collating information

☛ objectives :
☛list the ways of collating information
☛explain what is join
☛list & explain types of joins
☛construct joins
☛list & explain set operators

collating information
☛ joins
☛equi-join
☛cartesian join

☛outer join

☛non-equi join

☛self join

☛ set operators
☛union
☛intersection

☛minus

☛ subqueries
☛nested subquery
☛co-related subquery

joins
☛request for data from two or more tables in the database
☛what are joins?

☛the process of forming rows from two or more tables by comparing

the contents of related columns is called joining tables
☛the resulting table, containing data from both of the original tables,

is called a join between tables

☛ guidelines for joins
☛ with joins, you can combine the columns from multiple tables

☛ with joins, as many tables as desired may be joined together

☛ in a join, the tables to be joined are specified in the from clause,

 separated by commas

☛ the where clause specifies how to join or merge the tables together
as well as the search criteria if any

☛ the search criteria can refer to any column of any table joined

☛ the columns from either tables may be named in the select clause

☛ the columns with same name in multiple tables must be uniquely

identified by specifying tablename.columnname

☛ tablename.* is the shortcut to specify all the columns in the table

☛ you can use table aliases while referring to long table names or
tables in self join

joins
☛ types of joins
☛cartesian join
☛equi-join

☛non-equi join

☛outer join

☛self join

cartesian join
☛ cartesian join :
☛if the join clause is omitted i.e. where clause is not specified, a
cartesian join is performed
☛a cartesian product matches every row of the table to every row of

the other table

☛useful in finding out all possible combination of columns from

different tables
☛ example :
☛ select empno, ename, dname, loc from emp, dept ;

equi join
☛ equi join :
 ☛when two tables are joined together using equality of values in one
or more columns, the join is called an equi-join
☛the comparison operator in the join condition is `=’ (i.e. equal to)

☛ examples :
1. list employee number, name, his department and the department
name.
2. list employee name, his department name and the department
location.

outer join
☛ outer join :
☛ if there are any values in one table that do not have corresponding
value(s) in the other, those rows will not be selected in an equi-
join
☛ such rows can be forcefully selected by using the outer join
☛ outer join uses (+) sign
☛ the corresponding columns (from other table) for that row will have
nulls

outer join
☛ outer joins :
☛ left outer join
☛ right outer join

☛ examples :
1. list details of all employees working in each department.
2. list the department information even if no employee belongs to
that department.
example of left outer join
select empno,ename,sal,dept.deptno,dname,loc from emp,dept
where emp.deptno = dept.deptno(+)

select empno,sal,emp.deptno,dname,loc
from emp left outer join dept
on (emp.deptno = dept.deptno);
example of right outer join
select empno,ename,sal,dept.deptno,dname,loc from emp,dept
where emp.deptno(+) = dept.deptno

select empno,sal,emp.deptno,dname,loc
from emp right outer join dept
on (emp.deptno = dept.deptno);

self join
☛ self-join
☛ used to match and retrieve rows that have matching values in
different columns of the same table
☛ a table can be joined to itself as if it were two different tables
☛ to distinguish the column names from one another, the table name
alias is used
☛ example :
☛ list employee number, name, job, his manager’s name, manager’s
job.

select e1.ename || 'works for' || e2.ename

from emp e1, emp e2
where e1.mgr = e2.empno
non-equi join
☛ non-equi join :
☛ the joins which use comparison operators other than `=’
(equals) in defining their criteria are called as non-equi
joins

select empno,sal,grade from emp,salgrade

where emp.sal between salgrade.losal and salgrade.hisal

set operators
☛ set operators combine results of two or more
queries into one result
☛ data types of corresponding columns must be the
same
☛ operators :
☛union
☛intersect

☛minus

union
☛ returns distinct rows of first query plus distinct rows of
second query
☛ multiple queries can be merged together and their results
combined, using union operator
☛ the number of columns in the query must be same and of
the same data type
☛ example :
☛ display different designations in department 20 and 30.

intersect
☛ returns the common rows from all queries
☛ example :
☛ list the jobs common to department 20 and 30.

minus
☛ returns the rows unique to the first query

☛ example :
☛ list the jobs unique to department 20 and not any other
department.