i

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 29, NO. 2, MARCWAPRIL 1993 391

Voltage Sags in Industrial Systems

Mark F. McGranaghan, Member, IEEE, David R. Mueller, Member, IEEE, and Marek J. Samotyj, Member, IEEE

Abstract-This paper describes the causes of voltage sags in

industrial plants, their impacts on equipment operation, and pos- 2
sible solutions. The definition proposed focuses on system faults
as the major cause of voltage sags. The sensitivity of different
types of industrial equipment, including adjustable speed drive 2’
controls, programmable logic controllers, and motor contactors,
is analyzed. Available methods of power conditioning for this
sensitive equipment are also described. io
> -1
I. INTRODUCTION
-0

A VOLTAGE SAG is a momentary (i.e., 0.5-30 cycles)

decrease in the rms voltage magnitude, usually caused
by a remote fault somewhere on the power system (Fig.
1). Voltage sags are the most important power quality prob- Fig. 1. Voltage sag waveform caused by a remote fault condition (six cycles).
lem facing many industrial customers. Equipment used in
modem industrial plants (process controllers, programmable
logic controllers, adjustable speed drives, robotics) is actually Substatlon
becoming more sensitive to voltage sags as the complexity of
the equipment increases. Even relays and contactors in motor
starters can be sensitive to voltage sags, resulting in shutdown
of a process when they drop out.
It is important to understand the difference between an
interruption (complete loss of voltage) and a voltage sag.
Interruptions occur when a protective device actually interrupts
the circuit serving a particular customer. This will normally
only occur if there is a fault on that circuit. Voltage sags occur
during the period of a fault for faults over a wide part of Fig. 2. Typical distribution system one line diagram illustrating types of
protection devices.
the power system. Faults on parallel feeder circuits or on the
transmission system will cause voltage sags but will not result
in actual interruptions. Therefore, voltage sags are much more starting can also result in undervoltages, but these are typically
frequent than interruptions. If equipment is sensitive to these longer in duration than 30 cycles and the associated voltage
voltage sags, the frequency of problems will be much greater magnitudes are not as low. Motor starting voltage variations
than if the equipment were only sensitive to interruptions. are often referred to as “voltage flicker,” especially if the motor
This paper describes the voltage sag characteristics and the starting can occur frequently.
sensitivity of equipment. With this information, the range of Faults resulting in voltage sags can occur within the plant
fault locations on the power system that can cause problems or on the utility system. The voltage sag condition lasts until
can be estimated (area of vulnerability). Options for improving the fault is cleared by a protective device. In the plant, this
equipment performance in the presence of voltage sags include will typically be a fuse or a plant feeder breaker. On the
power conditioning or equipment design modifications. Both utility system, the fault could be cleared by a branch fuse
of these options are described. or a substation breaker. If reclosing is used by the utility, the
voltage sag condition can occur multiple times.
11. CAUSES OF VOLTAGE SAGS Utility system faults can occur on the distribution system
or on the transmission system. Fig. 2 illustrates a typical
Voltage sags are typically caused by fault conditions. Motor
distribution system configuration with a number of feeders
Paper ICPSD 91-51, approved by the Power Systems Protection Committee supplied from a common bus. A fault on Feeder F1 will cause
of the IEEE Industry Applications Society for presentation at the 1991
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Department Technical Conference, an interruption which will affect the customers on that feeder.
Memphis, TN, May 6 9 . Manuscript released for publication April 29, 1992. However, all of the customers on the three parallel feeders
M. McGranaghan and D. Mueller are with Electrotek Concepts, Inc., will experience a voltage sag while the fault is actually on
Knoxville, TN 37932.
M. Samotyj is with Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA 94303. the system. With the reclosing breakers at the substation, the
IEEE Log Number 9207100. customers on parallel feeders can experience as many as four
0093-9994/93$03.00 0 1993 IEEE
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398 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 29, NO. 2, MARCWAPRIL 1993

\Recloser Operalinq Sequenceb

I Conlocls Closed

\ I I
Reclosing Intervals (Contacts Open)

Fig. 3. Typical recloser operating sequence.

2oov , 7
ov
20 0 V/div verticol 2 sec/div horiz
Fig. 4. Voltage sag at customer location with one recloser operation.
voltage sags in succession, lasting for durations ranging from a
couple of cycles to more than ten cycles (see typical reclosing
sequence in Fig. 3). The voltage characteristic at the customer
location on a parallel feeder will look something like the plot
in Fig. 4 (one reclosing operation).
Faults on the transmission system can affect even more
customers. Customers hundreds of miles from the fault loca-
tion can still experience a voltage sag resulting in equipment
misoperation when the fault is on the transmission system.
The large majority of faults on a utility system are single
line-to-ground faults (SLGF). Three phase faults are more
severe, but much less common. SLGF’s often result from
weather conditions such as lightning, wind, and ice. Contam-
ination of insulators, animal contact, and accidents involving
construction or transportation activities also cause faults. Al-
though utilities go to great lengths to prevent faults on the
system, they cannot be eliminated completely.
Lightning is the most common cause of faults on overhead
transmission and distribution lines. Lightning can cause a fault
by directly striking a phase conductor (direct strike) or by
striking a grounded object, such as a shield wire or tower
(backflash). In either case, the voltage developed across the
phase conductor insulators close to the stroke location can
cause a flashover which then results in the flow of fault current.
Usually, these faults are temporary, which means that they
will not reinitiate after they have been cleared and the line
is reclosed.
The probability of a flashover during a lightning stroke
can be reduced by applying surge arresters to divert the
lightning current to ground. The probability of backflashes
can be reduced by minimizing footing resistances. Some
utilities are considering the application of arresters along
transmission lines to reduce the incidence of lightning-induced
faults on transmission systems. Regardless of the measures
taken, lightning-induced faults cannot be eliminated com-
pletely. There will still be lightning strokes with high current
magnitudes and rates-of-rise which will cause flashovers.
Therefore, it is important for customers to make sure that
critical equipment sensitive to voltage sags is adequately
protected.
111. RANT
VOLTAGEDURINGSINGLE
FAULTSON THE UTILITY SYSTEM
LINE-TO-GROUND
Single line-to-ground faults (SLGF’s) on the utility system
are the most common cause of voltage sags in an industrial
plant. The voltage on the faulted phase goes to zero at the fault
location. The voltage at the substation and on parallel feeders
will depend on the distance of the fault from the substation.
On transmission systems, the faulted phase voltage at a remote
location depends on the overall network impedances.
The important quantities for equipment sensitivity are the
voltages at the customer bus. These voltages will depend on the
transformer connections between the faulted system and the
customer bus. For a distribution system fault, the worst case
occurs when the fault is close to the substation bus. Effectively,
this is the same as a fault near the customer transformer
primary (Fig. 5). The voltages on the customer bus will then
be a function of the customer transformer connections, as
indicated in Table I.
The relationships in Table I are very important. One might
think that an SLGF on the primary of a wye groundeddelta
transformer could result in zero voltage across one of the
secondary windings. Instead, circulating fault current in the
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MCGRANAGHAN: VOLTAGE SAGS IN INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS 399

480 Vok
C

U t i l i t y Co.
Source Transformer
Connection lighls. solenoids

J Motor-Acmss Ute
unc Conbol
Adjuotablc Spccd
Fig. 5. Single line-to-ground fault near substation. Drlvc

TABLE I Fig. 6 . Typical single-phase and three-phase loads.

TRANSFORMERSECONDARY WITH AN SLGF ON THE PRIMARY
VOLTAGES
Phase to Phase
Vab Vbc Vca Jab vbc Vca

I v . SENSITIVITY OF EQUIPMENT
TO VOLTAGE SAGS
0.58 1.00 0.58
Industrial plant power is often distributed by three-phase
480 V feeders. The loads can be categorized by type and
connection to the power system (Fig. 6):
I Motors, heating elements, and other three-phase loads can
0.58 1.00 0.58 be connected directly to the 480-V feeders.
Adjustable-speed drive and other power electronic de-
vices that use three-phase power will be connected di-
rectly to the 480-V feeders or through an isolation trans-
former.
0.33 0.88 0.88 Lighting often utilizes single-phase 277-V connections
from phase-to-neutral or may use 480- or 120-V single-
I
phase connections.
Control devices such as computers, contactors, and pro-
0.88 0.88 0.33 grammable logic controllers utilize 4801120-V single-
phase transformers for 120-V control.
The voltages experienced during a voltage sag condition
will depend on the equipment connection. Table I showed that
the individual phase voltages and phase-to-phase voltages are
delta secondary windings results in a voltage on each winding. quite different during an SLGF condition on the transformer
The magnitude of the lowest secondary voltage depends upon primary. Some single phase loads will be unaffected and other
the relationship single phase loads may drop out, even though their sensitivities
to voltage sags may be identical. Voltage unbalance is also
a concern for motor heating. However, the durations of the
unbalanced voltages during fault conditions are so short that
motor heating is not a significant concern.
where Different categories of equipment and even different
brands of equipment within a category (e.g., two different
X , transformer short circuit reactance models of adjustable speed drives) have significantly different
sensitivities to voltage sags. This makes it difficult to develop a
single standard that defines the sensitivity of industrial process
equipment.
XS source equivalent reactance. The closest document to a standard is the CBEMA curve
given in Fig. 7, which was developed by the Computer
For industrial power distribution, the ratio a will usually be Business Manufacturers Association [3]. This applies primarily
very close to unity and the relationships in Table I are for to data processing equipment. The curve shows that the load
this case. sensitivity is very dependent on the duration of the sag.
Even with an SLGF on the primary of the transformer, the Allowable sags range from 0% voltage for 1/2 cycle to only
voltage sag at the customer bus will be no lower than 33% 87% voltage for 30 cycles.
normul value. These faults account for the greater majority of While the CBEMA limits suggest a "standard" sensitivity
faults on the power system. to voltage sags, actual plant equipment has a variety of op-
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400 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 29, NO. 2, MARCWAPRIL 1993

CBEMA
400

300

voltage
in 200
Percent

100

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 0.5 1.0 6 10 30 1000

2s
Time in Cycles (60 Hz)

ANSIIIEEE - Std 446-1987

Typical Design Goals of
Power-Conscious Computer Manufacturers
Fig. 7. CBEMA operating voltage envelope.

erational characteristics during voltage sags. A few examples

are listed here. 100
90
I) Motor Contactors and Electromechanical Relays: One VOLTAGE 80

manufacturer has provided data that indicates their line of

motor contactors will drop out at 50% voltage if the condition
lasts for longer than one cycle. This data should be expected
to vary among manufacturers, and some contactors can drop
out at 70% normal voltage or even higher [4].
2) High-Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps: Mercury lamps
are extinguished at around 80% normal voltage and require
time to restrike [ 5 ] . A voltage sag that extinguishes HID light-
ing is often mistaken as a longer outage by plant personnel.
3) Adjustable Speed Motor Drives (ASD’s): Some drives
are designed to ride through voltage sags. The ride through
time can be anywhere from 0.05 to 0.5 s, obviously depending
on the manufacturer and model. Some models of one
manufacturer monitor the ac line and trip after a voltage sag
to 90% normal is detected for 50 ms.
4 ) Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC’s): This is an
important category of equipment for industrial processes
because the entire process is often under the control of these
devices. The sensitivity to voltage sags varies greatly but
portions of an overall PLC system have been found to be
very sensitive. The remote VO units, for instance, have been
found to trip for voltages as high as 90% for a few cycles [6].
The sensitivity range for these types of equipment is shown
in Fig. 8 with the durations of fault induced voltage sags
also indicated. The wide range of sensitivities underlines the
importance of working with the manufacturer to make sure the
equipment can work in the environment where it will be used
and to develop specifications based on realistic power system
conditions.
It is important to recognize that the entire process in an
industrial plant can depend on the sensitivity of a single piece
of equipment. The overall process involves controls, drives,
(PERCENT 70
NORMAL) ::
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30
TIME (CYCLES)
Fig. 8. Range of equipment sensitivity to voltage sags.
motor contactors, robotics, etc., that are all integral to the
plant operation. This can also make it difficult to identify
the sensitive piece of equipment after the entire process shuts
down.
v. ESTIMATING
THE PROBABILITY
OF A VOLTAGE SAG PROBLEM
The most frequent cause of voltage sags at a large industrial
plant is lightning. Lightning is weather related, and the weather
can be extremely variable from one season to another, or one
year to another. But over longer periods of time, weather will
more closely follow certain pattems.
Activities such as those by the National Lightning Detection
Network are establishing the amount of lightning strokes a
given area will receive over longer periods of time. The
results of this paper report on ground flash density (Ng)
for all areas of the country. The ground flash density is a
measure of lightning strokes to ground per square km per
year. It is more accurate than the previously used isokeraunic
level in determining the expected lightning performance of
transmission lines. Isokeraunic level is the number of days
I
MCGRANAGHAN: VOLTAGE SAGS IN INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS
Plant Voltage vs. Fault Location
Normal Volraoa
100
90 T Area of Vulnerabilily
p - L - t -
0 2600 6000 76W loo00 12600
Distance From Substationto Faun (Feet)
Fig. 9. Voltage sag versus fault location.
per year lightning is heard, and must be multiplied by a
proportionality factor to convert it to ground flash density.
Utilizing geometry of the transmission lines, BIL levels of
the insulators, and ground flash density, the expected number
of faults per km of line per year can be calculated [ 2 ] .
Fortunately not every fault on the utilities’ transmission grid
will disrupt production at the industrial plant. The effect of a
fault on plant equipment depends on the fault clearing time and
the location of the fault. Computer calculations can determine
the plant voltage versus fault location on a distribution system
and curves similar to those in Fig. 9 can be used to illustrate
the range of fault locations that can cause problems.
Factors governing the magnitude and duration of voltage
sags include the fault impedance and location, the configura-
tion of the power network, and the system protective relay
design. Fig. 2 illustrates a relationship between fault location
and voltage sag magnitude, for an example distribution system
(through a wye-delta transformer connection).
Fault clearing time is dependent on the utility company’s
system protection practices. If instantaneous fault clearing is
used, 4-6 cycles is a likely duration of the voltage sag. If an
intentional time delay is used, the duration might be as long
as 15 cycles.
On transmission systems, it is more difficult to determine the
range of fault locations that can result in unacceptable voltage
sags. Computer simulations can be used to determine voltages
around the system for any fault location. These calculations
can be used to define an “area of vulnerability” for a particular
customer (Fig. lo). The likelihood of a fault within this area
can then be calculated.
SOLUTIONS TO VOLTAGE SAG PROBLEMS
VI. EVALUATING
The interruption of an industrial process due to a voltage
sag can result in very substantial costs to the operation. These
costs include lost productivity, labor costs for clean-up and
restart, damaged product, reduced product quality, delays in
delivery, and reduced customer satisfaction.
Proper evaluation of alternatives to improve plant equipment
and the power distribution network requires a cost versus
benefit comparison. For example, once the costs of retrofitting
sensitive process equipment with some method of improv-
ing voltage sag ride through are determined, the benefits
40 1
Area of Vulnerabilib
11W%1 for Senoithn Loads
for Motor Contactors
16ooO
I
I ‘ m
Miles
0 1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 10. Area of vulnerability to transmission system faults for a particular
customer location.
of recovering lost production, material, product quality, and
customer responsiveness must be determined. Experience by
the industrial plant will provide data on production losses for
a given occurrence following a voltage sag. There may even
be a record the number of disruptions due to voltage sags in
the past calendar months or years. If the necessary data exists,
the cost of implementing a solution can be evaluated against
the expected cash flow of recovered production losses.
Solutions to the voltage sag problem must almost always
be implemented in the customer facility. As mentioned pre-
viously, it is possible for the utility to reduce the number of
faults on the system through design practices and additional
equipment, but it is never possible to eliminate faults on the
system. The plant equipment must be designed to handle the
most common voltage sag conditions or be retrofitted with
appropriate power conditioning.
In the long run, the best solution to voltage sag problems
will be to purchase equipment that has the necessary ride
through capability. As manufacturers become increasingly
aware of the need for this capability, it will become more
and more standard in industrial process equipment. Even now,
manufacturers offer new models or simple modifications that
permit extended ride through capability.
Until equipment can handle voltage sags directly, it will
often be necessary to apply power conditioning equipment
for particular sensitive loads. Most voltage sag conditions can
be handled by ferroresonant, or constant voltage, transformers
(CVT’s). CVT’s are especially attractive for loads with rela-
tively low power requirements and loads which are constant.
Variable loads are more of a problem for CVT’s because of
the tuned circuit on the output.
These power conditioners work similar to a transformer
being excited high on its saturation curve, so that the output
voltage is not significantly affected by input voltage variations.
The actual design and construction is more complicated. A
typical ferroresonant circuit is shown in Fig. 11.
Ferroresonant transformers output over 90% normal voltage
as long as the input voltage is above a minimum value, at
which the output collapses to zero voltage. Table I1 shows
402
Windinn
1 can predict the frequency of lightning induced faults, or be
Ncutrrlizing
Winding
I area of vulnerability to disruptive voltage sags.
Fig. 1 1. Typical circuit for a ferroresonant transformer.
TABLE I1
ALLOWABLE
VOLTAGE SAG VERSUS TRANSFORMER
LOADING
FOR FERRORESONANT TRANSFORMERS
~~ ~
Amount of Load Minimum Input Voltage”
1/4 of rating 36 V (30%’of 120 V)
1/2 of rating 55 V (46% of 120 V)
Full loaded 85 V (71% of 120 V)
Voltage collapses, even at full
150% of rating (overloaded)*
input
aIf the input voltage is above the minimum input voltage, the output
voltage will remain in the range of +3 to -6% of normal value. These
transformers are also available with 480-V input.
bInrush current greater than 150% rating will cause the voltage to
collapse. Inductive loads such as contactors require special consideration
to ensure that the transformer has adequate capacity to handle current
inrush rwuirements.
that the minimum input voltage is a function of the load. It is
noteworthy that at 1/4 load, the ferroresonant transformer will
output the necessary voltage even during voltage sags to as
low as 30%. This is important since it is virtually impossible
for an SLGF condition on the utility system to cause a voltage
sag below 30% at the customer bus when the customer is
supplied through a delta-wye or wye-delta transformer.
CVT’s will handle the majority of voltage sag conditions.
Voltage sags which are too severe for CVT’s, such as due
to a three phase fault close to the customer location, or
actual interruptions, could still cause process disruptions.
Protection for extremely critical loads, such as life safety
systems and critical data processing equipment, should in-
clude UPS systems or the equivalent for complete backup
capability.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
1) Voltage sags are becoming an increasing concern of
industrial plants due to increasing automation. Automated
facilities are more difficult to restart, and the electronic con-
trollers used are sometimes more sensitive to voltage sags than
other loads.
2) Single line-to-ground faults on the utility distribution
or transmission system are often the cause of voltage sags.
Lighming is a frequent cause. Evaluation of the lightning
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 29, NO. 2, MARCWAPRIL 1993
performance of transmission and distribution overhead lines
compared to existing performance.
3) A single line-to-ground fault on the primary side of a
distribution transformer will result in a voltage sag to no lower
than 33% of normal voltage on any phase-to-phase connection.
4) The sensitivity of industrial equipment to voltage sags
varies greatly. The more sensitive equipment widens a plant’s
5 ) Constant Voltage Transformers can be applied economi-
cally at constant loads to handle the great majority of voltage
sag conditions. If needed, increased protection for voltage sags
or actual interruptions can be provided in the form of UPS
systems.
REFERENCES
[ I ] L. Tang and M. McGranaghan, “Power quality definitions and standard
terms development,” EPRI, Res. Project RP3098- 1, June 1990.
[2] J. G. Anderson, “Lightning performance in transmission lines,” in EPRI
Transmission Line Reference Book, pp. 545-597.
131 Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby Power for Industrial
and Commercial Applications, IEEE Standard 446-1987.
[4] D. M. Sauter, “Voltage fluctuations on power systems,” in Westinghouse
Electric Utili@ Engineering Reference Book, Distribution Systems, 1965,
p. 362.
[ 5 ] Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for Industrial
Plants, ANSI-IEEE Standard 141-1986.
[6] V. E. Wagner, A. A. Andreshak, and J. P. Staniak, “Power quality and
factory automation,” IAS Annu. Meeting, vol. 35, no. 6, pp. 1391-1396.
Mark F. McGranaghan (M’78) received the
B.S.E.E. and M.S.E.E. degrees from the University
of Toledo in 1977 and 1978, respectively, and the
M.B.A. degree from the University of Pittsburgh in
1985.
He is responsible for development and marketing
of power systems products at Electrotek Concepts
Inc., Knoxville, TN. These products include
hardware and software for power quality analysis,
harmonic analysis, and transient analysis on power
systems. In addition, he manages and performs
studies in the areas of market assessment and power quality analysis. He
has been involved in a wide range of activities dealing with concems for
power quality and the integration of power electronic equipment on the
power system. He has developed and taught harmonics, transients, and power
quality seminars during the past 10 years, and has been actively involved in
rewriting the IEEE Harmonics Standard (5 19.1981). Before joining Electrotek,
he worked in the Systems Engineering Group at McGraw-Edison. There, he
directed work on engineering studies employing both the Transient Network
Analyzer (TNA) and digital computer programs. He has directed studies
for utilities and consultants throughout the United States and in many
foreign countries. His primary study areas were transient analysis, insulation
coordination, harmonic analysis, series capacitor protection, shunt capacitor
switching, SVS applications, flicker analysis, and equipment failure studies.
Mr. McGranaghan is a member of the IEEE Power Engineering Society
and is actively involved in a number of IEEE and CIGRE committees. He
has been chairman of the Switching Surge Working Group and is Chairman
of ANSI-C92 on Insulation Coordination. Currently he is working on revising
IEEE 519-1981 (Harmonic Standard) and is a liaison to the EEI Working
Group on Power Quality.
I
MCGRANAGHAN: VOLTAGE SAGS IN INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS
David R. Mueller (M’91) received the B.S.E.E.
degree from the University of Cincinnati in 1982
and the M.Eng. degree in electric power engineering
from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1990.
He is employed with Electrotek Concepts,
Knoxville, TN, as a Senior Power Systems
Engineer. He has primarily been responsible for
power quality investigations at industrial plants.
He has been responsible for studies to identify
the causes of power system equipment failure, or
the misoperation of process controls due to power
disturbances. He has also conducted several studies involving power factor
correction and harmonic filtering. He has taught several power quality
seminars. Prior to joining Electrotek, he was employed for eight years with
Delco Products Division of General Motors. During his employment with GM,
his assignments included the design and troubleshooting of machine controls,
maintenance, and upgrade of the plant power distribution system, and energy
conservation activities.
Mr. Mueller is a member of the IEEE Industry Applications Society and
is a Registered Professional Engineer.
403
Marek J. Samotyj (M’88) received the B.S. and
M.S. degrees in electrical engineering from Silesian
Polytechnical University, Gliwice, Poland, in 1969
and 1971, respectively, and the M.S. degree in
engineering-economic systems from Stanford Uni-
versity in 1985.
He is Manager of Power Electronics End-Use
Systems in the Power Electronics and Controls
Program, of the Customer Systems Division at the
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) in Palo
Alto. CA. During 1984. he was a Consultant for
Power Electronic Systems at EPRI; he joined the Institute in 1985. He is
responsible for the applications and field testing of adjustable speed drives,
and conducts research in the areas of power quality and end-use magnetic
fields management. Before coming to EPRI, he was a Research Assistant for
the Energy Modeling Forum at Stanford University (1982-1985). From 1980
to 1981, he was a Consulting Member of the Scientific Board of the Future
Research Center at Technical University in Wroclaw, Poland, and a Consultant
for R&D planning strategy with the Commission on the National Economic
Reform in Warsaw, Poland. From 1971 to 1975, he was a Consulting Staff
Engineer and Project Manager for the Polish Ministry of Mining and Energy.
Mr. Samotyj is a member of CIGRE, which is the International Conference
on Large High-Voltage Electric Systems. Currently he is a secretary of the
IEEE Power Quality Standards Coordinating Committee 22. He also actively
participates in C E R E Working Groups on adjustable-speed drives and on
power quality. From 1981 to 1982, he was a Fulbright Senior Scholar and the
Fellow of the Professional Journalism Program at Stanford University.