Virtual Reality

Virtual Reality For Robotics
1. INTRODUCTION
Technological breakthroughs have allowed automation to replace many jobs that are repetitive in nature and hazardous to human health, thus replacing human operators in many work environments. However, it has also allowed a new phenomenon to occur: the remote control of physical systems by humans through the mediation of computers. Indeed, there are still many jobs that are non-repetitive, unpredictable and hazardous to humans. Clearing up a nuclear power plant leak or exploring the extreme depths of the ocean are just some examples. Reliance on specially designed automatic machines for such jobs may prove to be inefficient, less flexible and less cost-effective than a human operator is. Therefore, a remote control system by human operators using video inspection and master-slave mechanical manipulation (called tele-operation) is used. Due to the growing popularity and also due to the research in the field of robotics, the days are very near wherein robots will replace all human activities. This project is an effort to simulate a robot, which converts the real time actions into digital signals which in turn is used to produce virtual actions. The software for this project acts as interface between the hardware devices and controller computer. Inputs to the system are taken from sensors which are fitted on the intended part or body. These sensors supply the real-time conditions of the intended body to the computer. The software processes these signals and according to received signal levels it moves the graphical picture on the monitor. That means the virtual movement is created by software part, where as real actions are captured by array of sensors. This project gives an idea of the working of a simple robot and to demonstrate the use, implementation and applications of the virtual reality technology. Here the project is designed using the C and C graphics. This project is connected to the external hardware; simulator accepts the commands from the hardware and accordingly performs the desired task. This project finds various applications in the field of tele-medicine and tele-robotics. The project aims at the C graphics and peripheral interface par. Here the objective is to connect or interface the Image on the PC to the external hardware and also to control the image properties like shape, color and size by operating the external hardware.
Here the project consists of following blocks: 1. Software with C & C-graphics 2. Interface 3. Hardware The software reads the data from the interface, generated from the external hardware and interprets them into suitable image formats. For various data, the project image behaves in a different pre-programmed manner. For example, if the joystick is bent for 45 degrees, the toy image on the computer screen also bends by 45 degree and similar.
1.1 Main features of the project:

1. Economical in nature, simple in design & operation. 2. Highly flexible in nature. The system can be used as a stand-alone unit or a remote interfaced one. 3. Due to the computer interface facility, the system is highly accurate & automatic in nature. 4. Since this system is associated with a PC, it is very easy to store the data, keep track of the parameters & analyze it, for further study of the parameter. 5. Once the system is activated, and set to receive the parameters; the whole project can be used as a computerized data logger system for storing the parameters.
2. PREVIEW OF VIRTUAL REALITY TECHNOLOGY

2.1 Virtual Reality: An Introduction
The term 'Virtual Reality' (VR) was initially coined by Jaron Lanier, founder of VPL Research (1989). Other related terms include 'Artificial Reality' (Myron Krueger, 1970s), 'Cyberspace' (William Gibson, 1984), and, more recently, 'Virtual Worlds' and 'Virtual Environments' (1990s). Today, 'Virtual Reality' is used in a variety of ways and often in a confusing and misleading manner. The virtual reality is a hot theme and is evident in recently released Hollywood films such as Spy Kids series & Spider Man series. This virtual reality concept is out-come of most exciting and challenging field of automation, Artificial Intelligence. As the name implies, the virtual reality concept allows the user to do the work which is hundred fold heavier than the actual one. For example, by moving one small model of Himalayan mountains sitting inside the laboratory one can move the real Himalayan mountain with the help of the machinery situated near it. This seems too aggregated application of virtual reality concept, but it succeeds in showing the power of it.
This concept is clearly understood by taking the Warm Hand project as an example, conducted by US and the Britain universities jointly. These two universities constructed two human hands, using high sensitive materials covered with innumerable sensors around it. These two hands are connected to computer which is connected to internet. The arrangements of both hands is as shown in fig.2.1
Fig 2.1 Depicts warm hand project 3
When any person shakes the hand A situated in US university, it records every change in parameters during the hand-shaking action. Here the parameter means warmth of the hand, pressure applied by the hand-shaker, the grip-level, inclined angle etc. These parameters are sensed by sensitive sensors spread throughout the hand-gloves and stored in memory of computer. This stored data is transmitted quickly to Britain universitys computer via broad band internet connection. There it is again converted back to original signals and fed to hand B. If any body hand-shake the hand B he will feel that the actual person, who is hand-shaking hand A, is hand shaking with him. This project really demonstrates the virtual reality concepts application. Such virtual reality applications finds very important role in saving any life, doing remote works, working with hundred fold bigger than the real capacity machines etc. Let us see some examples, where this killer application can be implemented.
2.2 Tele-Medicine:
Suppose there is only one specialist available in the world, who cannot move around to help or perform operation on patients lying on the death-bed. He can sit in his own hospital, which is having virtual reality facility, and perform the operations on various patients around the world at a time. The doctor will have one model- virtual body, which resembles the human patient, fitted with all the sophisticated sensors around its body. On the other side, the real patient will be kept under another virtual reality facilitated hospital. Here all the parameters of the patient, on whom operation has to be performed, are sensed, stored and sent quickly to doctor via broadband internet connection. The parameters sensed are heart beat, pulse rate, body temperature, body position etc. With the help of these received parameters from real body the virtual body tries to act like it. It means virtual body tries to imitate the real body, which is far away from it. This factor helps the specialist doctor to understand the patients condition and accordingly he can operate on him. This virtual reality concept brings the patient, who is at other corner of the world, to doctors operation table. Doctor can check pulse rate, heart beats, measure body temperature of his virtual body, as if of real body.
Fig 2.2 Picture represents a tele-medicine system Fig 2.2 shows how this tele-medicine system works. Here, a doll and monitor are used as output devices. The output, graphics on the monitor and the doll, reflects the actions of the input devices. eg: Movement of a glove or movement of the different parts of the suit results in the movement of different parts of the doll and the graphics on the monitor.
2.3 Brief about this project:

This virtual reality for robotics project gives the better half of the real virtual reality concept. In this project, number of sensors is connected to a person, as shown in fig 2.3.
Fig 2.3 Picture shows arrangement of the project 5
Here the person standing for demonstration is attached with number of sensors. These sensors are connected to computers CPU via sensor cable bunch. Sensor S1 & S2 are connected to observe shoulder positions, S3 & S4 are used to get the bending action of hands and S5 & S6 sensors are used to watch the movements of legs. In this picture only six sensors are used, and the numbers can be increased or decreased as per ones requirements. The persons picture will be created on the screen of computer using C++/C-graphics language. Whenever the person shows any movement, correspondingly the sensors sense the actions and send them to computer. The C-program sitting inside the computer process the data it received via sensor cable bunch and accordingly instructs C++/Cgraphics language to move the respective parts on the graphical picture. Different actions and their respective movements on screen can be observed.
Fig 2.4 Picture shows a person lifting up his hands Fig 2.4 shows what happens when person lifts his both hands up. The sensors S5 & S6 sense no actions, as the person has not changed his standing position. The sensors S1 & S2, which are normally movement detectors, detects that both hands are lifted up. The sensors fitted on elbow of both hands sends signal to computer that they are intact. Thus processing the entire sensor data, computers software program concludes that person has lifted his both hands up. So C-program thus instructs C+ +/C-graphics program to change the necessary changes on graphical representation of screen. 6
Fig 2.5 Actual virtual reality system of this project Even though this project depicts only half part of the virtual reality concept, it demonstrates how data can be gathered and stored in the local computer. Instead of transmitting it to remote computer for further process, sensed data is used to move the graphical element on the same local computer. It is evident by seeing fig 2.5, that sending the sensed data to remote computer for further processing is not a big deal.
3. BLOCK DIAGRAM
The Virtual Reality for Robotics is built using several blocks. The building blocks and their inter-relation is shown in fig 3.1.
Fig 3.1 Block diagram of hardware unit
Explanation of the block diagram:
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This project has number of sensors/transducers connected across the intended body [to whole body, like in EEG scanning or parts only, like hands or legs to observe the particular parts movement] to sense the activity of it. As soon any sensor senses any changes in its current situation it sends message to its respective instrumentation amplifier. The instrumentation amplifier amplifies received weak signal to sufficient level and feeds it in to an ADC. This ADC or analog-to-digital converter, converts the input analog signals to digital one, so that further sections can process them easily. The output of ADC is fed to buffer section, where unit gain amplification is done and also provides proper impedance matching between I/O interface and ADC. The computer, brain of this project, receives these signals and with the help of software module gives out the output. Here the software module produces the output in graphical form. The block diagram is explained by taking each block separately.
Sensor Block: This block contains number of sensors or transducers spread across the
intended body. Several types of sensors are used in this block as per ones requirements, such as tactile switches are used to sense the bending of arms and ankles and micro-switches or sliding potentiometers are used to sense the movement of hands & legs or any body part. These weak sensed signals are given to instrumentation amplifier block for further amplification.
Instrumentation Amplifier Block: The output of sensor will be very feeble to drive any
further sections. So some kind of amplification is needed before utilizing that sensed signals. This amplification is done using reliable amplifier circuit called instrumentation amplifier. This amplifier, as the name implies, is specially used in instrumentation field to amplify weak sensed field signals from various sensors spread all over the area [for example in industries several sensors will be fitted to check so many parameters viz., speed of motor, motion of conveyor belt, level of material in storing silos etc.,].
ADC: The conversion of analog signals received from instrumentation amplifier block is
done using this ADC block. The analog-to-digital converter block converts any input signals, which are in analog form into digital form. This is necessary as the computer can understand
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only digital data and process them. The output of ADC is given to I/O interface block, through buffer stage, to pass the signals from ADC to computer.
I/O Interface: This stage receives boosted sensed signals from buffer and fed to computer
port for further processing. This stage also sees that signal level should be compatible with TTL signal of computer port.
Personal Computer: The brain of this project is the computer. With the help of interfacing
software module the computer processes the sensed signals and gives out the output in graphical form.
Software Module: The software module is responsible for producing the graphical output
on computers screen, which depends on the received sensed signal levels. This core software [i.e., receiving the sensed signal level] is written in popular language C and its graphics part is in C graphics and C++.
Power Supply Unit: This specially designed power supply provides +12 V for op-amp,
relay & driver stage and +5V for rest of the digital & analog circuits.
4. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
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The circuit construction of this Virtual Reality for Robotics project is divided into these parts: Sensors block, Instrumentation block, ADC, I/O interface stage & finally power supply unit.
4.1 SENSORS BLOCK

This block holds all the sensors used in the project in one place. Depending upon the requirement, different types of sensors or transducers are used. Before going to block explanation, first let us see what is sensor or transducer and where it is used.
Transducer: The transducer, also known as a sensor, is a device which converts physical
parameters to be measured, viz., pressure, temperature, movements etc, into a corresponding quantity. If the transducer converts physical quantity to useful electronic signals, such as voltage and current analogous, then it is an electrical transducer.
Temperature Transducers: Electronic measurement of temperature is of vital concern in

modern industrial practice. Hence a wide range of devices has been developed to serve as temperature transducer. Some of the important temperature transducers are: thermistors, thermocouples, piezoelectric crystals etc.
Optical Sensors: It converts light that falls on it into electronic signals. Optoelectronic
devices such as Light Emitting Diodes [LEDs] can generate electromagnetic energy while other devices such as Light Dependent Resistors [LDRs] can sense visible light energy. Visible light occupies the range from about 400nm to 600nm. Although various types of optical sensor are available, for general purpose applications LDRs are employed. The 1M rated typical LDR exhibits a resistance which varies from 400 under bright room lighting [1000 lux] to as great as 1M in total darkness. The spectral response peaks at about 550nm and falls rapidly below 500nm and above 650nm. Thus this optical sensor is useful in light sensing equipment and illumination level sensing applications generally.
Sound Sensors: Electronic devices such as loud speakers can generate electromagnetic
energy while other devices such as condenser microphones can sense audible energy. Audible frequency range is from about 300Hz to 3000Hz. Although various types of sound sensors
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are available, for general purpose applications microphones are employed. This sound sensor is useful in listening bug or listening amplifier circuits.
Movement Detectors: The sensor which detects the movement or change of position of
the fitted body/part and sends message in electronic signal form is called movement detectors. Usually tactile switches, reed relays or slider potentiometers are used for detecting the movements.
Circuit Description: As the circuit in fig 4.1 shows, the project allows any number of
sensors to use, as per ones requirements. To detect the bending of arms and ankles movement detectors can be used. To detect the movements of legs and hands or any other body part sliding potentiometers can be used. The use of sensors or transducers is purely based on ones individual requirements. This sensor block brings all sensor terminals to one common point. From here, each sensor is connected to individual instrumentation amplifier circuits as input signal.
Fig 4.1 Circuit diagram of sensor block
4.2 INSTRUMENTATION BLOCK
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This block amplifies the sensed signals to sufficient level and fed to ADC card for further processing. The present circuit shows only one instrumentation amplifier stage, which takes input signal from any type of sensor. This circuit can be used for any type of sensor which needs amplification. Note that each sensor needs one instrumentation amplifier, like this one. Before explaining the actual circuit, let us see some terms and their definitions in detail.
Amplifier: A common theme in many electronic circuits is the need to increase the level of
voltage, current, or power present. This need is satisfied by some form of amplifier. The important parameters regarding the amplifier circuit designing are gain, input impedance, output impedance, frequency response, bandwidth, phase shift, and efficiency. Not all of the above characteristics or parameters will be important in any given application. An essential first stage in designing an amplifier will be to select those characteristics which are important and then specify the parameters required.
Instrumentation Amplifiers: The low-level signal outputs of electrical transducers often

need to be amplified before further processing; this is carried out with instrumentation amplifier. These are also used to provide impedance matching and isolation. Instrumentation amplifiers or differential amplifiers are specifically designed to extract and amplify small differential signals from much larger common mode voltages. To serve as building blocks in instrumentation amplifiers, op-amps must have very low offset voltage drift, high gain and wide bandwidth. The popular ICs used to build instrumentation amplifiers are LM324 and UA 741. An instrumentation amplifier is a committed gain block that measures the difference between the voltage existing at its two input terminals, amplifies it by a precisely set gain, usually from 1v to 100v and more causes the result to appear between a pair of terminals in the output circuit. An ideal instrumentation amplifier responds only to the difference between the input voltages. If the input voltage is equal the output of the ideal instrumentation amplifier will be zero. An amplifier circuit which is optimized for performance as an instrumentation-amplifier gain block has high input impedance, low offset and drift, low non-linearity, stable gain and low effective output impedance. It is commonly used for applications which capitalize on these advantages. Examples include: transducer, amplification for thermocouples, strain-gauge bridges, current shunts and biological probes, pre-amplification of small differential signals super imposed on high common-mode 15
voltages, signal conditioning and (moderate) isolation for data acquisition signals wherever the common ground is noisy or of questionable integrity.
The instrumentation amplifier is used where it is desirable to eliminate the d.c. path from the signal input to amplifier ground, i.e., to isolate the signal from ground. It has its signal input circuit-isolated from the signal output and power input circuits. Such amplifiers are used: When low-level signals are processed on top of high common-mode voltages; possibilities exist of troublesome ground disturbances and ground loops, where patient isolation is required, systems operate in noisy environments and processing circuitry must be protected in case of fault conditions. The primary features of instrumentation amplifier are, inherent protection from high-voltage differences between input and output ports and between high and low input terminals. High rejection of noise as well as a.c., d.c. and transient signals common to both input terminals. And very high impedance leakage with a 50Hz, 120V input to output ports. Instrumentation-amplifiers are usually chosen in preference to user-assembled op-amp circuitry. If the application calls for high common-mode voltages (typically, voltages in excess of the amplifier supply voltage), or if isolation impedance must be very high, the designer should consider an isolation amplifier. Instrumentation amplifiers have two high impedance input terminals, a set of terminals for gain programming an output terminal and a pair of feedback terminals, labeled sense and reference, as well as terminals for power supply and offset trim. The selection of an instrumentation amplifier may fall into one of the three categories: industrial, instrumentation and medical. The instrumentation application or data acquisition process may not necessarily involve the extreme hazards of medical or industrial applications, but the precision requires demand loops and offer better common-moderejection than conventional data amplifiers. High accuracy performance with low level transducer signals can be enhanced by choosing an amplifier with isolated power available for a low-drift signal conditioning pre-amplifier. In medical monitoring applications amplifiers must first and foremost protect the patient from leakage current and amplifier fault currents. This applies to both input protection and input/output isolation.
Circuit Description:
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Fig 4.2 shows, a simple module where the main circuit needs the transducer which gives the varying voltage levels with respect to varying input signals. The heart of this module is an op-amp CA 3140 whose gain is very high. Thus the small level of information will be easily picked and amplified to required level by it. The op-amp is in unity gain noninverting voltage amplifier mode. This voltage follower configuration employs cent percent voltage negative feedback and combines a very high input resistance with a very low output resistance. As the operation of this circuit is analogous, the sensors sensed signal is carried away to the next stage easily.
Fig 4.2 Instrumentation Amplifier The sensor is connected at non-inverting input pin-3 and output is observed at pin-6. To stabilize the sensed signals by sensor, two biasing resistors [R1 & R2] arrangement is done. As the parameter [i.e., movement, bending etc] increases in the vicinity of sensor the output goes on increasing. This output signal is further amplified and fed to ADC circuit for conversion. The table 4.1 shows various components used in the amplifier circuit.
Table 4.1 Components List:
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SEMICONDUCTORS IC1 RESISTORS R1 R2 MISCELLANEOUS C1 Sensor 47 F/ 25 V Electrolytic LM 335 Temperature Sensor 1 1 5.6 K Ohm, Watt Carbon Type 3.9 k Ohm, Watt Carbon Type 3 1 3140 Op-Amp IC 1
4.3 Analog to Digital Converter:

The A\D conversion is a quantizing process whereby an analog signal is represented by equivalent binary states; this is opposite to the D\A conversion process. Analog-to-Digital converters can be classified into two general groups based on the conversion technique. One technique involves comparing a given analog signal with the internally generated equivalent signal. This group includes successive-approximation, counter and flash-type converters. The second technique involves changing an analog signal into time or frequency and comparing these new parameters to know values. This group includes integrator converters and voltageto-frequency converters. The trade-off between the two techniques is based on accuracy vs. speed. The successive-approximation and the flash type are faster but generally less accurate than the integrator and the voltage-to-frequency type converters. In A/D conversion, another critical parameter is conversion time. This is defined as the total time required to convert an analog signal into its digital output and is determined by the conversion technique used and by the propagation delay in various circuits. The successive-approximation A/D converters are used in applications such as data loggers and instrumentation, where conversions speed is important. On the other hand, integrating-type converters are used in applications such as digital meters, panel meters, and monitoring systems, where the conversion accuracy is critical.
BASIC CONCEPTS
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Fig 4.3 shows a block diagram of a 3-bit A/D converter. It has one input line for an analog signal and three output lines for digital signals.
Fig 4.3 3-bit A/D converter Fig 4.4 shows the graph of the analog input voltage (0 to 1V) and the corresponding digital output signal. It shows eight (23) discrete output states from 0002 to 1112, each step being 1/8 V apart. This is defined as the resolution of the converter. In A/D conversion, another critical parameter is conversion time. This is defined as the total time required to convert an analog signal into its digital output and is determined by the conversion technique used and by the propagation delay in various circuits.
Fig 4.4 Graph of analog to digital conversion
Circuit Description:
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This 8-bit analog to digital converter is built around industry standard AD 0809 from National Semiconductors. This 28-pin DIL packaged IC contains an 8 channel analog multiplexer and can directly interface up to 8 analog inputs in the range 0 to 5V. It has a small conversion time, as 100 micro seconds with 15mW power consumption. This ADC interface consists of a NOR gate crystal oscillator, a CMOS clock divider which feeds 768 kHz as the input clock to the ADC [at pin-10]. This stage is performed with the help of U1, U2 and a quartz crystal. The usually available supply voltage +12V is step-downed to +5V, a working voltage of AD 0809 and fed to U4s Vcc pin 11. This regulation is achieved by 10-pin [TO packaged] regulator IC 723 [U5] with current limiting zener diode D1. The stable 5V reference by LM 336 and an op-amp U6 in reference & buffer provider mode gives the Ref+ at pin-12. Multiturn cermet [R18] allows adjustment of the reference voltage. The channel select, ALE, start conversion and output enable lines are interfaced through port lines. The ADC IC provides three channels PB0, PB1 and PB2 to the user to select for his operation. The PB5 line provides Address Latch Enable [ALE} signal to hold the present address. The PB6 signal line asks ADC IC to start conversion either in polled mode or interrupt mode. And the PB7 is input enable signal line.
4.4 RS232 Board Interface Section

Fig 4.5 shows the RS232 board interface section, which uses a MAX232 5V to RS232 converter chip, this converts the 0-5V TTL levels at the ATMEL 89C51 pins to the +12V/-12V levels used in RS232 links. As is common with these devices it inverts the data during the conversion, the ATMEL 89C51 USART hardware is designed to take account of this but for software serial communications you need to make sure that you invert both the incoming and outgoing data bits. The two closed links on the RC7 and RC6 lines are for connection to the Atmel 89C51 board, and are the two top wire links shown on the top view of the board below. The two open links on the RC1 and RC2 lines are for the 16F628 board
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(the 16F628 uses RB1 and RB2 for its USART connection), and are the two top track breaks shown on the bottom view of the board below.
Fig 4.5 RS232 Interfacing Circuit Diagram
So, for use with the Atmel 89C51 board fit the top two wire links, and cut the top two tracks shown, for the 16F628 leave the top two links out, and don't cut the two top track breaks. This only applies if you are using the hardware USART, for software serial communications you can use any pins you like. Although it's labeled as connecting to port 1 for the Atmel 89C51 processor board, it can also be connected to other ports if required, and if not using the hardware USART.
4.5 Power supply

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Circuit description:
As shown in fig 4.6, a d.c. power supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of a.c. mains fluctuations or load variations is known as regulated d.c. power supply. It is also referred as full-wave regulated power supply as it uses four diodes in bridge fashion with the transformer. This laboratory power supply offers excellent line and load regulation and output voltages of +5V & +12V at output currents up to one amp. The components used are listed in table 4.2.
1. Step-down Transformer: The transformer rating is 230V AC at Primary and 12-012V, 1A across secondary winding. This transformer has a capability to deliver a current of 1A, which is more than enough to drive an electronic circuit or varying load. The 12V AC appearing across the secondary is the RMS value of the waveform and the peak value would be 12 x 1.414 = 16.8 volts. This value limits our choice of rectifier diode as 1N4007, which is having PIV rating more than 16Volts.
2. Rectifier Stage: The two diodes D1 & D2 are connected across the secondary winding
of the transformer as a full-wave rectifier. During the positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the end A of the secondary winding becomes positive and end B negative. This makes the diode D1 forward biased and diode D2 reverse biased. Therefore diode D1 conducts while diode D2 does not. During the negative half-cycle, end A of the secondary winding becomes negative and end B positive. Therefore diode D2 conducts while diode D1 does not. Note that current across the centre tap terminal is in the same direction for both half-cycles of input a.c. voltage. Therefore, pulsating d.c. is obtained at point C with respect to ground.
3. Filter Stage: Here capacitor C1 is used for filtering purpose and connected across the
rectifier output. It filters the a.c. components present in the rectified d.c. and gives steady d.c. voltage. As the rectifier voltage increases, it charges the capacitor and also supplies current to the load. When capacitor is charged to the peak value of the rectifier voltage, rectifier voltage starts to decrease. As the next voltage peak immediately recharges the capacitor, the discharge period is of very small duration. Due to this continuous charge-discharge-recharge cycle very little ripple is observed in the filtered output. Moreover, output voltage is higher as it remains substantially near the peak value of rectifier output voltage. This phenomenon is 22
also explained in other form as: the shunt capacitor offers a low reactance path to the a.c. components of current and open circuit to d.c. component. During positive half cycle the capacitor stores energy in the form of electrostatic field. During negative half cycle, the filter capacitor releases stored energy to the load.
Fig 4.6 Circuit diagram of +5V & +12V full wave regulated power supply Table 4.2 Components List
SEMICONDUCTORS IC1 IC2 D1& D2 CAPACITORS C1 C2 MISCELLANEOUS X1
7812 Regulator IC 7805 Regulator IC 1N4007 Rectifier Diodes
1 1 2
1000 f/25V Electrolytic 0.1F Ceramic Disc type
1 1
230V AC Pri,14-0-14 1Amp Sec Transformer
4. Voltage Regulation Stage: Across the point D and Ground there is rectified and
filtered d.c. In the present circuit KIA 7812 three terminal voltage regulator IC is used to get +12V and KIA 7805 voltage regulator IC is used to get +5V regulated d.c. output. In the 23
three terminals, pin 1 is input i.e., rectified & filtered d.c. is connected to this pin. Pin 2 is common pin and is grounded. The pin 3 gives the stabilized d.c. output to the load. The circuit shows two more decoupling capacitors C2 & C3, which provides ground path to the high frequency noise signals. Across the point E and F with respect to ground +5V & +12V stabilized or regulated d.c output is measured, which can be connected to the required circuit.
4.6
Astable multivibrator using 555-Timer

Fig 4.5 shows an Astable Multivibrator which is a square-wave generator. It is also a
free-running multivibrator, because it does not require an external trigger pulse to change its output. The output continuously alternates between high and low states. The time for which the output remains at high or low is determined by two timing resistors and a timing capacitor that are externally connected to the 555 timer. Since the circuit does not stay permanently in any of the two states it is known as, astable meaning no stable state.
Fig 4.5.Astable Multivibrator
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Fig 4.6 shows the 555 Timer connected as an astable multivibrator. In this circuit there are two timing resistors Ra and Rb. Both the trigger and threshold inputs (pins 2 and 6) of the two comparators are shorted and connected to the external timing capacitor C. as a consequence, the circuit will trigger itself continuously.
Fig 4.6 Circuit diagram with internal blocks shown The astable operation can be understood by the waveforms of fig4.7. Assume initially the 555 timer output is in the high state and the capacitor C is uncharged. The control flipflop output is now at Low with Q=0. The discharge transistor Q1 is off and capacitor C starts charging towards Vcc through Ra and Rb. When the capacitor voltage rises above 2/3 Vcc, it causes the comparator 1 output to go High and comparator output 2 to go Low. Hence, the control flip-flop output is set to high, with Q=1 and the timer output is forced to low state. Consequently, the discharge transistor Q1 is turned ON connecting upper end of Rb to ground. The capacitor C now discharges through Rb towards 0V. When the capacitor voltage drops below 1/3 Vcc the output of the comparator 2 goes to high and that of the comparator 1 to low. As a result, the 25
output of the control flip-flop resets to Low state with Q=0 and the timer output goes to high state. In effect, the discharge transistor Q1 is turned OFF and the capacitor C charges again towards 2/3 Vcc. This cycle of capacitor charging from 1/3 Vcc to 2/3 Vcc and then discharging from 2/3 Vcc to 1/3 Vcc repeats continually producing a square-wave output.
Fig 4.7 Timing Diagram Ton = 0.693(Ra+Rb) C Toff = 0.693 Rb C f = 1/T = 1.44/ (Ra+2Rb) C Duty Cycle, D = Ton / T D= Ra+Rb/Ra+2Rb where, Ton is the on-time during which the capacitor charges. Toff is the off-time during which the capacitor discharges. f is the output frequency. T is the total time period. D is the Duty cycle of the output pulses generated.
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5. Software Description
5.1 Flowchart
The flowchart of the program is shown in fig 5.1. In brief the program works as explained below. When the program is executed, the initgraph function is called. It initializes the graphics system. Then the function doll is executed. Then signals are read from the hardware device. This device acts as an input device. It has 8 channels of input (numbered from 0 to 7) and each channel can vary its input signal from 0 to 255. Depending upon the channel selected the image on the screen shows movements. If channel 0 is selected then the left hand of the image shows movement. The amount of movement depends upon the signal i.e. its range from 0 to 255. If channel 1 is selected then the right hand of the image shows movement. The amount of movement depends upon the signal i.e. its range from 0 to 255. If channel 2 is selected then the left leg of the image shows movement. The amount of movement depends upon the signal i.e. its range from 0 to 255. If channel 3 is selected then the right leg of the image shows movement. The amount of movement depends upon the signal i.e. its range from 0 to 255.By varying the signals of channel 4, right forearms of the image can be moved respectively.
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START
INITGRAPH DOLL
WHILE (! KBHIT)
SIGNALS FROM HARDWARE SIGNA L = 0

HAND MOVEMENT (LEFT ARM)
SIGNA L = 1
HAND MOVEMENT (RIGHT ARM)
SIGNA L = 2
LEG MOVEMENT (LEFT LEG)
SIGNA L = 3 SIGNA L = 4
HAND MOVEMENT (RIGHT LEG)
HAND MOVEMENT (RIGHT ARM)
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Fig 5.1 Flowchart for the program
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5.2 Program ADC 0809

#include<stdio.h> #include <at89x51.h> sfr port2 = 0xa0; sfr port1 = 0x90; sfr port3 = 0xb0; sbit rd = port3 ^ 0; sbit wr = port3 ^ 1; sbit intr = port3 ^ 2; main() { char val; port2 = 0xff; port3 = 0xff; while(1) { wr = 0; rd = 1; wr = 1; intr = 1; while ( intr == 0 ) ; rd = 0; val = port2; //port3 = val; if ( val > 0x05 && val < 0x16 ) port1 = 0x01; else if ( val > 0x16 && val < 0x32 ) port1 = 0x02; else if ( val > 0x32 && val < 0x128 ) port1 = 0x04; else if ( val > 0x128 && val < 0xff ) port1 = 0x08; rd = 1; } }
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5.3 C Program:
#include <stdio.h> #include <alloc.h> #include <conio.h> #include <graphics.h> #include <math.h> #include <dos.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <bios.h> #define COM 0 #define DATA_READY 0x100 #define TRUE 1 #define FALSE 0 #define SETTINGS ( _COM_9600 | _COM_NOPARITY | _COM_STOP1 | _COM_CHR8) void doll(void); void face(void); void shirt(); void hand_movement(int,int,int,int,int); void leg_movement(int,int,int,int); void pant(void); void lhand(int,int,int); void rhand(int,int,int); void lleg(int,int,int,int,int); void rleg(int,int,int,int,int); void movelhand(int,int,int,int [500][2]); void moverhand(int,int,int,int [500][2]); int gd=DETECT,gm,a[20]; int x=300,y=100; static int lh11[500][2],lh12[500][2],lh21[500][2],lh22[500][2], rh11[500][2],rh12[500][2],rh21[500][2],rh22[500][2], rl11[500][2],rl12[500][2],rl21[500][2],rl22[500][2], ll11[500][2],ll12[500][2],ll21[500][2],ll22[500][2], le11[500][2],le12[500][2],le21[500][2],le22[500][2], re11[500][2],re12[500][2],re21[500][2],re22[500][2], r1=115,r2=105,r3=150,r4=117,q; float r[3][3],b[3][1],c[3][1],p[10]; /* Declaring global variables */
int Rx_Data(void); float value[8]; int ix,j,status; int CH_No,DataL,DataH,Data;
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void main(void) { char c,*area; int i=10,input=0,ip0=0,ip1=0,ip2=0,ip3=0,ip4=0,ip5=0,ip6=0,ip7=0, temp1=0,temp2=0,temp3=0,temp4=0,size,flag1=0,flag2=0; initgraph(&gd,&gm," "); cleardevice(); //outportb(0x303,0x91); movelhand(x-71,y+78,r1,lh11); /* hands */ movelhand(x-50,y+100,r2,lh12); moverhand(x+70,y+78,r1,rh11); moverhand(x+50,y+100,r2,rh12);
movelhand(x-71,y+78,r1-8,lh21); /* hands */ movelhand(x-50,y+100,r2+8,lh22); moverhand(x+70,y+78,r1-8,rh21); moverhand(x+50,y+100,r2+8,rh22); moverhand(x+41,y+198,r3,rl11); movelhand(x-41,y+198,r3,ll11); moverhand(x,y+231,r4,rl12); movelhand(x,y+231,r4,ll12); moverhand(x+41,y+198,r3-8,rl21); movelhand(x-41,y+198,r3-8,ll21); moverhand(x,y+231,r4+8,rl22); movelhand(x,y+231,r4+8,ll22); /* legs */
/* legs */
movelhand(x-71,y+78,r1/2,le11); /* elbow */ movelhand(x-50,y+100,r2/2,le12); /* left */ movelhand(x-71,y+78,r1/3-5,le21); movelhand(x-50,y+100,r2/2+5,le22); moverhand(x+71,y+78,r1/2,re11); /* elbow */ moverhand(x+50,y+100,r2/2,re12); /* right */ moverhand(x+71,y+78,r1/3-5,re21); moverhand(x+50,y+100,r2/2+5,re22); doll(); size = imagesize(180,0,400,380); area = malloc(size); getimage(180,0,400,380,area); while(!kbhit()) 32
{ bioscom(_COM_INIT, SETTINGS, COM); outportb( (0x2F8+0x02),0x07 ); // Enable FIFO Buffer // 0x2F8 for COM2 // 0x3F8 for COM1 status = bioscom(_COM_STATUS, 0, COM ); // If any previous unwanted if (status & DATA_READY) // data has been received bioscom(_COM_RECEIVE, 0, COM ); // the read it bioscom( _COM_SEND, 'D' , COM ); for ( ix=0;ix<10;ix++) { status = bioscom(_COM_STATUS, 0, COM ); if (status & DATA_READY) { j = bioscom(_COM_RECEIVE, 0, COM ); goto skip1; } delay (500); } goto skip2; skip1: if ( j == 'D' ) goto skip3; skip2: printf("\nSystem not ready \n"); skip3: ix= 1; for ( CH_No = 0; CH_No <= 7 ; CH_No++) { bioscom( _COM_SEND, CH_No+0x30 , COM ); // Send CH_No in Ascii delay(10); Rx_Data(); switch(CH_No) { case 0 : if(ip6==0) ip0=value[CH_No]*36; break; case 1 : if(ip6==0) ip1=value[CH_No]*36; break; case 2 : if(ip6==0) { if(ip2 != value[CH_No]*50) { setfillstyle(1,BLACK); bar(x-3,y+281,x,y+325); bar(x-45,y+281,x-41,y+324); // putimage(180,value[CH_No]*51*.16,area,0); 33 // Send the Device Check command
leg_movement(ip2*0.2+5,BLACK,1,0); leg_movement(value[CH_No]*50*0.2+5,WHITE,1,0); ip2=value[CH_No]*50; } } break; case 3 : if(ip6==0) { if(ip3 != value[CH_No]*50) { setfillstyle(1,BLACK); bar(x,y+281,x+3,y+325); bar(x+41,y+281,x+44,y+324); // putimage(180,value[CH_No]*51*.16,area,0); leg_movement(ip3*0.2+5,BLACK,0,1); leg_movement(value[CH_No]*50*.2+5,WHITE,0,1); ip3=value[CH_No]*50; } } break; case 4 : if(ip6==0) ip4=value[CH_No]*51; break; case 5 : if(ip6 == 0) if ( value[CH_No] > 3.33 ) ip5=value[CH_No]*51; else ip5 = 0; break; } if((ip1 != temp1) || (ip4 != temp2)) { if(flag1) hand_movement(0*.79+10,0*.18,BLACK,0,1); else hand_movement(temp1*.79+10,temp2*.18,BLACK,0,1); hand_movement(ip1*.79+10,ip4*.18 ,WHITE,0,1); temp1=ip1;temp2=ip4;flag1=0; } if(ip5>=150) { ip0=150;ip4=180; 34
} if((ip0 != temp3) || (ip5 != temp4)) { if(flag2) hand_movement(0*.79+10,0*.18,BLACK,1,0); else hand_movement(temp3*.79+10,temp4*.18,BLACK,1,0); hand_movement(ip0*.79+10,ip5*.18 ,WHITE,1,0); temp3=ip0;temp4=ip5;flag2=0; } ip4=0; } ix++; } closegraph(); } /* function DOLL */
void doll() { face(); shirt(); pant(); hand_movement(10,0,WHITE,1,1); leg_movement(5,WHITE,1,1); } /* face */ void face() { setcolor(16); setfillstyle(1,13); fillellipse(x,y,30,50); /* Face */ setcolor(13); sector(x-30,y,0,360,5,10); /* Ear-left */ sector(x+30,y,0,360,5,10); /* Ear-right */ setcolor(16); ellipse(x-30,y,120,240,3,8); /* ear-left */ ellipse(x+30,y,300,60,3,8); /* ear-right */ setfillstyle(1,15); fillellipse(x-15,y-5,7,3); /* Eye-left */ fillellipse(x+15,y-5,7,3); /* Eye-right */ setfillstyle(1,16); fillellipse(x-15,y-5,3,3); /* Eye Ball - left */ fillellipse(x+15,y-5,3,3); /* Eye Ball - right */ setfillstyle(1,RED); ellipse(x,y+30,180,0,10,5); /* mouth */ ellipse(x,y+25,210,330,15,7); /* mouth */ floodfill(x,y+34,BLACK); /* mouth */ 35
ellipse(x+30,y+25,185,205,18,15); /* mouth - right arc */ ellipse(x-30,y+25,338,358,18,15); /* mouth - left arc */ line(x,y+3,x-6,y+19); /* nose */ line(x,y+3,x+6,y+19); /* nose */ fillellipse(x+3,y+19,3,1); /* nose */ fillellipse(x-3,y+19,3,1); /* nose */ setfillstyle(1,BLUE); fillellipse(x,y-25,40,10); /* Hat - lower ellipse */ setcolor(BLUE); a[0]=a[6]=x-30;a[1]=a[3]=y-25; /* Hat - poly values */ a[2]=a[4]=x+30;a[5]=a[7]=y-60; /* Hat - poly values */ fillpoly(4,a); /* Hat - poly */ setcolor(16); fillellipse(x,y-60,30,10); /* Hat - upper ellipse */ setlinestyle(0,1,3); ellipse(x-15,y-5,50,130,12,8); /* Eyebrow - left */ ellipse(x+15,y-5,50,130,12,8); /* Eyebrow - right */ a[0]=a[6]=x-12;a[1]=a[3]=y+45; /* Neck - poly values */ a[2]=a[4]=x+13;a[5]=a[7]=y+60; /* Neck - poly values */ setfillstyle(1,13); setlinestyle(0,1,1); setcolor(13); fillpoly(4,a); /* Neck */ setcolor(15); } void shirt() { setcolor(WHITE); ellipse(x,y+80,6,172,70,20); /* shoulder */ ellipse(x-60,y+170,340,85,20,75); /* hips-left */ ellipse(x+60,y+170,95,202,20,75); /* hips-right */ line(x-41,y+196,x+42,y+196); /* vest line */ setfillstyle(9,BLUE); setcolor(WHITE); line(x-70,y+78,x-55,y+100); line(x+70,y+78,x+55,y+100); a[0]=a[6]=a[12]=x;a[5]=a[11]=y+100; a[1]=a[7]=a[13]=y+90;a[4]=x-10; a[2]=x-20; a[3]=a[9]=a[15]=y+60; a[8]=a[14]=x+20;a[10]=x+10; fillpoly(8,a); setfillstyle(1,13); floodfill(x,y+80,WHITE);
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setcolor(WHITE); line(x-41,y+185,x+42,y+185); setfillstyle(1,7); floodfill(x-38,y+190,WHITE); setcolor(RED); setfillstyle(1,RED); fillellipse(x,y+190,10,4); setcolor(13); ellipse(x,y+80,75,105,70,20); setcolor(WHITE); setfillstyle(9,BLUE); floodfill(x-60,y+80,WHITE); setfillstyle(1,7); setcolor(7); fillellipse(x,y+95,3,3); fillellipse(x,y+125,3,3); fillellipse(x,y+155,3,3); fillellipse(x,y+180,3,3); } /* belt */
/*
belt
*/
/* button */ /* button */ /* button */ /* button */
/* Function hand_movement */ void hand_movement(int w,int j,int color,int l,int r) { setcolor(WHITE); line(x-70,y+78,x-55,y+100); line(x+70,y+78,x+55,y+100); ellipse(x,y+80,120,172,70,20); ellipse(x,y+80,6,70,70,20); ellipse(x-60,y+170,340,85,20,75); /* ellipse(x+60,y+170,95,202,20,75); /* hips-left */ hips-right */
if(color==BLACK) { setfillstyle(9,BLACK); if(l) { floodfill(x-70,y+85,WHITE); if((w<160)&&(w>120)) floodfill((p[0]+p[2])/2+5,(p[1]+p[3])/2,WHITE); else if(!q) floodfill((p[0]+p[2])/2,(p[1]+p[3])/2-5,WHITE); else floodfill((p[0]+p[2])/2,(p[1]+p[3])/2+5,WHITE); 37
} if(r) { floodfill(x+70,y+85,WHITE); floodfill((re11[w][0]+rh11[w][0])/2-5,(re11[w][1]+rh11[w][1])/2+5,WHITE); } } if(w<=140) { if(w==140) { setcolor(BLACK); } q=0; setcolor(color); if(l) lhand(color,w,j); if(r) rhand(color,w,j); } else { if(w==142) { setcolor(BLACK); } q=1; setcolor(color); if(l) lhand(color,w,j); if(r) rhand(color,w,j); } if(color==WHITE) { setfillstyle(9,BLUE); if(l) { floodfill(x-70,y+85,WHITE);
floodfill((p[0]+p[2])/2,(p[1]+p[3])/2-5,WHITE); floodfill(le11[w][0],le11[w][1]+5,WHITE); } if(r) { 38
floodfill(x+70,y+85,WHITE); floodfill((re11[w][0]+rh11[w][0])/2-5,(re11[w][1]+rh11[w][1])/2+5,WHITE); } } } /* moving hand co-ordinates - left */ void movelhand(int xc ,int yc ,int r,int b[400][2]) { float th,x,y,i=0; for(th=0;th<=180;th+=.5,++i) { x = r*cos((th*3.142)/180); y = r*sin((th*3.142)/180); b[i][0] = xc-y; b[i][1] = yc+x; } } /* moving hand co-ordinates - right */ void moverhand(int xc ,int yc ,int r,int b[400][2]) { float x,y,i=0,th; for(th=0;th<=180;++i,th+=.5) { x = r*cos((th*3.142)/180); y = r*sin((th*3.142)/180); b[i][0] = xc+y; b[i][1] = yc+x; } } /* Function pant */ void pant() { setcolor(15); line(x-41,y+198,x,y+231); line(x+41,y+198,x,y+231); line(x-41,y+198,x,y+231); line(x+41,y+198,x,y+231); setcolor(WHITE); setfillstyle(9,YELLOW); floodfill(x+2,y+205,WHITE); setlinestyle(1,0,1); line(x-3,y+195,x-3,y+230); /* zip */ line(x+5,y+195,x+5,y+222); /* zip */ line(x-3,y+230,x+5,y+222); /* zip */ setlinestyle(0,0,1); } 39
/*
function for right leg */
void rleg(int s,int t,int u,int v,int color) { setcolor(color); line(x+41,y+198,s,t); /* right leg */ line(x,y+231,u,v); /* " " */ line(s,t,u,v); /* " " */ } /* function for left leg */
void lleg(int s,int t,int u,int v,int color) { setcolor(color); line(x-41,y+198,s,t); /* left leg */ line(x,y+231,u,v); /* " " */ line(s,t,u,v); /* " " */ } /* Function leg_movement */ void leg_movement(int w,int color,int l,int r) { setcolor(color); if(color==BLACK) { setfillstyle(9,BLACK); if(l) floodfill(x-5,y+231,WHITE); if(r) floodfill(x+7,y+231,WHITE); } if(w<=40) { if(l) lleg(ll11[w][0],ll11[w][1],ll12[w][0],ll12[w][1],color); if(r) rleg(rl11[w][0],rl11[w][1],rl12[w][0],rl12[w][1],color); } else { if(l) lleg(ll21[w-4][0],ll21[w-4][1],ll22[w+4][0],ll22[w+4][1],color); if(r) rleg(rl21[w-4][0],rl21[w-4][1],rl22[w+4][0],rl22[w+4][1],color); } if(color==WHITE) { 40
setfillstyle(9,YELLOW); if(l) floodfill(x-7,y+231,WHITE); if(r) floodfill(x+7,y+231,WHITE); } } void rotate(int xr,int yr,float th,int x1,int y1) { int i,j,k,d[10]; th = th*3.142/180; r[0][0]=r[1][1]=cos(th); r[2][0]=r[2][1]=0; r[0][1]= -sin(th); r[1][0]= sin(th); r[2][2]=1; r[0][2]= xr*(1-cos(th))+ yr*sin(th); r[1][2]= yr*(1-cos(th))- xr*sin(th); b[0][0]= x1; b[1][0]=y1; b[2][0]=1; for(i=0;i<3;++i) { for(j=0;j<1;++j) { c[i][j]=0; for(k=0;k<3;++k) c[i][j] = c[i][j]+(r[i][k]*b[k][j]); } } line(xr,yr,c[0][0],c[1][0]); } /* function for left hand */ void lhand(int color,int i,int j) { int s,t,u,v; setcolor(color); if(q) { line(x-65,y+73,(le21[i][0]),(le21[i][1])); /* 1st half */ if ((j>10)&&(i>140)&&(j<21)) movelhand(x-50,y+100,r2+15,lh22); else if((j>20)&&(i>140)&&(j<31)) movelhand(x-50,y+100,r2+20,lh22); else if((j>30)&&(i>140)) movelhand(x-50,y+100,r2+25,lh22); else movelhand(x-50,y+100,r2+10,lh22); 41
rotate((le21[i][0]),(le21[i][1]),j,lh21[i][0],lh21[i][1]);//s,t); s=c[0][0];t=c[1][0]; line((le21[i][0]),(le21[i][1]),(le22[i][0]),(le22[i][1])); line(x-50,y+100,le22[i][0],le22[i][1]); rotate(le22[i][0],le22[i][1],j,lh22[i][0],lh22[i][1]);//u,v); u=c[0][0];v=c[1][0]; { p[0]=s;p[1]=t;p[2]=u;p[3]=v; } } else { line(x-71,y+78,(le11[i][0]),(le11[i][1]));
/* left - arm */
rotate((le11[i][0]),(le11[i][1]),j,lh11[i][0],lh11[i][1]); s=c[0][0];t=c[1][0]; line((le11[i][0]),(le11[i][1]),(le12[i][0]),(le12[i][1])); line(x-50,y+100,le12[i][0],le12[i][1]); if((j>10)&&(i>70)&&(j<21)) movelhand(x-50,y+100,r2+5,lh12); else if((j>20)&&(i>70)&&(j<31)) movelhand(x-50,y+100,r2+10,lh12); else if((j>30)&&(i>70)) movelhand(x-50,y+100,r2+15,lh12); else movelhand(x-50,y+100,r2,lh12); rotate(le12[i][0],le12[i][1],j,lh12[i][0],lh12[i][1]);//u,v); u=c[0][0];v=c[1][0]; { p[0]=s;p[1]=t;p[2]=u;p[3]=v; } } setcolor(color); line(s,t,u,v); } /* function for right hand */ void rhand(int color,int i,int j) { int s,t,u,v; setcolor(color); if(q) 42
{ line(x+65,y+73,(re21[i][0]),(re21[i][1])); /* 1st half */ if ((j>(360-10))&&(i>140)&&(j<(360-21))) moverhand(x+50,y+100,r2+15,rh22); else if((j>(360-20))&&(i>140)&&(j<(360-31))) moverhand(x+50,y+100,r2+20,rh22); else if((j>(360-30))&&(i>140)) moverhand(x+50,y+100,r2+25,rh22); else moverhand(x+50,y+100,r2+10,rh22); rotate((re21[i][0]),(re21[i][1]),360-j,rh21[i][0],rh21[i][1]);//s,t); s=c[0][0];t=c[1][0]; line((re21[i][0]),(re21[i][1]),(re22[i][0]),(re22[i][1])); line(x+50,y+100,re22[i][0],re22[i][1]); rotate(re22[i][0],re22[i][1],360-j,rh22[i][0],rh22[i][1]);//u,v); u=c[0][0];v=c[1][0]; if(i==140) { p[0]=s;p[1]=t;p[2]=u;p[3]=v; } } else { line(x+71,y+78,(re11[i][0]),(re11[i][1])); // line((le11[i/2.5][0]),(le11[i/2.5][1]),s,t);
/* left - arm */
rotate((re11[i][0]),(re11[i][1]),360-j,rh11[i][0],rh11[i][1]); s=c[0][0];t=c[1][0]; line((re11[i][0]),(re11[i][1]),(re12[i][0]),(re12[i][1])); line(x+50,y+100,re12[i][0],re12[i][1]); if((j<(360-10))&&(i>70)&&(j>(360-21))) moverhand(x+50,y+100,r2+5,rh12); else if((j<(360-20))&&(i>70)&&(j>(360-31))) moverhand(x+50,y+100,r2+10,rh12); else if((j<(360-30))&&(i>70)) moverhand(x+50,y+100,r2+15,rh12); else moverhand(x+50,y+100,r2,rh12); rotate(re12[i][0],re12[i][1],360-j,rh12[i][0],rh12[i][1]);//u,v); u=c[0][0];v=c[1][0]; if(i==142) 43
{ p[0]=s;p[1]=t;p[2]=u;p[3]=v; } } setcolor(color); line(s,t,u,v); /* " } int Rx_Data(void) { int Str_Char, CH , End_Char; loop1: status = bioscom(_COM_STATUS, 0, COM ); " */
if (status & DATA_READY) { Str_Char = bioscom(_COM_RECEIVE, 0, COM ); goto loop2; } else goto loop1; loop2: status = bioscom(_COM_STATUS, 0, COM ); if (status & DATA_READY) { CH = bioscom(_COM_RECEIVE, 0, COM ); goto loop3; } else goto loop2; loop3: status = bioscom(_COM_STATUS, 0, COM ); if (status & DATA_READY) { DataH = bioscom(_COM_RECEIVE, 0, COM ); goto loop4; } else goto loop3; loop4: status = bioscom(_COM_STATUS, 0, COM ); if (status & DATA_READY) { DataL = bioscom(_COM_RECEIVE, 0, COM ); goto loop5; } else goto loop4; loop5: status = bioscom(_COM_STATUS, 0, COM ); if (status & DATA_READY) { End_Char = bioscom(_COM_RECEIVE, 0, COM ); goto loop6; } 44
else goto loop5; loop6: if( DataH<=0x39) DataH-= 0x30; else DataH-= 0x37; if( DataL<=0x39) DataL-= 0x30; else DataL-= 0x37; Data = DataH<<4; // Left shift MS Byte by 8 bits Data = Data+DataL; // Add shifted MS value with LS byte value[CH_No]=( Data * 5.00)/0xFF; // ( overall is to convert 2 8 bits to 16 bit return (0); // Store the Data in buffer }
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6. Present Day Virtual Reality Technology

6.1 Head-Mounted Display (HMD)
The head-mounted display (HMD) shown in fig 6.1, was the first device providing its wearer with an immersive experience. Evans and Sutherland demonstrated a head-mounted stereo display already in 1965. It took more then 20 years before VPL Research introduced a commercially available HMD, the famous "EyePhone" system (1989). A typical HMD houses two miniature display screens and an optical system that channels the images from the screens to the eyes, thereby, presenting a stereo view of a virtual world. A motion tracker continuously measures the position and orientation of the user's head and allows the image generating computer to adjust the scene representation to the current view. As a result, the viewer can lookaround and walk through the surrounding virtual environment. To overcome the often uncomfortable intrusiveness of a head-mounted display, alternative concepts (e.g., BOOM and CAVE) for immersive viewing of virtual environments were developed.
Fig 6.1 A head-mounted display (HMD) 46
6.2 BOOM
The BOOM (Binocular Omni-Orientation Monitor) as shown in fig 6.2 from Fake Space is a head-coupled stereoscopic display device. Screens and optical system are housed in a box that is attached to a multi-link arm. The user looks into the box through two holes, sees the virtual world, and can guide the box to any position within the operational volume of the device. Head tracking is accomplished via sensors in the links of the arm that holds the box.
Fig 6.2 The BOOM, a head-coupled
6.3 CAVE
display device
The CAVE (Cave Automatic Virtual Environment) as shown in fig 6.3, was developed at the University of Illinois at Chicago and provides the illusion of immersion by projecting stereo images on the walls and floor of a room-sized cube. Several persons wearing lightweight stereo glasses can enter and walk freely inside the CAVE. A head tracking system continuously adjusts the stereo projection to the current position of the leading viewer.
6.4
Input
Fig 6.3 CAVE system (schematic))principle)
Devices and other
Sensual Technologies
47
A variety of input devices like data gloves, joysticks, and hand-held wands allow the user to navigate through a virtual environment and to interact with virtual objects. Directional sound, tactile and force feedback devices, voice recognition and other technologies are being employed to enrich the immersive experience and to create more "sensualized" interfaces. The fig 6.4 illustrates this technology.
Fig 6.4 A data glove allows for interactions with the virtual world
6.5 Characteristics of Immersive VR

The unique characteristics of immersive virtual reality can be summarized as follows:
Head-referenced viewing provides a natural interface for the navigation in threedimensional space and allows for look-around, walk-around, and fly-through capabilities in virtual environments.
Stereoscopic viewing enhances the perception of depth and the sense of space. The virtual world is presented in full scale and relates properly to the human size. Realistic interactions with virtual objects via data glove and similar devices allow for manipulation, operation, and control of virtual worlds. The convincing illusion of being fully immersed in an artificial world can be enhanced by auditory, haptic, and other non-visual technologies. Networked applications allow for shared virtual environments (see below).
Shared Virtual Environments

48
In the example illustrated below in fig 6.5, three networked users at different locations (anywhere in the world) meet in the same virtual world by using a BOOM device, a CAVE system, and a HMD, respectively. All users see the same virtual environment from their respective points of view. Each user is presented as a virtual human (avatar) to the other participants. The users can see each other, communicated with each other, and interact with the virtual world as a team.
Fig 6.5 Shared virtual environment
Non-immersive VR
Today, the term 'Virtual Reality' is also used for applications that are not fully immersive. The boundaries are becoming blurred, but all variations of VR will be important in the future. This includes mouse-controlled navigation through a three-dimensional environment on a graphics monitor, stereo viewing from the monitor via stereo glasses, stereo projection systems, and others. Apple's QuickTime VR, for example, uses photographs for the modeling of three-dimensional worlds and provides pseudo look-around and walk-trough capabilities on a graphics monitor.
VRML
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Most exciting is the ongoing development of VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Language) on the World Wide Web. In addition to HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language), that has become a standard authoring tool for the creation of home pages, VRML provides three-dimensional worlds with integrated hyperlinks on the web. Home pages become home spaces. The viewing of VRML models via a VRML plug-in for web browsers is usually done on a graphics monitor under mouse-control and, therefore, not fully immersive. However, the syntax and data structure of VRML provide an excellent tool for the modeling of threedimensional worlds that are functional and interactive and that can, ultimately, be transferred into fully immersive viewing systems. The current version VRML 2.0 has become an international ISO/IEC standard under the name VRML97. This is as shown in fig 6.6.
Fig 6.6 Rendering of Escher's Penrose Staircase device
VR-related Technologies
Other VR-related technologies combine virtual and real environments. Motion trackers are employed to monitor the movements of dancers or athletes for subsequent studies in immersive VR. The technologies of 'Augmented Reality' allow for the viewing of real environments with superimposed virtual objects. Tele-presence systems (e.g., tele-medicine, tele-robotics) immerse a viewer in a real world that is captured by video cameras at a distant location and allow for the remote manipulation of real objects via robot arms and manipulators.
6.6 Applications
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Virtual Reality is well known for its use with flight simulators and games. However, these are only two of the many ways virtual reality is being used today. This article will summarize how virtual reality is used in medicine, architecture, weather simulation, chemistry and the visualization of voxel data. fig 6.7 shows real and abstract virtual worlds (Michigan stadium, Flow structure) device.
As the technologies of virtual reality evolve, the applications of VR become literally Fig 6.7 Real and abstract virtual worlds (Michigan stadium, Flow structure) device unlimited. It is assumed that VR will reshape the interface between people and information technology by offering new ways for the communication of information, the visualization of processes, and the creative expression of ideas.
Note that a virtual environment can represent any three-dimensional world that is either real or abstract. This includes real systems like buildings, landscapes, underwater shipwrecks, spacecrafts, archaeological excavation sites, human anatomy, sculptures, crime scene reconstructions, solar systems, and so on. Of special interest is the visual and sensual representation of abstract systems like magnetic fields, turbulent flow structures, molecular models, mathematical systems, auditorium acoustics, stock market behaviour, population densities, information flows, and any other conceivable system including artistic and creative work of abstract nature. These virtual worlds can be animated, interactive, shared, and can expose behaviour and functionality. Useful applications of VR include training in a variety of areas (military, medical, equipment operation, etc.), education, design evaluation (virtual prototyping), architectural walk-through, human factors and ergonomic studies, simulation of assembly sequences and maintenance tasks, assistance for the handicapped, study and treatment of phobias (e.g., fear of height), entertainment, and much more.
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7. Conclusion
The following modifications can be made to the present circuit, which leads to still smarter project. This is a very cost effective system as it can simulate a robot. In some cases it can be used instead of a robot. This system can be used in nuclear power stations which are 52
very hazardous for human beings to work in. The output of this system can be taken as a multiple of the input to do some serious tasks. eg: If 50 Grams weight is lifted on the input side then the output can be made to lift any multiple of 50 grams. This project is open for developments from all sides. It is the users imagination which limits the working of this project. One can go on adding the extra, rich features to this project.
Appendix A
Pin details of various ICs used
A.1 Voltage Regulator KIA 7805
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Fig A.1 KIA 7805
General Characteristics:
1. Output voltage 2. Operating Temperature 3. Output Current 4. Dropout Voltage
: 05V : 0c - 70c : 100mA : 1.7V
A.2 CA3140
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Fig A.2 Amplifier CA3140
Common Mode Rejection (CMR)

Common Mode Rejection is a measure of the change in output voltage when both inputs are changed by equal amounts, CMR is usually specified for a full range common mode voltage change (CMV), at a given frequency, and a specified impedance (e.g. 1k source unbalance at 60Hz).. The common mode rejection ratio of common mode signal appearing at the output to the input CMV. In most instrumentation amplifiers, the CMR increases with gain because the frontend configuration does not amplify common-mode signals, and the amount of common mode signal appearing at the output stays relatively constant as the signal gain increases. However, at higher gains, amplifier bandwidth decreases since differences in phase shift through the mode errors; CMR becomes more frequency dependent at high gains.
Important Note:
The instrumentation amplifiers have differential inputs and there must be a return path for the bias current, if it is not provided these currents will change capacitance, causing the output to drift uncontrollably or to saturate. Therefore, when amplifying output of Floating source, such as transforms and thermocouples as well as ac-coupled sources there must be a DC path from each input to common, or to the guard terminal. If a return path is impracticable, an isolator must be used.
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Various parameters of a typical operational amplifier is as shown below: Open loop gain Ad Input offset voltage Vio Input offset voltage Iio Common mode rejection ratio Power supply rejection ratio Input offset voltage drift Input offset current drift Rate = 50,000 = 1mx = 10nA = 100dB = 20uv/v = 0.1na/c = 1.0uv/c = 1v/us
A.3 ADC 0809

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Fig A.3 ADC 0809
A.4 Pin details of AT89C51

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Fig A.4 AT89C651
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Fig A.5 Block diagram of AT89C51
Features of 89C51
4K Bytes of ROM Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz Three-level program memory lock 128 x 8-bit internal RAM 32 programmable I/O lines 59
Two 16-bit Timer/Counters Six interrupt sources Programmable serial channel The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 4K bytes of read only memory (ROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels highdensity nonvolatile memory technology. The AT89C51 provides the following standard features: 4K bytes of ROM, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, six interrupt architecture, a full-duplex serial port.
Pin Description
Port 0
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high impedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during flash programming and outputs the code by test during program verification. External pull ups are required during program verification.
Port 1
Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull ups. The port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull ups and can be used as inputs In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during flash programming and verification. Port pin alternate functions P1.0 T2 (external count input to Timer/Counter 2), clock-out P1.1 T2 EX (Timer/Counter 2 capture/reload trigger and direction control) AT89C52
Port 2
Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull ups. The port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull ups and can be used as inputs. Port 2 emits the high-order address 60
byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that uses 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, port 2 uses strong internal pull ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that uses 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), port 2 emits the contents of the P2 special function register.
Port 3
Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull ups. The port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull ups and can be used as inputs. Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification. Port Pin Alternate Functions P3.0 RXD (serial input port) P3.1 TXD (serial output port) P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0) P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1) P3.4 T0 (timer 0 external input) P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input) P3.6 WR (external data memory write strobe) P3.7 RD (external data memory read strobe)
RST
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device.
ALE/PROG
Address latch enable is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory.
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If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.
PSEN
Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89C51 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.
EA/VPP
External access enable EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH.
XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.
Special Function Registers

It is a map of the on-chip memory area called the Special Function Register (SFR) space. Note that not all of the addresses are occupied, and unoccupied addresses may not be implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses will in general return random data, and write accesses will have an indeterminate effect. User software should not write 1s to these unlisted locations, since they may be used in future products to invoke AT89C51 new features. In that case, the reset or inactive values of the new bits will always be 0.
Data Memory
There are 128 bytes of RAM in 8051 which are assigned addresses ranging from 00h to 7Fh. These 128 groups are divided into three different groups as follows:
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1. 2. 3.
A total of 32 bytes from location 00 to 1Fh are set aside for register banks and the stack. A total of 16 bytes from locations 20h to 2fh are set aside for bitaddressable memory. A total of 80 bytes from locations 30h to 7fh are used for read and write storage which is normally called as a scratch pad memory. These 80 bytes of RAM are used for the purpose of storing parameters by 8051 programmers.
Timer 0 and 1
Both Timer 0 and Timer 1 in the AT89C51 are 16 bits wide. Since the 8051 has an 8bit architecture, each 16-bit timers are accessed as two separate registers of low byte and high byte.
Interrupts
The AT89C51 has a total of six interrupt vectors: two external interrupts (INT0 and INT1), two timer interrupts (Timers 0, 1), the serial port interrupt and the reset pin interrupt. Each of these interrupt sources can be individually enabled or disabled by setting or clearing a bit in special function register IE. IE also contains a global disable bit, EA, which disables all interrupts at once.
Oscillator Characteristics
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier that can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 7. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.
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DC Characteristics
Absolute Maximum Ratings* Operating Temperature.................................. -55C to +125C Storage Temperature ..................................... -65C to +150C Voltage on Any Pin with Respect to Ground .....................................-1.0V to +7.0V Maximum Operating Voltage............................................ 6.6V DC Output Current...................................................... 15.0 mA
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Appendix B
B.1 User defined functions
User defined functions used:Doll( ) Hand_movement( ) Leg_movement( ) Rotate( ) Shirt( ) Pant( ) Face( ) Movelhand( ) Moverhand( ) Rhand( ) Lhand( ) Rleg( ) Lleg( )
Void doll(void)
This function takes no parameters. This function is used to draw the initial static image. It accomplishes this job by calling other functions as hand_movement( ), leg_movement( ), shirt( ) and pant( ).
Void face(void)
This function takes no parameters. This function is used to draw the face of the image. It accomplishes this job by executing other library functions in C graphics such as ellipse ( ), fillellipse ( ), sector ( ), floodfill ( ), line ( ), arc ( ), circle ( ) etc.
Void shirt(void)
This function takes no parameters. This function is used to draw the shirt of the image. It accomplishes this job by executing other functions, some from C graphics library
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and some user defined functions. It uses the hand_movement function to draw the hands of the image.
Void hand_movement(int, int, int, int, int)

This function takes 5 integer parameters. This function is used to control the movement of the hands of the image. It controls the movement of both arm and elbow. The first parameter species the signal value for arm movement. The second parameter specifies the signal value for elbow movement. The third parameter specifies the color to be used for current execution of the function because it is alternately executed with colors black and white for smooth transition. The fourth and fifth parameters take values either 0 or 1. The fourth parameter is set to 1 if left hand is to be moved. The fifth parameter is set to 1 if right hand is to be moved.
Void leg_movement(int, int, int, int)

This function takes 4 integer parameters. This function is used to control the movement of the legs of the image. The first parameter specifies the signal value for leg movement. The second parameter specifies the color to be used for current execution of the function because it is alternately executed with colors black and white for smooth transition. The third and fourth parameters take values either 0 or 1. The third parameter is set to 1 if left leg is to be moved. The fourth parameter is set to 1 if right leg is to be moved.
Void lhand(int, int, int)

This function takes 3 integer parameters. This function is used to draw the left hand of the image. The first parameter specifies the color to be used for current execution of the function because it is alternately executed with colors black and white for smooth transition. The second parameter specifies the signal value for left arm movement. It indicates the exact position of the left hand for that execution of the function. The third parameter specifies the signal value for left elbow movement. It indicates the exact position of the left elbow for that execution of the function.
Void rhand(int, int, int)

This function takes 3 integer parameters. This function is used to draw the right hand of the image. The first parameter specifies the color to be used for current execution of the function because it is alternately executed with colors black and white for smooth transition. 66
The second parameter specifies the signal value for right arm movement. It indicates the exact position of the right hand for that execution of the function. The third parameter specifies the signal value for right elbow movement. It indicates the exact position of the right elbow for that execution of the function.
Void lleg (int, int, int, int, int)

This function takes 5 integer parameters. This function is used to draw the left leg of the image. The first four parameters are the (x,y) positions of the two points used to draw lines that represent the border of the left leg. The last parameter specifies the color to be used for current execution of the function because it is alternately executed with colors black and white for smooth transition.
Void rleg (int, int, int, int, int)

This function takes 5 integer parameters. This function is used to draw the right leg of the image. The first four parameters are the (x, y) positions of the two points used to draw lines that represent the border of the right leg. The last parameter specifies the color to be used for current execution of the function because it is alternately executed with colors black and white for smooth transition.
Void pant(void)
This function takes no parameters. This function is used to draw the pant of the image. It accomplishes this job by executing other functions, some from C graphics library and some user defined functions. It uses the leg_movement function to draw the hands of the image.
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Appendix C
C.1Peripheral Interface Standards
The large variety of plug-ins, add-ons and ancillary equipments force the user to look a little carefully into the hardware and software aspects of interfacing various peripherals to a PC. The open architecture of the IBM PC has helped its 62-pin I/O channel bus in becoming a universally accepted interface standard for joining extra hardware to a PC. attached to the PC through a specific connection protocol called Interface Standard. The block diagram in Fig. C.1 illustrates a typical scheme chosen for peripheral interface. Here different sockets have been provided for each one of the peripherals, which are not interchangeable among themselves. If one looks inside a PC, all these sockets originate from printed circuit cards, which share a common bus, called I/O, channel bus, and sometimes PC bus a name given to the set of signals available on 62-pin edge connectors on the PC motherboard. A peripheral, in strict sense, is a piece of equipment which in itself is a separate entity and gets
Fig C.1 showing the block diagram of peripheral connected to processor.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Muhammad Ali Mazidi, The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded system, Pearson Education Asia. 2. Kenneth J Ayala, The 8051 Microcontroller, Prentice hall 3rd Edition 3. Haptic Technologies, http://www.haptech.com/prod/index.htm, 1999. 4. Proceedings of SPIE's 8th Annual International Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials, 5-8 March, 2001, Newport,CA. Paper No. 4329-47 SPIE Copyright 2001 5. www.wikipedia.org 6. www.atmel.com
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Virtual Reality For Robotics

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1.1 Main features of the project:

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2. PREVIEW OF VIRTUAL REALITY TECHNOLOGY

Fig 2.1 Depicts warm hand project 3

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2.3 Brief about this project:

Fig 2.3 Picture shows arrangement of the project 5

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Fig 3.1 Block diagram of hardware unit

Explanation of the block diagram:

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4.1 SENSORS BLOCK

Temperature Transducers: Electronic measurement of temperature is of vital concern in

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Fig 4.1 Circuit diagram of sensor block

4.2 INSTRUMENTATION BLOCK

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Instrumentation Amplifiers: The low-level signal outputs of electrical transducers often

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Table 4.1 Components List:

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4.3 Analog to Digital Converter:

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Fig 4.4 Graph of analog to digital conversion

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4.4 RS232 Board Interface Section

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Fig 4.5 RS232 Interfacing Circuit Diagram

4.5 Power supply

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SEMICONDUCTORS IC1 IC2 D1& D2 CAPACITORS C1 C2 MISCELLANEOUS X1

7812 Regulator IC 7805 Regulator IC 1N4007 Rectifier Diodes

1000 f/25V Electrolytic 0.1F Ceramic Disc type

230V AC Pri,14-0-14 1Amp Sec Transformer

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Astable multivibrator using 555-Timer

Fig 4.5.Astable Multivibrator

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SIGNALS FROM HARDWARE SIGNA L = 0

HAND MOVEMENT (RIGHT ARM)

LEG MOVEMENT (LEFT LEG)

HAND MOVEMENT (RIGHT LEG)

HAND MOVEMENT (RIGHT ARM)

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Fig 5.1 Flowchart for the program

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5.2 Program ADC 0809

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int Rx_Data(void); float value[8]; int ix,j,status; int CH_No,DataL,DataH,Data;

/* button / / button / / button / / button */