 32.17 lbm ft lbf s 2

Tension is the term for a force tends to pull a body apart Compression is the term for a force tends to compress or squeeze a body together. Shear force is a force which tends to cut or tear a body. Stress is a quantity equal to the total force divided by the area over which the force acts. Stress can be tensile, compressive, or shear in nature. The nature of the stress depends upon the type of forces applied and the plane of reference.
Stress = Force Area

Strain is the relative amount of deformation of a body due to applied stress.

Strain =

Change in length of a body . Length of the body

Friction force is a force which tends to oppose the parallel motion of the two surfaces in contact. The two factors that affect the magnitude of the frictional force are: Normal force acting on the object Coefficient of friction

In general, static friction force is higher than the kinetic friction force.

The maximum friction force can be calculated by;

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

Ff = s N The net force is the force which results from the vector sum of all the forces acting on an object. Force equilibrium is a state of balance where an object is in a state of uniform motion (which includes at rest). Fnet = F1 + F2 + F3 +...+ Fn = 0 Fx,net = Fx,1 + Fx,2 + Fx,3 +...+ Fx,n = 0 Fy,net = Fy,1 + Fy,2 + Fy,3 +...+ Fy,n = 0 The center of gravity is a useful concept, particularly in determining the stability of an object. In a uniform gravitational field, the locations for the center of gravity and center of mass coincide. Pressure is a scalar quantity and is dimensionally identical to stress. That is, pressure, (P), is also given by: P =

F A

Pressure is measured with respect to some reference pressure. Normally, our reference pressure will be the atmosphere. Pascals principle says that when a pressure is exerted upon an enclosed fluid at rest, that pressure is transmitted equally and undiminished throughout the fluid and to the walls of the fluid container. Archimedes principle says that when a body is immersed in a fluid, it will be buoyed up by a force whose magnitude is equal to the weight of the fluid that is displaced.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

Force Practice Problems

1. What is force?

2. Calculate the following forces in the units indicated. a) The force required to accelerate a 78.35 pound-mass at 17.3 feet per second squared

b) The force required to accelerate 8.67 kilograms at 17.35 meters per second squared

3. Calculate the following weights in the units indicated. a) 15.8 pounds-mass = _______ pounds-force

b) 18.7 pounds-mass = ________ pounds-force

4. What is weight?

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

5. Calculate the following forces. Express your answer in the requested units. a) The force required to accelerate 83.4 pounds-mass at 18.43 feet per second squared (in poundsforce).

b) The force required to accelerate 7.93 kilograms at 32.4 feet per second squared (in pounds-force).

c) The force required to accelerate 8.49 kilograms at 3.84 meters per second squared in Newtons.

d) The force required to accelerate 9.73 kilograms at 783 centimeters per second squared in Newtons.

6. Calculate the following weights. Express your answers in the requested units. a) 147.8 pounds-mass = _____ pounds-force

b) 832.98 pounds-mass

= _______ pounds-force

c) 4.982 kilograms

= _______ Newtons

d) 1,349 grams

= _______ Newtons

7. On earth gravity accelerates an object at the rate of 32.17 ft/s2. An object has a mass of 25 lbm. Calculate its weight.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 4: Forces and Equilibrium

8. An object has a mass of 15 kg and is accelerated at a rate of 5.0 m/s2. Calculate the force applied in both standard SI and English units.

9. What is the difference between a tensile force and a compressive force?

10. Describe the friction force. What factors affect the magnitude of the friction force?

11. Define each of the following types of forces, in words (no equations). Draw a free body diagram illustrating how these forces would act on an object. a) Tension b) Compression c) Shear d) Friction

12. What is the relationship between force equilibrium and the net applied forces?

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 5: Principle of Momentum

5 Chapter: Principle of Momentum

TO 5.0 EO 5.1 EO 5.2 EO 5.3

DESCRIBE the principle of Momentum and Conservation of Momentum. DEFINE the Physics term momentum. DESCRIBE how force and momentum are related. DESCRIBE the principle of Conservation of Momentum.

Momentum
The momentum (p) of an object is a vector defined to be the mass (m) multiplied by the velocity (v). Mathematically, momentum is expressed by: p = m*v The direction of the momentum vector is the same as the direction of the velocity vector. An object has zero momentum when its velocity is zero. (Note: this student guide will only discuss linear momentum. Angular momentum, or momentum associated with object rotation, will not be addressed in this document.) Compare a small car and a heavy truck both traveling at the same speed. Our experience tells us that the heavy truck is more difficult to bring to a stop. In a sense, momentum is a measure of how difficult it would be to change the velocity of a moving object. (This assumes constant mass.) In other words, we can view momentum in terms of acceleration. In fact, Newton originally stated his second law of motion in terms of momentum. That is: The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the net force acting on the body and is in the direction of that force. In equation form:

Fnet =
Where

Recall that p = m*v, therefore p becomes (m*v).

p is the rate of change of the object momentum and Fnet is the net external applied force. t

p t

When mass can be considered to be a constant value, we can rewrite this as (m*v). Now we can substitute this into the net force equation so that:

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 5: Principle of Momentum

Fnet =
Now, since

mv t

v is acceleration (a), we obtain upon substitution: t

Fnet = m*a

A constant value of momentum means that an object is in uniform motion and the net force acting on the object is zero. Applying a net external force causes an acceleration and a corresponding change in momentum. Conversely, a change in momentum implies a corresponding net force acting on the object. We can see that a moving object will have a large momentum if it has a large mass and/or velocity. Regarding our small car and heavy truck example, the truck has more momentum than the car due to the larger mass. However, objects with less mass, such as a speeding bullet, may have significant momentum if their velocities are sufficiently high. Example: What is the momentum of a 1 kg pig (a hard rubber ball used to purge a pipe of residual grout material) traveling at 4 meters per minute? p = m*v

m s kg m p=4 s
p = 1kg 4 Example: What is the momentum of a 16 lbm bowling ball traveling at 10 feet per second? p = m*v p = 16lbm 10 p = 160 Example: What is the momentum of a 15 lbm object traveling at 18 feet per minute? p = m*v p = 15 lbm 18 p = 4.5

lbm ft s

ft s

ft 1 min min 60 s

lbm ft s

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 5: Principle of Momentum

Force and Momentum

It is evident that the momentum of an object will change if either its mass or its velocity changes. In classical physics, the mass of a rigid body does not change. (We do not address systems that expel mass, such as rocket propulsion.) Consequently, any change in the bodys momentum is due to a change in velocity. Recall that any time the velocity of the object changes, we say that it has an acceleration. We know that acceleration is caused by the action of an external force. The greater the external force acting on the object, the greater the acceleration. Higher acceleration translates to a greater change in momentum. Force, acceleration, and momentum are all integrally related. We cannot change one of these parameters without affecting the other two. From a mathematical prospective we can manipulate Newtons second law of motion to illustrate this relationship. Begin with F = m*a and substitute Now, F = m*(

We can rearrange this equation and use the definition for v to obtain F*(t) = m*(vfinal vinitial) = p. The quantity F*(t) is referred to as impulse. Impulse is an external force exerted over a specified time. This equation shows us that the impulse imparted to the object is equivalent to the change in the objects momentum. Example: How long must we push with a net force of 50.0 lbf to give a 2000 lbm vehicle, initially at rest, a velocity of 5 miles per hour? In this problem, it is to our advantage to convert miles per hour into feet per second. 5 mph =

v ); t

v for the acceleration vector (a). t

5 mi 1 hr 5280 ft ft = 7.33 hr 3600 s 1 mi s

Now, since F*(t) = m*(vfinal vinitial), we rearrange to solve for the time interval. Therefore:

m ( v final - v initial ) F ft ft 2000 lbm7.33 -0 s s t= 50 lbf t=

t = 293.33

ft lbm lbf s

Note that these units are not standard for reporting a time interval. We need to include gc to obtain the proper units.

ft lbm lbf s 2 = 9.12 s t = 293.33 lbf s 32.17 lbm ft

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 5: Principle of Momentum

Anytime we exert a force on an object, we provide an impulse to the object. This results in an acceleration (positive or negative) of the object. The amount of acceleration depends only on the mass and the force applied. The resulting change in momentum depends on both the applied force and the length of time that the force acts on the object. Increasing Momentum A force must be applied to increase momentum. To achieve a large increase in momentum either apply a large force for a short period of time, or apply a smaller force for a relatively long period of time. Take a long range cannon as an example. The cannon ball can only be accelerated, (other than gravity), while it is in the barrel of the cannon. Long range cannons generally have a long barrel. The longer the barrel, the greater the distance through which the cannon ball can be accelerated. The greater the acceleration, the greater the exit velocity of the cannon ball. The larger the velocity of the canon ball, the greater maximum range it will have. The larger velocity is due to the long period of time that the force of the exploding gunpowder is applied to the cannon ball. This long time period produces a large impulse which in turn gives the cannon ball a greater momentum. Decreasing Momentum Imagine that you are about to fall from the roof of your house. You cannot stop the fall, but you have some control over where you land. You have a choice of landing on a concrete slab or a large pile of grass clippings. We dont need to understand much about physics to make our decision. (Note that both are going to cause pain and injury.) Our life experiences has taught us that the softer grass pile option will probably yield the best results. Knowledge of physics does however help us to understand why landing on some objects are better than others. In both cases we will have the same change in momentum. The instant just before contact with the ground we have some initial velocity. (Gravity caused us to accelerate to this velocity) After contact is made our final velocity will be zero. The total decrease in momentum is a fixed value determined by the change in velocity before and after the collision. This means that the total negative impulse will be the same for either case. The difference comes from the net external applied force to the body. We have all heard the expression, its not the fall that gets you, its the sudden stop at the end of the fall. Recall that Fnet =

focus our attention to the t. A smaller time interval for the same change in momentum results in a larger net force applied. In our example, the grass clippings cushions the impact and lengthens the time for the momentum to be brought to zero. The longer time means less force is required to stop our downward momentum. Extending the duration of the impact reduces the net force of the impact.

p . We t

Conservation of Momentum
From Newtons second law of motion we conclude, if we wish to accelerate an object, we must apply an external force on the object. In this section we draw similar conclusions. To change the momentum of an object, we exert an impulse on it. In both cases, the force or the impulse must be exerted on the object by something external to the object. Internal forces dont count. For example, the internal forces inside a golf ball have no effect on the momentum of the golf ball. Likewise, a person (other than the driver) inside an automobile has no effect on the momentum of the automobile regardless of how hard he pushes on the dashboard. Theses forces are internal and they act within the objects themselves. An external force, such as a force applied to a golf ball by a golf club must be present to change the momentum.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 5: Principle of Momentum

In order to determine which forces are internal and which forces are external we need to establish a boundary. Forces inside of the boundary are internal. Forces outside the boundary but acting on the boundary are external. The collection of object or bodies inside the boundary are called the system. Consider a simple musket and shot. Refer to figure 5-1. The system includes shot and musket. When the shot is fired from the musket the forces present from the explosion are internal. That is, they are all inside the musket. The total momentum of the entire system (shot and musket) remains constant. This means that there is no net change of momentum of the entire system. According to Newtons third law, the force exerted on the musket is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force exerted on the shot. The force act on both objects in the system for the same period of time. Consequently, the resulting momentum of both objects are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. The recoiling musket has the same magnitude of momentum as the speeding shot. Obviously, the shot travels in one direction while the musket recoils in the opposite direction. Individually, both objects have gained momentum but as a system there is no net change in momentum. Before the shot was fired the system momentum was zero. After the shot was fired the total net system momentum is still zero.

System Boundary

Figure 5-3

Figure 5-48 System Boundary Two important concepts are demonstrated in this example. First, momentum is a vector whose direction is the same as the velocity vector. Like velocity, momentum has a magnitude and a direction. The second important concept here is that the systems momentum has not changed when no external forces act on the system. This important concept is called the law of conservation of momentum. The law of conservation of momentum states that: If no net external forces act on a system, the total momentum of the system remains constant. When the total, or vector sum, of the system particles momentum before, during, and after the event remains constant the system is said to conserve momentum. For the musket and shot system, no momentum was gained and none was lost. Conservation of momentum is frequently applied when particles interact or collide. It is imperative to conduct a thorough analysis of the entire system of concern when using the law of conservation of momentum. Complete understanding of the system boundary is essential to properly apply this principle. In the example above, if we defined the system to be just the shot then the action of the explosion represents an external force and the law of conservation of momentum would not be employed. It is also important to include only impulsive forces. Non-impulsive forces are those that either act for a very short period of time in comparison to the analysis time interval or forces whose magnitudes are relatively small. In general, their effect on the objects change in momentum is small in comparison to impulsive forces. Non- impulsive forces are usually neglected in the analysis. Be careful though when considering whether a force is non-impulsive or impulsive. For example, consider the effect of striking a baseball with a baseball bat. During the short time interval that the ball and bat are in contact the force of the bat acting on the ball is considered impulsive. Gravity and air resistance are neglected in the analysis since they will have a negligible effect on the change in momentum of the ball. During the relatively long period of time in flight, both gravity and air resistance have a significant effect on the momentum of the ball and would

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 5: Principle of Momentum

consequently be included in the analysis. As we can see, both system boundary definition and time interval for the event determine how and when the law of conservation of momentum is applied. To represent the sum of several mathematical quantities we use the capital Greek letter sigma (). Recall that when we discussed force equilibrium we stated that: Fnet = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 +Fn = 0 The above equations can be resolved into their respective vector components. In two dimensional space we have: Fx, net = Fx, 1 + Fx, 2 + Fx, 3 + Fx, 4 +Fx, n = 0 And Fy, net = Fy, 1 + Fy, 2 + Fy, 3 + Fy, 4 +Fy, n = 0 Using the Greek letter we can rewrite these equation such that: Fnet = 0 Fx, net = 0 Fy, net = 0 These equation read the sum of the forces (in the specified direction) equals zero. We can use the same notation to express the conservation of momentum. That is: pinitial =pfinal Or (m*v)initial = (m*v)final This expands to: (m1*v1)initial + (m2*v2)initial + (mn*vn)initial = (m1*v1)final + (m2*v2)final + (mn*vn)final This equation reads the sum of all the initial momentum vectors is equal to the sum of all the final momentum vectors. For a system involving two objects there will be two values for both initial and final momentum. For a system involving n objects there will be n values for both initial and final momentum. Note that some of these values may be zero.

Conservation of Momentum Problem Solving:

Example: A rifle with a mass of 9.0 lbm fires a bullet with a mass of 2.0 oz. The rifle is initially at rest. The exit velocity of the bullet is 1200 ft/s. What is the recoil velocity of the rifle? Refer to figure 5-2.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 5: Principle of Momentum

Solution: Defining the system boundary to include both the rifle and the bullet allows us to employ the law of conservation of momentum. Since the rifle and bullet are initially at rest; vr, initial = 0 vb, initial = 0 Now: pinitial =pfinal Therefore (mr*vr)initial + (mb*vb)initial = (mr*vr)final + (mb*vb)final And 0 + 0 = (mr*vr)final + (mb*vb)final This means that; -(mr*vr)final = (mb*vb)final At this point we can drop the final subscript. Solving for vr we get: vr = ( Figure 5-49 Rifle/Bullet System
vr vb

mr

mb

mb vb ) mr

ft s ] vr = -[ 16 oz 9 lbm lbm ft vr = -16.67 s 2 oz 1200

Note that the minus sign tells us that the rifle velocity is in the direction opposite to that of the bullet.

Collisions:
Consider two objects colliding in space. Both objects are inside the system boundary. No external forces act on the objects. Momentum is therefore conserved in the collision. Momentum of the individual objects will change but the net momentum of the system of colliding objects before, during, and after the collision remains constant. This is because the only forces acting on the objects are internal to the system boundary. They act and react within the system itself. What we observe is simply a redistribution of the system momentum. (We assume rigid bodies with no deformation or restitution during the collision

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 5: Principle of Momentum

event. Discussion on elastic and inelastic collisions are beyond the scope of this course. We consider only elastic collision in this course.) In any elastic collision we can say that: The total momentum before the collision = the total momentum after the collision We can express this as: p1 initial + p2 initial = p1 final + p2 final OR (m1*v1)initial + (m2*v2)initial = (m1*v1)final + (m2*v2)final Example: Two billiard balls of equal mass collide on a frictionless surface. (Refer to figure 5-3.) The cue ball, (the unmarked ball), collides head on with the eight ball which is initially at rest. If the cue ball comes to a complete stop then the eight ball will move off with the same velocity vector that the cue ball had prior to impact. The momentum of the system is conserved. The initial momentum of the cue ball is completely transferred to the eight ball. The total momentum of the entire system (both billiard balls) remains unchanged. That is:
v cue
Before collision

CUE

V8 = 0 Vcue = 0

After collision

CUE

V8 = Vcue

Figure 5-50 Elastic Collision

(mc*vc)initial + (m8v8)initial = (mc*vc)final + (m8v8)final And since v8, initial = 0, and vc, final = 0, and both billiard balls are of equal mass it follows that: vc, initial = v8, final Note that the same is true when the two colliding bodies stick together and have the same velocity after the collision. (For example, a baseball is hit into a glove suspended in space that is free to move without hindrance.) That is, momentum is conserved. Also, it should be noted that some, all, or none of the momentum will be transferred between objects. The amount of momentum transfer depends upon the nature of the collision. In addition, the angles of incidence and deflection would have to be considered. Our examples assume straight line motion with head on collisions. Example: Two railroad cars are rolling on a level, frictionless track. (See figure 5-4.) The cars collide and become coupled and begin rolling together with a common velocity. Momentum during the collision is conserved. Using the law of conservation of momentum and the information given below, calculate the final velocity of the two cars.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 5: Principle of Momentum

Given: m1 = 2300 lbm m2 = 2800 lbm v1 = 29 ft/s v2 = 11 ft/s

V1 V2 Before collision

After collision

Vf

Solution: v1, final = v2, final = vfinal Therefore (m1v1)initial + (m2v2)initial = (m1v1)final + (m2v2)final = (m1 + m2)vfinal Rearranging we get: vfinal = Now; vfinal = Figure 5-51 Momentum Conservation During Collision

m1 v1 + m2 v 2 m1 + m2 2300 lbm 29 ft ft + 2800 lbm 11 s s 2300 lbm + 2800 lbm

vfinal =

97500

ft lbm s 5100 lbm

vfinal = 19.1 ft/s in the direction of m1 Momentum of the system is conserved. Our intuition tells us that the final velocity should be somewhere between the two individual velocities. In addition, since the direction of the two initial velocities was the same, the direction of the final velocity should be consistent. How would you compare the velocities if the slower moving car had significantly more mass than the faster moving car? (I.e. the slower car may be fully loaded.)

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 5: Principle of Momentum

Chapter 5 Summary
Momentum is the product of the body's mass and its velocity. Mathematically, momentum can be defined as: p = m*v The relationship between force and momentum is F*t = m*v = p The Principle of Conservation of Momentum states that if no net external force acts upon a system, the momentum of the system remains constant. If the net force, Fnet, is equal to zero, then the net momentum of the system is unchanged. That is:

This further reduces to: (m1*v1)initial + (m2*v2)initial = (m1*v1)final + (m2*v2)final

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 5: Principle of Momentum

Momentum Practice Problems

1) Define momentum, in words (no equation).

2) Write the equation for momentum. Is momentum a vector or scalar quantity?

3) A 40 lbm projectile has a velocity of 2000 ft/s. The shell acquired the velocity in an artillery barrel in 0.010 seconds. What was the force acting on the shell as it was fired?

4) If the velocity of an object increases by a factor of 1.5 while the mass of the object remains constant, what is the effect on the momentum of the object?

5) A bullet is shot horizontally from a rifle mounted on a frictionless massless roller. The exit velocity of the bullet is 1500 ft/s. The bullet has a mass of 0.15 lbm and the rifle has a mass of 5 lbm. Find the recoil velocity of the rifle.

6) Write two equations for the conservation of momentum. When can the law of conservation of momentum be employed?

7) A spring is compressed between two cars, initially at rest, on a frictionless track. The mass of the first car is 10.0 lbm and the mass of the second car is 20.0 lbm. When the spring is released the first car

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 5: Principle of Momentum

has a velocity of 0.75 ft/s away from the second car. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the second car.

8) A head on collision occurs between two identical pool balls on a frictionless table. The second ball is initially at rest while the first ball is initially traveling at 2 ft/s. Upon impact, the first ball comes to a complete stop, transferring all of its momentum to the second ball. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the second ball after the collision.

9) A collision occurs between two objects on a frictionless surface. Object 1 has a mass of 500 lbm. Object 2 has a mass of 600 lbm. Object 2 is initially motionless while object 1 travels at 1.25 mi/hr. Object 1 is traveling at 0.25 mi/hr after the collision. Calculate the velocity vector for object 2 after the collision.

10) A collision occurs between two vehicles on a frictionless surface. The first vehicle has a mass of 2500 lbm and the mass of the second vehicle is 2800 lbm. Vehicle 1 is traveling 25 mi/hr when it strikes the motionless vehicle 2. The vehicles lock together and continue on at identical velocities. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the two joined vehicles.

11) A bullet strikes and is embedded in a stationary target on a frictionless roller. The bullet has a mass of 10 g, and the target has a mass of 5 kg. The bullet was traveling at 500 m/s upon impact. What is the momentum of the combined bullet-target? What is the velocity vector of the combined bullet-target?

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 5: Principle of Momentum

12) Refer to the figure below. A collision occurs between the two carts on a frictionless surface. Cart 1 has a mass of 1950 lbm and cart 2 has a mass of 1650 lbm. Cart 1 is traveling 80 ft/s toward cart 2. Cart 2 is traveling 60 ft/s in the same direction as cart 1. Cart 1 overtakes cart 2 and the two couple together. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the combined cart velocities.

v1 = 80 ft/s Cart1

v2 = 60 ft/s

Before collision

Cart2

After collision

Vf

Figure 5-52 Collision in the Same Direction 13) Refer to the figure below. A collision occurs between the two carts on a frictionless surface. Cart 1 has a mass of 1950 lbm and cart 2 has a mass of 1650 lbm. Cart 1 is traveling 80 ft/s toward cart 2. Cart 2 is traveling 60 ft/s in the toward cart 1. The carts collide head on and couple together. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the combined cart velocities.

v1 = 80 ft/s Cart1

v2 = 60 ft/s

Before collision

Cart2

After collision

vf = ?

Figure 5-53 Collision in Opposite Directions

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 6: Work and Energy

6 Chapter: Work and Energy

TO 6.0 EO 6.1 EO 6.2 EO 6.3 EO 6.4 EO 6.5

RELATE the terms work and energy to objects or systems. DEFINE the Physics terms: work, energy, potential energy, and kinetic energy. For an object or system, DESCRIBE how energy is released or how work is done. For an object or system, DESCRIBE how potential energy is stored. For an object or system, DESCRIBE how kinetic energy is stored. DESCRIBE the Principle of Conservation of Energy.

Work
The concepts of work and energy are stepping stones on a path that will lead to one of physics most powerful laws, the law of conservation of energy. Work is commonly thought of as any activity that requires exertion. However, the physics definition is more specific. Work is energy expended when a force acts through some displacement in order to change the motion or position of an object. Notice that there are two aspects to the work concept. A force and a displacement. Both are required in order to say that work has been done. When I push against a rigid wall without a displacement, no work has been done. However, if I push against a box and move it 3 feet, work has been done on the box. It is important to note that only the component of the force that occurs in the same direction as the direction of motion contributes to the work done. Also note that work is a scalar quantity, that is, it has magnitude but no direction. It is given mathematically as the dot product of two vector quantities.

W = F d Which is the same as W = F d cos

(The first equation is given as the dot product of two vectors. The second equation is given as the scalar equivalent form. Both equations yield the same answer.)

Where: F = the magnitude of the applied force (N or lbf) d = the magnitude of the displacement (m or ft) = the angle between applied force and the displacement (degrees or radians)

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 6: Work and Energy

Notice that the units for work will be N m or ft lbf . One joule (J) is defined to be a force of 1 Newton (N) moved through a displacement of 1 meter (m). Hence, a N m is a joule. Work is said to be done by an object when the object exerts a force and causes a displacement of some other object. Work is said to be done on an object when an external force acts on the object and causes displacement of the object. For example, if you push on a box and it moves three feet, work has been done by you on the box. If you push on the box and it does not move, no work has been done on or by the object or you. Example: We push on a large box for three minutes. (Refer to figure 6-1.) During that time we exert a constant force of 200 lbf on the box. The box does not move. How much work has been accomplished? Solution: W = 200 lbf 0 ft. W = 0 ft lbf Remember, if there is no displacement, there is no work. Figure 6-54 Force without Displacement Now, lets rework the problem if the box moved 5 ft. (Refer to figure 6-2.)
5 ft 200 lbf

W = F d

200 lbf

W = F d or W = F d cos W = 200 lbf 5 ft cos(0) (In this example, the angle between the force applied and displacement is 0 degrees. The cosine of zero is 1.)
W = 1000 ft lbf In this case work has been done. It is described as work done by the person on the box. Now lets rework the same problem with the force applied at a 45o up angle. Neglect friction. (Refer to figure 6-3.)

Figure 6-55 Force with Displacement

5 ft

W = F d or W = F d cos W = 200 lbf 5 ft cos(45)

(Note that the cosine of 45o is approximately .7072) W = 707.2 ft lbf

bf 0l 20 45 o

Figure 6-56 Force and Displacement Not Collinear

Energy
Energy is defined as the ability to do work.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 6: Work and Energy

The amount of energy a system possesses determines the amount of work the system can perform. Like work, energy is always a scalar quantity. Energy can take many forms. The following is a partial list of forms of energy. potential nuclear electro-magnetic mechanical electrical sound chemical thermal work

A pile driver possesses mechanical potential energy which can be released to perform work when it is dropped. Coal stores chemical energy (as do all fossil fuels) that is converted to thermal energy when the coal is burned. A nuclear reactor releases energy through nuclear reactions. Water stored at some height behind a dam possesses potential energy, which is converted to electrical energy when the water passes through a water turbine. There are countless numbers of examples of energy storage and conversion. This concepts governs many aspects of our daily lives yet we rarely give it a second thought. Energy can be either transient or stored. Transient energy is energy in motion. Transient energy occurs when it moves from one place to another or from one object to another. Heat and work are examples of energy in motion. Stored energy is energy possessed by the object. A book resting on a table has stored potential energy due to its position in the gravitational field. The lump of coal illustrates energy stored in the chemical bonds between atoms. A block of iron near a powerful magnet has energy stored due to its position in the magnetic field. A baseball in flight has energy stored due to its motion and due to its position in a gravitational field. Whether stored or transient, energy always represents the opportunity to do work.

Thermal Energy
Thermal energy is energy related to an objects temperature. Temperature is a measure of the average random molecular kinetic energy. The higher the temperature, the greater the molecular motion. Here, it is the kinetic energy of the object molecules that stores the energy. Stored thermal energy is called internal energy, (U). Internal energy then is the energy stored in an object due to the motion of its molecules. Transient thermal energy is called heat, (Q). Heat is defined to be thermal energy in motion due to a temperature difference. Heat only exists as a transient energy. Heat results from a difference in temperature between two objects. Heat does not exist in the absence of a temperature difference. Heat always flows from hot to cold. Notice the similarities between heat and work. Both are transient types of energy. Energy transfer from one object to another object is characteristic of both heat and work.

Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy is energy related to motion or position. Transient mechanical energy is called work. Mechanical energy exists in two general forms; kinetic and potential. Kinetic energy is associated with the objects motion while potential energy is associated with the objects position in some type of field. Potential Energy Potential energy (PE) is defined as the energy stored in an object due to its position in a field. There are many types of mechanical potential energy. One type of mechanical potential energy, and perhaps the most familiar to the average person, is gravitational potential energy. This is the energy

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 6: Work and Energy

stored in a mass due to its relative position in a gravitational field. Its position in a gravitational field provides the opportunity to do work. It is important to consider the reference frame when working these types of problems. For example, a book resting on a table has no potential energy when the table top is the reference point. The same book on the same table does have potential energy when the floor replaces the table top as the reference point. Other types of mechanical potential energy include energy stored in a compressed spring, energy stored in an iron block near a magnetic field, energy stored due to the separation of two charged particles, and many others. We will focus our attention on gravitational potential energy. Gravitational potential energy represents the amount of energy that must be expended to raise a mass to a given height. Equivalently, it represents the amount of work that the mass can perform if dropped from that same height. Gravitational potential energy is given by the equation PE = m g z ; Where: PE = potential energy (usually in ft lbf or J) m = mass of the object (in lbm or kg) g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/ss or 9.8 m/ ss) z = height above the reference point (in ft or m) Recall that the quantity (mg) was used to calculate the value for weight (W). Also recall that weight is a special case of force. It follows that:

PE = W z
From this we see that PE is in fact a force (W) multiplied by a displacement (z). This is consistent with our definition for work. Keep in mind that work and energy are scalars. They have no direction associated with them. They may, however, be positive or negative depending on the point of reference. Example: Refer to figure 6-3. What is the potential energy of a 100 kg mass suspended 3 m above the ground? Solution: PE = m g z PE =

100 kg 9.8

1N 1J m 3 m 2 m 1N m s 1 kg 2 s

100 kg

PE = 2,943 J

3m

Example:

Figure 6-57 PE of Suspended Mass

What is the potential energy of a 50 lbm object suspended 10 ft above the ground?

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 6: Work and Energy

Solution: PE = m g z

1 lbf s 2 ft PE = 50 lbm 32.2 2 10 ft 32.2 lbm ft s

PE = 500 ft lbf Note that in the English system the use of gc is required. Example: A pump weighing 500 lbf is suspended 18 ft above the floor. The floor is 78 ft above sea level. What is the potential energy of the pump with respect to the floor? What is the potential energy of the pump with respect to sea level? Solution: Using the floor as a reference:

PE = W z PE = 500 lbf 18 ft
PE = 9,000 ft lbf Now with respect to sea level:

PE = W z
Here, the value for z is the total height above sea level. That is z = 78 ft + 18 ft or z = 96 ft.

PE = 500 lbf 18 ft
PE = 48,000 ft lbf As we can see from this example, choosing the reference point is an important task. In order to obtain the desired results we must be sure of what we really wish to know. In our example there is little value in finding the energy required to lift the pump above sea level. The person performing the work is only interested in lifting the pump from the floor that is present. Kinetic Energy Kinetic energy (KE) is defined as the energy an object possesses due to its motion. An object with both mass and motion has the ability to perform work. A baseball at rest has mass but no kinetic energy because it is not moving. If we throw the baseball, it has energy and the ability to perform work. The equation for kinetic energy is given by:

KE =

1 m v2 2

Like other types of work and energy that we have discussed, the units for KE are ft lbf or joules (J).

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 6: Work and Energy

Kinetic energy represents the amount of energy required to raise an objects velocity from rest to its current value. Equivalently, kinetic energy represents the amount of work the mass would perform if it were brought to rest from that same initial velocity. Example: Refer to figure 6-4. What is the kinetic energy of a 1,000 kg truck traveling at 60 km/hr?
V=60 km/hr

m=1,000 kg

Solution:

1 KE = m v 2 2 2 1 hr 2 1N 1J 1 km 2 2 m KE = 1000 kg (60 ) 1000 2 2 2 2 hr km 3600 s 1 kg m 1 N m s2

KE = 138,889 J

Figure 6-58 KE of 1000 kg Truck at 60 km/hr

Note: This is roughly equivalent to a 2200 lbf automobile traveling at 35 mph. Example: What is the kinetic energy of a 10 lbm object traveling at 8 ft/s? Solution:

1 m v2 2 1 ft KE = 10 lbm (8 ) 2 2 s 2 lbm ft 1 lbf s 2 KE = 320 32.2 ft lbm s2 KE =

KE = 9.9 ft lbf

Conservation of Energy
In physics, conservation laws are among the most powerful tools available. In general, conservation laws are stated in a rather simple form of: A system of particles completely isolated from outside influences, whose particles interact with each other, has a certain property that remains constant over time. That property is said to be conserved. We have already looked at one such law, the law of conservation of momentum. In that instance we said that the momentum remains constant unless the system is acted upon by an external force. Momentum

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 6: Work and Energy

was said to be conserved. In this section we use the conservation principle to introduce a new law of physics, the law of conservation of energy. Simply stated, the law of conservation of energy says: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only altered in form. This is a very powerful statement with far reaching implications. Modern physics expands this concept to a mass energy equivalence conservation. This section will not address conservation of mass energy equivalence. Instead, we will focus on stored and transient forms of energy related to classical physics. The law of conservation of energy can be express mathematically as: Einitial + Eadded Eremoved = Efinal Where: Einitial = energy initially stored in the system (kinetic, potential, or internal) Eadded = energy added to system from external source (heat transfer or work done on the system) Eremoved = energy removed from the system (heat transfer or work done by the system) Efinal = energy remaining in the system (kinetic, potential, or internal) Notice that we frequently refer to the system. A system is a general term used to describe the collection of matter or points in space that are of interest. The system may be a pump, valve, tank, engine, or even an entire power plant. In the broadest sense, we could look at the universe itself as the system of interest. The system is defined by the contents inside of the system boundary. The system boundary sets the system apart from its surroundings. Identification of the system boundary is paramount in the application of the law of conservation of energy. When the state of the system changes over time we identify system conditions at time t1 and t2. Once we have properly identified the system boundary we can apply the law of conservation of energy. Application of the law of conservation of energy is fairly straight forward. From a practical stand point, the law of conservation says that you must account for the energy at the starting point and any energy added or removed. The result describes the energy at the ending point. Keep in mind that energy can take many forms. In this section we will focus on thermal and mechanical forms of energy (both stored and transient). Stored energies include potential, kinetic, and internal. Work and heat transfer account for the transient energies. Stored energies fit into the initial and final energy states while transient energies fill in the values for energies added or removed. With this in mind, the law of conservation of energy is applied to construct an energy balance. In equation form, we start with: Einitial + Eadded Eremoved = Efinal Now, incorporating the concepts of stored and transient energies, we get: KEinitial + PEinitial + Uinitial +Qin + Won Qout Wby = KEfinal + PEfinal + Ufinal Where: Einitial = KEinitial + PEinitial + Uinitial Eadded = Qin + Won Eremoved = Qout Wby Efinal = KEfinal + PEfinal + Ufinal

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 6: Work and Energy

It is common practice to algebraically rearrange this energy balance such that only positive quantities remain. (Move the Qout and the Wby terms to the right side of the equation.) A purely mechanical system is a system that involves no heat transfer and no change in internal energy. When these conditions are present the energy balance can be further simplified by removing the internal energy and heat transfer terms (Q and U). Refer to figure 6-5 for the following illustration. A pile driver is a device that drives piling into the ground by dropping a large weight onto the piling. A diesel engine lifts the weight to its release height through the use of a steel cable or hydraulic ram. The weight is then released, striking the top of the piling and 300 kg driving it in a short distance into the ground. This process is repeated as necessary to drive the piling into the proper depth. 5m Piling Each cycle involves changing the energy form. Chemical energy is converted to mechanical energy in the diesel engine. This mechanical energy is then converted into potential energy of the weight where it is stored until the weight is released. Upon release, the potential energy of the weight is converted to kinetic energy of the weight as it accelerates from rest to some velocity due to the action of gravity. Finally, the weight strikes the piling Figure 6-59 Pile Driver doing work on the piling. (Note: In reality some of this energy causes a change in the internal energy of the weight and piling. This will be neglected at this point. Also note that we will not address friction or other unavoidable losses from the system. To be completely accurate all sources of energy additions or removals must be accounted for.) In our example, all of the energy provided by diesel energy ends up as work on the piling. Example: A pile driver lifts a 300 kg weight to a height of 10 m above a piling. There is no heat transfer and no change in internal energy. All of the energy of the weight is transferred to the piling. a.) What is the velocity of the weight at the instant before it strikes the piling? b.) What is the velocity of the weight at the instant after it strikes the piling? c.) How much energy does the weight transfer to the piling? d.) If the piling travels down 5 cm, how much force is required to drive the piling? Solution: We start by analyzing the system: At time zero the weight is 10 m above the reference point with a velocity of zero. At time one the weight is about to strike the piling, having converted its potential energy to kinetic energy. After impact, (time two) the kinetic energy of the weight has been surrendered to the piling in the form of work.

Now we can use an energy balance to apply the law of conservation of energy. We do this in stages, starting with the state at time zero and ending with the state at time one. Then we will evaluate the transition from time one to time two.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 6: Work and Energy

KEinitial + PEinitial + Uinitial +Qin + Won Qout Wby = KEfinal + PEfinal + Ufinal We can eliminate some of the terms as shown above for the following reasons: KEinitial is zero since the weight is initially at rest. There is no change in internal energy so both Uinitial and Ufinal can be eliminated. Since no heat is transferred we can eliminate the Qin and Qout terms. At this point there has been no work on or by the weight. Consequently, Won and Wby can be crossed out. Finally, at the instant just before impact, all of the weights potential energy has been converted to kinetic energy. As a result, PEfinal is also eliminated from the equation.

This reduces to: PEinitial = KEfinal Therefore:

m g z =

1 m v2 final 2

As we may have expected, the final velocity is independent of the mass. It depends only upon the height from which it falls.
1

v final = (2 g z ) 2 v final = (2 9.8

vfinal = 14 m/s To answer the second question we must look to the original problem statement. The weight will do work on the piling. All of the energy of the weight is transferred to the piling. Consequently, the velocity of the weight after impact must be zero. How much energy was transferred from the weight to the piling? The kinetic energy stored in the weight due to the velocity of the weight is all transferred into the piling. Again we start with the energy balance. KEinitial + PEinitial + Uinitial +Qin + Won Qout Wby = KEfinal + PEfinal + Ufinal Again we can immediately cancel out terms that either do not change or have a value of zero. KEfinal is zero since all of the kinetic energy is converted to work by the weight There is no change in internal energy so both Uinitial and Ufinal can be eliminated. Since no heat is transferred we can eliminate the Qin and Qout terms. At this point there has been no work on the weight. Consequently, Won can be crossed out. Notice that the weight does work on the piling. From the prospective of the weight, work is done by the weight on the piling.

m 10 m) 2 s2

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 6: Work and Energy

Finally, at the instant just before impact, all of the weights potential energy has been converted to kinetic energy. As a result, PEinitial and PEfinal are also eliminated from the equation.

Rearranging the remaining terms we can solve for the work done by the weight. It is important to remember that if we evaluated the piling (and neglected the small change in potential energy) the work done by the weight is equivalent to the work done on the piling. KEinitial = Wby

1 m v2 final 2 1 m 300 kg (14 ) 2 Wby = 2 s

Wby =

1J m2 1 kg 2 s

Wby = 29,400 J or 29,400 N m. The last question requires us to realize that all work done by the weight is also work done on the piling. Work done on the piling results from applying a force over some displacement. In this case, the displacement is 5cm. Therefore, our equation reduces to: Won = F d.

Won d 29,400 N m 100 cm F= 5 cm m

F= F = 588,000 N Example: We wish to build a dragster truck to run the quarter mile. We want to run the quarter mile in 9 seconds at a peak speed of 200 mph. The truck will have a mass of 1,500 lbm. Calculate how much work the engine will do (assuming no losses from the engine to the tires) that will achieve a 9 second quarter mile? Refer to figure 6-6. Solution:

m=1,500 lbm

d = 1/4 mi

t = 9 sec

1 We know that W k = F d , and d = mi 4

We also know that F = m *a, and m = 1,500 lbm

Figure 6-60 Dragster Truck Then,

vf =

200 mi hr

1 hr 3,600 s

5,280 ft 1,056,000 ft ft = = 293.33 1 mi 3,600 s s

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 6: Work and Energy

a=

v v final v initial = t t 293.33 ft s 0 ft s 9s

a=

a = 32.6 ft s 2
This is the average acceleration needed to run 1/4 mile in 9 sec.

F=
And now:

ma 1,500 lbm = gc 1,519.7 lbf

32.593 ft s2 1 mi 4

lbf s 2 = 1,519.7 lbf 32.17 lbm ft 5,280 ft = 2,006,010 ft lbf 1 mi

Wk = F d =

This answer rests on two crucial assumptions: 1. 2. That the average acceleration is 32.6 ft/s2. This is slightly greater than 1 g. That is, this acceleration is slightly greater than gravity - a large acceleration. That all of the energy that the engine produces is transferred to the wheels. This is an "ideal" assumption. In fact, friction, wind resistance, and other losses will have a measurable effect.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 6: Work and Energy

Chapter 6 Summary
Work is energy expended when a force acts through some displacement in order to change the motion or position of an object.

W = F d Which is the same as W = F d cos .

Energy is the ability to do work. Both energy and work are scalar quantities. Energy is either stored or transient. Potential energy, kinetic energy, and internal energy are examples of stored energy. Heat transfer and work are examples of transient energy. Heat is energy in motion due to a temperature difference. Gravitational potential energy (PE) represents the energy stored in a mass due to its position in a gravitational field. PE = m g z

Kinetic potential energy (KE) is the energy stored in a mass due to its motion. KE = 1/2 (m)(v2). Internal energy (U) is the energy stored in the mass as a result of its temperature. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only altered in form. This conservation law is expressed mathematically by: KEinitial + PEinitial + Uinitial + Qin + Won Qout Wby = KEfinal + PEfinal + Ufinal To use this energy balance we must be certain of the system boundary.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 6: Work and Energy

Work and Energy Practice Problems

1) Define the term energy (no equations).

2) Define the term work. Write the equation for work.

3) Define the terms kinetic energy and potential energy. Write the equations for both.

4) A 2 kg mass fall from a height of 4 meters. What is the change in potential energy?

5) Compute the work done by a pump that delivers 600 gallons of liquid into a tank located 50 ft. above the pump. The density of the fluid is 58.8 lbm/ft3.

6) A block has a mass of 6.4 lbm and a velocity of 5.4 ft/s. What is the kinetic energy stored in the block?

7) What are the standard units of measurement for work and energy in both the SI and English systems?

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 6: Work and Energy

Table 6-8 Energy Units

Derived Dimension Work Energy Kinetic Energy Potential Energy English Units SI Units

8) A wooden box weighing 50 N is being pushed across a metal floor. A 5 N force is applied horizontally to the box for 5 minutes. The box does not move. Calculate the work performed on the box.

9) A wooden box weighing 50 N is being pushed across a metal floor. A 100 N force is applied horizontally to the box for 5 minutes. In 2 minutes the box moves 500 cm. Calculate the work performed on the box. Repeat the calculation assuming the box moved 500 cm in 5 minutes.

10) A 1000 lbm vehicle is traveling at 60 mph. Calculate the kinetic energy of the vehicle.

11) A 500 kg vehicle is traveling at 97 km/h. Calculate the kinetic energy of the vehicle.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 6: Work and Energy

12) A winch raises a loaded cargo net at a constant rate of 2 ft/min. The load in the cargo net has a mass of 250 lbm. The net is raised to a height of 15 ft above the floor. a) While the load was being raised, what was its kinetic energy?

b) When the load is fully raised, what is its potential energy?

c) What is the work done by the winch on the cargo net?

13) Two cars of equal mass are traveling at different velocities. One car is traveling five times faster than the other car. How do their kinetic energies compare?

14) Write the equation for the law of conservation of energy.

15) A frictionless roller coaster has a mass of 2,400 lbm. A motor chain assembly raises the coaster to its peak of 75 feet in 10 seconds. a) Calculate the work required to raise the coaster to its peak.

b) Calculate the potential energy of the coaster at it highest point.

c) What is the velocity of the roller coaster when it reaches the ground level?

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 6: Work and Energy

d) Would the roller coaster go faster (peak velocity) if passengers were all members of the World Wrestling Association or if they were all professional jockeys? Does it matter who is in the roller coaster cars? (Neglect air resistance.)

16) A bullet is shot straight up in the air from a rifle. The rifle is mounted such that the end of the rifle barrel is at the zero elevation position. The bullet has a mass of 0.5 ounces. The exit velocity is 1500 ft/s. What is the maximum height of the bullet?

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 7: Power

7 Chapter: Power
TO 7.0 EO 7.1

DEFINE terms involving power. DEFINE the Physics term power.

Power
Suppose you wish to raise several squares of roofing shingles from the ground to the level of your roof. It would not be difficult to calculate the work required to accomplish this task. But as you are aware, there are several ways to accomplish this task. You could rent a machine that can lift them all at once in just a few seconds. You could also hand carry these shingles up a ladder. You might even rig up some kind of block and tackle assembly to hoist the packages. Each of these methods start with the squares lying on the ground and ending on the roof. All of these methods perform the same amount of work. Obviously, some methods are quicker than others. One method would be accomplished in a few seconds while other methods might take you all day. Now consider a demolition expert making preparations to bring down a tall structure. After preparing the structure the demolition team strategically places explosives throughout the building. The team is not interested in the total amount of energy released during the explosion. They could get the same total energy released by placing electric heaters in place of the explosions and simply waiting for a long period of time. The demolition team needs a lot of energy to be released in a very short period of time so that the pressure waves created can blast the structure apart. Now lets look at a fisherman comparing two bass boats. He intends to use the boat to travel upriver about 20 miles to reach his favorite fishing spot. One of the boats is a 75 horsepower engine while the other is limited to 5 horsepower. Both boats can accomplish the task of traveling upriver. The difference is a question of time. The larger horsepower engine will get the fisherman to his destination much quicker than the smaller engine. Time plays a critical role in each of the examples above. It is the rate of doing work or releasing energy that is of importance here. (Remember that work and energy are equivalent expressions.) The rate of doing work or releasing energy introduces the concept of power. For mechanical systems; Power is defined as the time rate of doing work. Mathematically, power is defined to be:

P=

W t

Where: P = Power in watts (W) or horsepower (hp) W = Work done in joules (J) or ft-lbf

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 7: Power

t = time interval in seconds One watt (W) is unit equivalent to one joule per second or 1W = 1J/s. One horsepower (hp) is equivalent to 550 ft pounds force per second or 1hp = 550 ft lbf/s. Note that regarding power, both unit systems are used extensively. Like work and energy, power is a scalar quantity and does not specify direction.

Example: Refer to figure 7-1. A pump does 1.5 E8 ft lbf of work every 100 minutes. What is the pump power in horsepower? Solution:

W t 1.5 10 8 ft lbf 1 min P= 100 min 60 s P=

P = 45.5 hp Example:

1 hp ft lbf 550 s

Pump

Figure 7-61 Pump

Refer to figure 7-2. How much power is required to lift the 1,000 lbm concrete bucket 100 ft in? a) 5 min? b) 2 min? c) 30 s? Solution: The work is the same in all three cases since work does not depend on time.
1,000 lbm

100 ft

W = F d
In this case, F will be the m*g/gc and d will be 100 feet. Therefore:

Figure 7-62 Load

W =

m g d gc 1000 lbm 32.2 32.2 ft lbm lbf s 2 ft s 2 100 ft , or W = 100,000 ft lbf.

W =

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 7: Power

Power is given by: P = a) 5 min

W t

P=

100,000 ft lbf 1 min 5 min 60 s

1 hp ft lbf 550 s

P = 0.606 hp b) 2 min

P=

100,000 ft lbf 1 min 2 min 60 s

1 hp ft lbf 550 s

P = 1.51 hp c) 30 s

P=

100,000 ft lbf 30 s

1 hp ft lbf 550 s

P = 6.06 hp Notice that as the time interval shrinks the power requirements rise quite dramatically. Larger motors or engines are generally required to meet these larger power requirements. Larger input devices usually cost more to purchase. In practice, a balance is struck between the need to accomplish a certain amount of work in a limited amount of time and the cost of meeting this need. We have focused on mechanical systems in this chapter. Recall from chapter 6 that various energy forms are interrelated. Energy is frequently converted from one form to another. The trick is to manipulate systems so that the energy conversions accomplish our tasks or missions. Similar to the energy balance, power can be expressed in these various energy forms. For example, the rate of heat transfer is referred to as thermal power. In general:

P=

E Q , and in the case of heat transfer, P = . t t

It is not uncommon to write an energy balance in terms of power. The conventional notation for this is to place a dot above the symbols in the energy balance.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 7: Power

Chapter 7 Summary
Power is the time rate of doing work. Equivalently, power is the time rate of changing energy. Power is a scalar quantity. Mathematically, power is given by:

P=
Or

W t E t Q t

P=
Or

P=

The English system unit for power is the horsepower (hp). In the SI, power is given in watts (W). Both unit systems are used extensively when considering power.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 7: Power

Power Practice Problems

1) Define the term power in words and write the equation for power.

2) What are the standard units for power in both the English system and the SI?

3) A 5 kg mass is lifted 2 meters in 3 seconds. Compute the work done and power required to lift the mass.

4) A diesel engine is used to drive an emergency generator. It produces 2.4 billion foot-pounds force of work every hour. Calculate the power of the engine in horsepower.

BONUS:

Assuming 100% efficiency, what is the maximum electric power rating of the attached generator in kilowatts.

5) A pump performs 1.5X106 ft.lbf of work every minute. What is the power in horsepower?

6) A generator produces 100 kW of electricity. How much energy is consumed by the end user over a 75 minute period?

7) A winch raises a loaded cargo net at a constant rate. The load in the cargo net has a mass of 250 lbm. The net is raised 15 feet above the ground. What are the power requirements to raise the load in 15 minutes? How about to raise the load in 1 minute?

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 7: Power

8) A cylindrical tank contains water with a density of 62.4 lbm/ft3. The tank is 15 feet high and has diameter of 20 feet. The tank is initially 2/3 full. A pump is started and empties the tank in 45 minutes by pumping it to another tank one floor up. The second floor is 30 feet above the first floor. Assume that the pump and motor are 100% efficient. a) Calculate the volume of water in the tank.

b) Calculate the mass of water in the tank.

c) Calculate the weight of the water in the tank.

d) Calculate the flow rate of water from the tank in lbm/hr.

e) Calculate the work done by the pump and the power required to accomplish this work.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 8: Simple Machines

8 Chapter: Simple Machines

TO 8.0 EO 8.1 EO 8.2

DEFINE terms associated with and IDENTIFY simple machines. STATE the two conditions which identify a simple machine. DEFINE the Physics terms mechanical advantage and ideal mechanical advantage.

Simple Machines
We use machines every day. They make life easier for us. We typically think automobiles, farm implements, earth movers, aircraft, or industrial equipment when we talk about machines. These machines are really just complex combinations of basic simple machines. Not every device that has gears, pulleys, or levers is considered a machine. To be called a machine, it must satisfy at least one of two conditions. These conditions are: It must multiply the force applied, OR It must change the direction of the applied force. Therefore: A simple machine is a device that multiplies or changes the direction of an applied force. As we will see, some simple machines satisfy both requirements. For example, a crow bar is a type of lever that both multiplies and changes direction of an applied force. Machines perform work. Although a machine can be used to multiply a force, it does not multiply the work done. The law of conservation of energy still applies. Machines cannot make energy. Recall that work is done when a force acts through a displacement. Machines manipulate the force-distance relationship. It follows that when a machine multiplies the force, it consequently reduces the displacement. The force-displacement product remains constant. Recall the example of the crowbar. The pivot point of this simple machine is near the point that moves the load. A small force, applied through the long side of the lever is converted to a large force operating on the short side of the lever. Mathematically, we can say that for an ideal simple machine: Work input = Work output

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 8: Simple Machines

This means that we can write: (Force . distance)input = (Force . distance)output From this point on we will refer the input force as the effort force (Fe). The distance through which this effort force is applied is called the effort distance (de). In a similar fashion, the output force will be referred to as the resistance force (Fr) and the distance through which this resistance acts is called the resistance distance (dr). In the real world, friction and other losses diminish the ability of a simple machine to transmit work. Consequently, it is more accurate to say that the work input is always greater than the work output. For now, we will neglect friction and any other external influence. We will focus on ideal machines. For ideal machines, the equations above reduce to: Fe * de = Fr * dr Note that these terms are really dot product multiplication. For this application the direction of the force vectors and displacement vectors are limited. Because of this limitation, the magnitude of the vectors is our primary concern. For this reason, we will simplify the equations and treat the vectors as scalar quantities. We can algebraically rearrange this equation so that:

Fr d e = Fe d r
Where the ratio

de Fr is called the Mechanical Advantage (MA), and the ratio is called the Ideal Fe dr

Mechanical Advantage (IMA). Therefore: MA =

de Fr , and IMA = Fe dr

Notice that both quantities are unitless numbers. You can think of these quantities as factors by which the force or distance is multiplied. Also note that this factor may be less than, equal to, or greater than one. Mechanical advantage cannot be negative however. It should be apparent that if the MA is less than one, (between zero and one) then the force will be reduced. A machine that does this is used to either change direction or speed of the applied force. An example of this would be a gear arrangement in which the output speed is higher than the input speed. The output force however, is less than the input force. Conversely, a machine whose MA is greater than one multiplies the force. Finally, a machine that has a MA equal to one is generally used to alter the direction of the output force. Also note that in a frictionless, ideal machine, the MA and IMA are equivalent.

Types of Simple Machines

There are six common types of simple machines. Most complex machines are combinations of these six simple machines. The six common simple machines are the lever, the inclined plane, the wedge, the pulley, the wheel and axle, and the screw. To be technically accurate, the last four types listed are really special application of one or both of the first two. That is, the wedge, the screw, the pulley, and the wheel and axle are really types of levers or inclined planes.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 8: Simple Machines

Levers Refer to figure 8-1. A lever is a simple device used to multiply force or change direction in the process of doing work. Most of us have undoubtedly used some type of lever in the past. When we pry the top off of a bottle of pop with an opener we are using a lever. Crowbars and jack handles are a few other common examples of levers.
dr de

Fe Fr

Figure 8-63 Simple Lever A single lever always reverses the direction of the effort force. It may also multiply the force depending on the location of the fulcrum, or pivot point. For a lever, the placement of the fulcrum determines the class of lever, and consequently its possible uses. When we discuss the placement of the fulcrum, we always are referring to its position relative to the effort and resistance forces. a.) If the fulcrum is located exactly midway between the applied force and the load, the direction of the effort force is reversed but not multiplied. In this case: MA=1. b.) If the fulcrum is located closer to the load, the effort force is multiplied. In this case: MA>1. c.) If the fulcrum is located closer to the effort force, there is a reduction in force. Here, the effort force is greater than the resistance force. In this case: MA<1. Note that the MA can be less than one but it cannot be less than zero. Example: You are setting up a lever to raise a crate off the ground. Your pry bar is 8 feet long and the crate weighs 900 lbf. Physical constraints force you to place the fulcrum 2 feet from the point where the resistance force is applied. What will be your effort force required to lift the crate? Solution: For most lever systems, friction may be neglected. Therefore: MA = IMA

Fr d e Fr d r = , and solving for the effort force we have: Fe = Fe d r de

Therefore:

Fe =

900 lbf 2 ft 6 ft

Fe = 300 lbf

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 8: Simple Machines

Food for thought: How would the required effort force change if I traded my 8 ft lever in for a 10 ft lever and kept the fulcrum in the same location? Inclined Plane: Refer to figure 8-2. An inclined plane is another simple device to do work. We commonly refer to an inclined plane as a ramp. A common use for an inclined plane is to raise a load from one elevation to a higher elevation. Again, our discussion involve a frictionless inclined plane. (This is a far greater stretch than the frictionless lever.) An inclined plane changes the direction and multiplies the effort force. The effort is applied parallel to the surface of the plane. It is important to understand that on a frictionless plane, your work is against gravity alone but it occurs over the length of the plane. For an inclined plane the IMA is given by: IMA = Where: de = Length of the inclined plane dr = Height of the inclined plane (also the distance that the load is raised) Example: A ramp is used by a moving company to load a truck. The ramp is 8 feet long and the truck bed is 42 inches from the ground. If a 400 lbf box, mounted on frictionless wheels) is to be rolled up the ramp and placed on the truck bed; a.) What is the IMA for the ramp? b.) What effort will be required by the workers to raise the load. Solution: Note that in this example, gravity is the only source of resistance. Figure 8-64 Inclined Plane

de dr

L or de

Fe H or d Fr
r

de dr 8 ft 12 in IMA = 42 in 1 ft
IMA = IMA = 2.3 Now: MA = IMA

Fr = 2.3 and therefore: Fe = Fr/2.3 Fe

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 8: Simple Machines

Fe =

400 lbf 2.3

Fe = 175 lbf. The remaining four types of simple machines discussed in this course are variations of the lever and the inclined plane. Wheel and Axle: Refer to figure 8-3. The wheel and axle is a variation of the lever. The effort force is applied to the wheel while the resistance is felt by the axle. This implies that the effort distance extends from the axis of rotation to the outer circumference of the wheel and the resistance distance extends from the axis of rotation to the outer edge of the axle. Because the wheel and axle is a special application of the lever, we apply the same equations for MA and IMA. One common example of a wheel and axle is the old hand crank and shaft arrangement used to draw water from a well. The bucket is tied to a rope which wraps around the axle. The hand crank provides the MA to rotate the shaft and raise the bucket. Example:
de dr

What is the IMA for a wheel and axle machine whose outer wheel has a diameter of 24 inches and whose axle is 3 inches in diameter? Solution: IMA =

Fr

Fe

de dr

Figure 8-65 Wheel and Axle

In this case, the distances are really the radius from the center of the axis of rotation to the outer edge. The radius is one half of the diameter. Therefore: IMA =

12 in 1.5 in

IMA = 8 Pulley Refer to figure 8-4. The pulley is a fairly unique application of the lever principle. Think of a pulley as a lever whose bar is the rope where it contacts the wheel and whose fulcrum can change depending upon the orientation of that rope. The determination of the MA is the same since it relies only on the resistance and effort forces. However, the IMA calculation can be somewhat difficult. Recall that the IMA depends upon the distance traveled. When evaluating a pulley, you must remember that the orientation of the ropes with respect to the pulleys will alter the distance traveled. Adding

Fe

Fr

Figure 8-66 Pulleys in a Simple Block and Tackle

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 8: Simple Machines

pulleys in series or parallel arrangements, such as in a block and tackle, also change the distance traveled. This course will not perform calculations for pulley arrangements. It suffices to say that very large MAs are possible with pulleys arranged in a block and tackle system. Screw: Refer to figure 8-5. The screw is a variation of the inclined plane. In fact, the screw is simply an inclined plane wrapped around a cylindrical shaft. We usually describe the length to height ratio of a screw as the pitch. For example, a pitch of 12 to 1 means that the threads advance the shaft of the screw 1 unit for each 12 units of travel. To be accurate, a fairly complex analysis is required to determine the MA and IMA. In addition, a screw can rarely be considered frictionless. For our purpose however, we will simplify the calculations for the screw and apply the same equations for the screw as the inclined plane. Wedge: Refer to figure 8-6. The wedge is another variation of the inclined plane. It is essentially two inclined planes placed back to back. The IMA and MA calculations for the wedge are identical to the inclined plane. Note that like the screw, the wedge is rarely frictionless. We again chose to neglect friction in our calculations. Keep in mind that for wedge calculations, the resistance travels the width of the wedge and the effort travels the length of the plane surface.
Fe

Figure 8-67 Simple Screw

Fr

De Dr

Figure 8-68 Simple Wedge

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 8: Simple Machines

Chapter 8 Summary
A simple machine is a device that multiplies force or changes the direction of the applied force. To be considered a simple machine, it must satisfy at least one of the following conditions: It must multiply the applied force. It must change the direction of the applied force. Machines are used to provide a mechanical advantage, to make it easier to do work. There are 6 basic types of simple machines. Four of these are really variations or applications of the either the lever or inclined plane. Mathematically, MA and IMA are given by:

IMA = MA =

de dr Fr Fe

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 8: Simple Machines

Simple Machines Practice Problems

1) What is the MA of a wheel and axle assembly if 1800 lbf requires 450 lbf of effort?

2) What is the effort force required to lift a 2000 lbm block with a lever that has a MA of 10?

3) What would be the IMA of a lever whose resistance arm is 2 inches and whose effort arm is 5 inches?

4) A lever is 12 feet long. The fulcrum is placed 3/4 of the way between the effort force and the load. What is the IMA?

5) How much force is required to split a log with a 2 inch wide wedge if the resistance is 4000 lbf and the wedge plane surface is 8 inches long?

6) A 3 gallon bucket of water is being drawn from a well using a wheel and axle assembly. The bucket weighs 24 lbf. The axle is 4 inches in diameter. The crank extends 10 inches beyond the outer edge of the axle. Assuming there is no friction, how much effort force is required to a raise the bucket?

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 9: Properties of Matter

9 Chapter: Properties of Matter

TO 9.0 EO 9.1

DESCRIBE the major properties of materials and failure mechanisms for common engineering materials. DEFINE the following terms: a) Stress b) Tensile Stress c) Compressive Stress d) Shear Stress e) Strain

EO 9.2

DESCRIBE the following terms: a) Thermal Stress b) Thermal Shock

EO 9.3 EO 9.4 EO 9.5

DESCRIBE two factors that determine the amount of thermal stress. IDENTIFY three (3) operational practices that are specifically intended to reduce the severity of thermal shock. DEFINE the following characteristics as related to metals (including alloys) and non-metals: a) Crystalline structure b) Opacity c) Ductility d) Malleability e) Conductivity

EO 9.6

DESCRIBE the following terms as they relate to material failure: a) Ductile Fracture b) Brittle Fracture c) Nil-Ductility Transition Temperature (NDTT) d) Fracture Toughness

EO 9.7

DESCRIBE the conditions necessary for brittle fracture to occur.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 9: Properties of Matter

Material Science:
Definition of Material Stress: The atoms of a metal are arranged in a certain geometric pattern, specific for that particular metal or alloy. This geometric pattern is maintained by inter-atomic forces. When so arranged, the atoms are in their state of minimum energy and tend to remain in that arrangement. Work must be done on the metal (that is, energy must be added) to distort the atomic pattern. When a load is applied to metal, the atomic structure itself is involved by being compressed, warped, or stretched regardless of the strength of the metal or size of the load. If the load is small, the distortion will disappear when the load is removed. If the load is large, the metal may permanently deform. Stress is the ratio of an applied force to the cross-sectional area to which the force is applied. The most common units of stress are pounds force per square inch. (Stress = force/area) Sources of Material Stress: Stresses occur in any material that is subject to a load or applied force. There are many types of stresses, but they can all be generally classified in one of six categories: residual, structural, pressure, flow, thermal, and fatigue stresses. Residual Stress: Residual stresses are due to the manufacturing processes that leave stresses in a material. Welding leaves residual stresses in the metals welded. Structural Stress: Structural stresses are stresses produced in structural members because of the weight they support. The weight provide the loading. These stresses are found in building foundations and frameworks, as well as in machinery parts. Pressure Stress: Pressure stresses are stresses induced in vessels containing pressurized materials. The loading is provided by the same force producing the pressure. In an industrial facility, the air receiver of a high pressure air system is a prime example of a vessel subject to pressure stresses. Flow Stress: Flow stresses occur when a mass of flowing fluid induces a dynamic pressure on a pipe wall. The force of the fluid striking the wall acts as the load. This type of stress may be applied in an unsteady fashion when flow rates fluctuate. Water hammer is an example of a transient flow stress. Thermal Stress: Thermal stresses exist whenever temperature gradients are present in a material. Different temperatures produce different expansions and subject materials to internal stress. This type of stress is particularly noticeable in mechanisms operating at high temperatures that are cooled by a cold fluid. Thermal stress is further discussed below in the section entitled THERMAL STRESS AND THERMAL SHOCK. Cyclic Stress: Cyclic stresses are due to cyclic application of a stress. The stresses could be due to vibration or thermal cycling. Cyclic stress can lead to fatigue failure.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 9: Properties of Matter

The importance of all stresses is increased when the materials supporting them are flawed. Flaws tend concentrate stress in a small, localized area.. Also, when loading are cyclic or unsteady, stresses can effect a material more severely. The additional stresses associated with flaws and cyclic loading may exceed the stress necessary for a material to fail. Types of Stresses: Stress intensity within the body of a component is expressed as one of three basic types of internal load. They are known as tensile, compressive, and shear. Figure 9-1 illustrates these different types of stress. As illustrated in figure 9-1 the plane of a tensile or compressive stress lies perpendicular to the axis of operation of the force from which it originates. The plane of a shear stress lies in the plane of the force system from which it originates. It is essential to keep these differences quite clear both in mind and mode of expression. Tensile Stress: Tensile stress is that type of stress that occurs when a material is loaded causing two sections of material on either side of a stress plane to be pulled apart, stretched or elongated as illustrated in figure 9-1 (A). Compressive Stress: Compressive stress is the reverse of tensile stress. Adjacent parts of a material that are loaded causing them to press against each other, compacted or squeezed through a typical stress plane as illustrated in Figure 9-1 (B). Shear Stress: Shear stress exists when two parts of a material are loaded causing them to tend to slide across each other as shown in figure 9-1(C). The shear stress is equal to the force divided by the area of the face parallel to the direction in which the force acts. Stress Combinations: Two types of stress can be present simultaneously in one plane, if one of the stresses is shear stress. Under certain conditions, different basic stress type combinations may be simultaneously present in the material. An example would be a evaporator vessel during operation. The wall has tensile stress at various locations due to the temperature and pressure of the fluid acting on the wall. Compressive stress is applied from the outside at other locations on the wall due to outside pressure, temperature, and constriction of the supports associated with the vessel. In this situation, the tensile and compressive stresses are considered principal stresses. If present, shear stress will act at a 90o angle to the principal stress.

Figure 9-69 Types of Material Stress

Thermal Stress and Thermal Shock:

Thermal Expansion and Contraction: Thermal expansion and contraction occurs in all materials. Some familiar examples of thermal expansion and contraction include:

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 9: Properties of Matter

The increase in the radiator temperature overflows tank level when the engine is hot. The change in volume and pressure of a gas as the temperature changes.

Thermal expansion of solid materials results in an increase in the length, area, and volume of a material as its temperature increases. Thermal expansion of fluids results in an increase of volume and/or fluid pressure. Thermal expansion and contraction are caused by the increase and decrease of the movement of the atoms or molecules with temperature changes. The amount of thermal expansion and contraction depends upon two factors. The first factor is the amount of temperature change that has occurred. The larger the amount of temperature change the greater the amount of expansion or contraction. The second item is the type of material. Each material expands and contracts at a different rate than other types of materials. The amount a materials length change for a given material temperature changes is called the coefficient of thermal expansion. Coefficients of thermal expansion are found by measuring the change in length caused by a one degree change in temperature. Mathematically, it is expressed as follows:

= T

Where:

= Change in length = Original length = Coefficient of thermal expansion T = Temperature change

Some coefficients of expansion are listed in table 9-1. Table 9-9 Thermal Expansion Coefficients Type of Material Diamond Concrete Iron Aluminum Mercury Gasoline Benzene Coefficient of Linear Expansion 1.2106 10106 12106 25106 NA NA NA Coefficient of Volume Expansion 3.5106 30106 36106 75106 182106 950106 1240106

Thermal Shock and Thermal Stress: Thermal stress results from uneven heating or cooling of a material, or even heating or cooling of non-uniform materials. Thermal shock is caused by rapid heating or cooling of material. Suppose a material is heated (or cooled) and constrained. When the temperature of the material increases, it will expand and press against the constraining boundary. This creates stress. These stresses can be comprised of tensile stress and compressive stress. These stresses, cyclic in nature, can lead to fatigue failure of the materials.

Figure 9-70 Thermal Stress Profile During- Heatup

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 9: Properties of Matter

Thermal stress is the stress due to the presence of temperature gradients in a material. Thermal stresses can be a major concern in the design of systems. With rapid heating (or cooling) of a thick-walled vessel, one part of the wall may try to expand (or contract) while the adjacent section, which has not yet been exposed to the temperature change, tries to restrain it. Thus, both sections are under stress. Figure 9-2 illustrates what takes place during heatup on the inner wall of a pressure vessel. When a cold medium, such as water, enters the vessel the cold medium causes the metal on the inside wall to cool before the metal on the outside. When the metal on the inside wall cools, it contracts, while the hot metal on the outside wall is still in its expanded position. This sets up a thermal stress, placing the cold side in tensile stress and the hot side in compressive stress, which can cause cracks in the cold side or inner wall during cooldown. These stresses are illustrated in Refer to figure 9-3.
ch-06

Operating Concerns for Heatup and Cooldown: Figure 9-71 Thermal Stress Profile During- Cooldown The heatup and cooldown of a vessel and the addition of makeup fluid to its associated system could cause significant temperature changes and cause thermal stresses. Slow controlled heating and cooling of a system and controlled makeup addition rates are necessary to minimize cyclic thermal stress, thus decreasing the potential for fatigue failure of system components. Operating procedures are designed to reduce both the magnitude and the frequency of these stresses. Operational limitations include heatup and cooldown rate limits for components, temperature limits for placing systems in operation, and specific temperatures for specific pressures for system operations. These limitations permit material structures to change temperature at a more even rate, minimizing thermal stresses.

Characteristics of Engineering Materials

In general, materials owe their physical properties to their category, (metal or non-metal) their bonding characteristics, and their positioning in a matrix (for solids). Bonding is the way that two or more elements combine. There are three major types of primary bonding and one major type of secondary bonding. Primary bonding joins two or more atoms directly while secondary bonding occurs between these newly formed units. For example, two individual oxygen atoms combine to form an oxygen molecule. The bond between these atoms represent the primary bond. In a like fashion, two hydrogen atoms combine with an oxygen atom to form a water molecule. Once again, the bond between atoms represents the primary bonds. When two water molecules display an attraction, a secondary bond forms. This bond is much weaker than the primary bond and is easily broken. In general, it is this weaker bond that determines the solid, liquid, or gaseous state of the substance. Primary and secondary bonding is covered in detail in the Chemistry lesson. Terminology Crystalline: Many important engineering materials in use today are said to have a crystalline structure. This characterization is referring to the atomic scale structure. In other words, how are the atoms stacked together within given space? Crystalline is defined as a substance whose constituent atoms or molecules are arranged in a regular, repeating pattern. This pattern extends in three dimensions. Both ceramics and metals are typically found to have a crystalline structure.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 9: Properties of Matter

Amorphous: Some engineering materials do not have a regular repeating atomic structure. There may be short range regularity, but on the whole, no repeatable pattern can be found. These non-crystalline solids are called amorphous solids. Traditional glass is an example of an amorphous solid. Special cooling processes are required to get metals to take an amorphous form. Strength: The strength of a material refers to its ability to resist an applied stress. We are usually interested in the Yield Strength, or the point at which the metal permanently deforms. That is, the point where the material does not spring back to its original shape. In fact, yield strength is defined to be the upper limit of stress in which Hookes Law behavior still applies. For our purposes, think of it as the highest stress that can be applied without permanently altering the shape. Hardness: If you drop a marble on a slab of Jell-O, it will make a dent in the surface of the Jell-O. The same marble dropped on a slab of glass (assume that it does not break) will not dent the surface of the glass. That is because glass has a much harder surface than Jell-O. Hardness then, measures a materials ability to resist indentation. Brittleness: Consider the wire in a cloths hanger. Bending the wire repeatedly will eventually cause the wire to fail. Looking closely at the wire we see that the wire has some deformation prior to failure. Now consider a glass stirring rod. When we attempt to bend the rod, (dont try this at home) it resists bending and remains essentially straight. Increasing the force applied will ultimately result in a rapid, catastrophic failure and the glass rod shatters. The glass rod exhibits little or no deformation. The glass rod is said to be more brittle. Brittleness then, measures the lack of deformability of the material. Several factors influence a materials brittleness. Of greatest importance to us is the influence of temperature. As the materials temperature decreases it usually becomes more brittle. Likewise, if the temperature of the material rises, it becomes less brittle. Brittleness is closely related to the next term, ductility. Ductility: Ductility is closely related to brittleness. Extensive, permanent deformability prior to catastrophic failure is characteristic of ductile material. In fact, ductility can be defined in terms of the amount of deformation prior to failure. Metals tend to be more ductile while ceramics and glasses tend to be more brittle. Toughness: Ideally, an engineering material would be both strong and ductile. The two properties seem to conflict with each however. Ductile materials seem to lack the strength of brittle materials while brittle materials fail catastrophically without deformation when they reach their failure point. An alloy (multiple metals mixed) that is strong and brittle has limited use as would an alloy that is weak yet ductile. The term toughness is used to describe the result of combining the properties of strength and ductility. Malleability:

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 9: Properties of Matter

Closely related to ductility and brittleness is the term malleability. A material that is malleable can readily be deformed when placed under compression. Malleable is term to describe a ductile material that is easy to deform into a new geometry. Conductivity: Regarding engineering materials, there are two types of conductivity: heat and electrical. Conductivity refers to the materials ability to transmit or conduct something. In this case we are interested in the ability to conduct heat or electricity. Metals are generally good conductors of both heat and electricity. In contrast, non-metals tend to be poor conductors for both heat and electricity. Opacity: Opacity evaluates the ability to transmit light through the material. Opaque material do not readily pass light through them. Opacity is dependent upon the material in question and the geometry of the object. Very thin sheets of metal will pass some light through the material. For example, some solar filters use a thin coat of stainless steel, only a few atoms thick, on the surface of the lens. Approximately one ten thousandth of the incident light passes through the filter, allowing the human eye to view the source without damage. Alloys: Alloys are mixtures of two or more metals or materials. At least one constituent of the mixture must be a metal for it to be considered an alloy. Alloying alters the physical properties of the constituents elements, providing superior engineering performance. For example, steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Steel is far less brittle than pure iron and has other desirable properties. Stainless steel contains iron, chromium, and carbon in its matrix. Metals: Metals form the bulk of the elements listed on the Periodic Table of the Elements. Due to their common nature and physical properties, metals represent the typical engineering material in the mind of the general public. Iron, Copper, Aluminum, Nickel, and several others readily come to mind when discussing engineering materials. Some very broad generalizations can be made regarding metals. For example: Metals are generally good electrical conductors. Metals bond with other metals through metallic bonding. Metals bond with non-metals through ionic bonding. Metals are usually good conductors of thermal energy. Metals are generally structurally strong and ductile.

Ceramics (and Glasses): Another important class of engineering materials is ceramics. A ceramic compound involves the combination of one or more metallic elements with one or more nonmetallic elements. For example, aluminum (Al) is a common metal used for a multitude of engineering applications. An oxide compound of aluminum (Al2O3) is a ceramic compound that also has many engineering applications. The ceramic form has two major advantages over the metallic form. First, the oxide form is chemically stable in wide range of adverse environments. In short, it is not susceptible to oxidation (rust). The second advantage

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 9: Properties of Matter

relates to its melting point. Pure aluminum melts at approximately 6600C while the ceramic form melts at 20200C. You need only drop a porcelain (another ceramic) statue on the floor once to discover the major disadvantage of ceramics. Ceramics are usually very brittle and have a low ductility. These two material properties are important for applications that involve impact loading. Glass is also an important engineering material. At the WTP, glass, is our primary purpose. Glass shares many similar characteristics with ceramics. The major distinction between the two is the structure of the material matrix. The term glass is used for non-crystalline solids with compositions comparable to the crystalline ceramics. Most glasses in use with engineering importance are made from silicates but other classifications are available. Like ceramics, glass tends to be very hard and brittle making them ineffective for applications that involve impact loading.

Material Failures
Types of Metal Failures: Metals can fail by ductile or brittle fracture. Metals that are ductile will deform before fracturing. Usually a large part of the deformation is concentrated near the fracture faces. This type of failure is ductile fracture. Metals that fracture with little or no deformation are said to brittle fracture. Cracks move rapidly during brittle fracture. Brittle failure results from cleavage (splitting along definite planes). Ductile failure is preferred over brittle fracture, because it occurs over a period of time. In addition, brittle fracture can occur (with flaws) at lower stress levels than a ductile failure. Figure 9-4 shows the basic types of fracture. Nil-Ductility Transition Temperature: Many metals that are ductile under some conditions can become brittle if the conditions are altered. The effect of temperature on the type of fracture is extremely important. Many metals exhibit ductile fracture at elevated temperatures and brittle fracture at low temperatures. The temperature above which a material is ductile and below which it is brittle is known as the Nil-Ductility Transition Temperature (NDTT). This temperature is not precise, but varies according to prior mechanical and heat treatment and the nature and amounts of impurities. Pressurized components such as tanks are also subject to cyclic stress. Cyclic stress is caused by pressure and temperature cycles on the metal. Cyclic stress can lead to fatigue failure. Fatigue failure, can be started by microscopic cracks and notches from by grinding and machining marks on the surface. The same defects can also cause brittle fracture. Brittle fracture can occur at low stress levels provided certain conditions are met. These conditions are: The presence of a pre-existing a flaw or crack; A stress large enough to cause a small deformation at the crack tip; And a temperature low enough to promote brittle fracture.

Figure 9-72 Brittle Vs. Ductile Failure

Crack Initiation and Movement: Brittle failure generally occurs when a flaw or crack moves through a material. The start of a fracture at low stresses is caused by the cracking tendencies at the tip of the crack. If a plastic flaw exists at the tip, the metal is not at risk of brittle fracture because the metal surrounding the crack will be able to stand the

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 9: Properties of Matter

stress. When brittle fracture occurs, the crack will start and move through the material at the speed of sound. However, smaller grain size, higher temperature, and lower stress will reduce the changes of brittle fracture. Larger grain size, lower temperatures, and higher stress tend to favor brittle fracture. There is a stress level below which a crack will not move at any temperature. As the temperature increases, a higher stress is required for a crack to move. Fracture Toughness: Fracture toughness is a measure of the amount of stress needed to move an existing flaw. The fracture toughness of a metal depends on the following: Type of metal Metal temperature Size of deformations in the metal Metal grain size

Metal crystal type The chemical bonds between the atoms of a metal vary from one type of metal to another. A stronger chemical bond will result in greater fracture toughness. Metal fracture toughness increases as the temperature increases because the metal is further away from its NDTT. A large flaw or crack reduces the number of bonds between the atoms of the metal thereby lowering fracture toughness. A larger grain size will also reduce the fracture toughness of the metal.

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 9: Properties of Matter

Chapter 9 Summary
Material stress is the ratio of an applied force to the cross-sectional area to which force is applied. Three types of material stress: Tensile stress is the type of stress that occurs when a material is loaded causing two sections of material on either side of a stress plane tend to pull apart, stretch or elongate. Compressive stress is the reverse of tensile stress. Adjacent parts of a material that are loaded causing them to press against each other compacted or squeezed. Shear stress exists when two parts of a material are loaded causing them to tend to slide across each other when the force is parallel to the plane in a slicing or clipping direction. Thermal stress results from uneven heating or cooling of the material. Thermal shock is caused by rapid heating or cooling of material. The two factors that affect the amount of thermal stress are: The magnitude of temperature change. The type of material.

Operational limits to reduce the severity of thermal stress include: Heatup and cooldown rate limits. Temperature limits for placing systems into operation. Temperature range limits associated with system pressures.

Metals have a crystalline structure, that is the atoms are arranged in a three dimensional repeating pattern. The crystalline structure determines the major material properties. Ductile fracture occurs when metals deform before fracturing. Brittle fracture occurs when metals fracture with little or no deformation. "Nil-Ductility Transition Temperature (NDTT) is the temperature above which a material is ductile and below which it is brittle. Fracture toughness is a measure of the amount of stress needed to move an existing flaw. The fracture toughness of a metal depends on the following: Type of metal Metal temperature Size of deformations in the metal Metal grain size Metal crystal type

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 9: Properties of Matter

Properties of Matter Practice Problems

1) List and describe the characteristics of metals.

2) Define NDTT and describe its relationship to a materials failure mechanism

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 10: Appendices

10 Chapter: Appendices
Appendix A
TIME Length Mass

Velocity V = L/t, direction

Momentum P = M x V, direction

Acceleration a = V/t

Force F=mxa

Power P = W/t

Work W = F.d

Impulse Impulse = F x t

Figure 10-73 Appendix A

Appendix A-1

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 10: Appendices

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 10: Appendices

TIME

Length

Mass

Velocity
d v t

Momentum
p m v

Acceleration
v a t

Force
F m a

Power
W P t

Work
W F d

Impulse
F*t m v

Figure 10-74 Appendix A-1

Physics Formulas
Table 10-10 Physics Equations

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 10: Appendices

Ch. 3

TOPIC Speed Average Speed Relative Speed Velocity Acceleration Distance 2-Dimensional Right-Angle Vectors

SYMBOL v vavg vrel v a d c or a or b F W s Strain p

FORMULA (English)

FORMULA (SI) (same) (same)

UNIT (English)

UNIT (SI)

vrel = v2 - v1

(same) (same) (same) (same)

ft s ft s ft s

m s m s m s

m ft , direction , direction s s m ft 2 s2 s
ft length or velocity lbf lbf m length or velocity N N

c2 = a2 + b2 (Pythagorean Theorem)

(same) F=ma W=mg (same) (same) (same)

Force Weight Stress Strain Pressure Of Liquids & Gasses

lbf in 2
unitless in. of Hg or

N m2
unitless mm of Hg or

lbf in 2
Friction 5 Momentum Two-Body Problem Elastic Collisions Inelastic Collisions Ff p m or v v v Ff = f Fn p =mv (m1v1)i + (m2v2)i = (m1v1)f + (m2v2)f (same) (same) (same) (same) unitless

N m2
unitless

vf =

m1,i v1,i + m2,i v 2,i (m1 + m2 )f

(same)

lbm ft s ft lbm or s ft s ft s

kg m s m kg or s m s m s

Physics Formulas (Continued)

Table 10-11 Physics Equations Continued
Ch. 5 TOPIC Impulse SYMBOL Ft FORMULA (English) FORMULA (SI) Ft = mv UNIT (English) lbfs UNIT (SI) Ns

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 10: Appendices

Work Potential Energy Kinetic Energy

Wk PE KE

Wk = F d PE = mgz gc

(same) PE = m g z

ftlbf ftlbf ftlbf

joule joule joule

KE =
P=

m v2 2gc

KE =
P=

m v2 2

7 8

Power Mechanical Advantage Ideal Mechanical Advantage

P MA IMA

Wk hp c t

Wk t (same) (same)

hp unitless unitless

watt unitless unitless

Unit Conversions
Table 10-12 Unit Conversions
LENGTH 1 mi 1 mi 1 mi 1 furlong 1 yd 1 yd 1 ft 1 ft 1 in = = = = = = = = = 1.609 km 5,280 ft 1760 yd 1/8 mile or 220 yd 3 ft 0.915 m 0.305 m 12 in 2.54 cm (exactly) AREA 1 mi2 1 m2 1 km2 1 km2 1 ft2 1 yd2 = = = = = = 640 acres 10.76 ft2 247.1 acres 0.386 mi2 144 in2 9 ft2 1 yr 1 fortnight 1 wk 1 day 1 hr 1 min 1 hr = = = = = = = 1 kg 1 oz 16 oz 1 metric ton 1 ton 1 grain 1 grain = = = = = = = MASS 2.205 lbm 28.35 g 1 lbm 1000 kg 2,000 lbm 0.002285 oz 0.065 g

TIME 365 days 2 wk or 14 days 7 days 24 hr 60 min 60 s 3600 s

Unit Conversions (Continued)

Table 10-13 Unit Conversions
VOLUME 1 ft 1 liter 1 ft3 1 liter 1 in3 1 gal
3

PRESSURE 1 atm 1 atm 1 atm 1 atm = = = = 29.92 in of Hg 33.91 ft of H2O 760 mm of Hg 760 Torr

= = = = = =

28.32 liters 0.264 gal 7.481 gal 1,000 cm3 or 1000 cc 16.39 cm3 4 qt

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM Student Guide: Physics Chapter 10: Appendices

1 qt

0.9464 liter

1 atm 1 mm of Hg 760 mm of Hg 1 Pa

= = = =

14.7

lbf in 2

1 Torr 29.92 in of Hg 1

N m2

POWER, WORK, & ENERGY 1 kilowatt (kW) = 1 hp = 1W 1J 1 Nm 1W 1 ftlbf 1 hp = = = = = = 1.34 hp 746 W 1 1 lbf 1N 1N 1 lbf = = = =

FORCE 4.45 N 0.225 lbf

J s

0.738 ftlbf 1J 0.0013 hp 1.356 J 550

kg m s2 lbm ft 32.17 s2
1

ft lbf s

SI General Information
Table 10-14 SI System
Prefix Tetra Giga Mega kilo hectare Base Unit centi milli micro nano pico Symbol T G M k h Kilogram (kg), meter (m), liter (l) byte (b) c m n p Means trillion billion million thousand hundred one hundredth thousandth millionth billionth trillionth Scientific Notation 1012 109 106 103 102 100 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 Normal Notation 1,000,000,000,000 1,000,000,000 1,000,000 1,000 100 1 0.01 0.001 0.000,001 0.000,000,001 0.000,000,000,001