COMPREHENSIVE INDUSTRY DOCUMENT SERIES: COINDS/62/2006-07

Comprehensive Industry Document on

PROCESSING INDUSTRY
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CLEAN

CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT & FORESTS

e-mail
:

cpcb(a alpha.nic.in Website April 2006

www.cpcb.nicia

COMPREHENSIVE INDUSTRY DOCUMENT SERIES: COINDS/62/2006-07

COMPREHENSIVE INDUSTRY DOCUMENT ON COFFEE PROCESSING INDUSTRY

t'
p CLEAN 0

CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD

(Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India) Parivesh Bhawan, East Arjun Nagar Delhi-110032 e-mail : cpcb@nic.in Website : www.cpcb.nic.in

CPCB 200 Copies, 2006

Published By: Dr. B. Sengupta, Member Secretary, Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi - 32 Printing Supervision & Layout: P.K. Mahendru and Mrs. Anamika Sagar Composing & Laser Typesetting : Mohd. Javed National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources, CSIR, Printed at: Dr. K.S. Krishnan Marg, New Delhi

FOREWORD
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has conducted in-depth studies in selected coffee processing units to assess the performance of pollution control facilities adopted by the units. The basic document in coffee processing industries was prepared by ENC Consulting Engineers. Sh. H.K.Karforma, SEE and Sh. S.K. Gupta, EE have co-ordinated project activities and prepared the present report under the guidance of Dr. B. Sengupta, Member Secretary and Sh. P.M. Ansari, Additional Director of Central Pollution Control Board. The help and assistance rendered by Tata Coffee Estate, Hindustan Lever Limited, Coffee Board and KSPCB in preparing the report is gratefully acknowledged. Ms. Hima jwala, JRF and Sh Narain Singh provided the secretarial assistance. I trust the document will be useful to all those interested in pollution control in wet coffee plantations and instant coffee manufacturing processes.

(Dr. V. RAJAGOPALAN) Chairman, CPCB

CONTENTS
Page No. 1.0 SUMMARY 2.0 Introduction & Objective 2.1 2.2 Introduction Objective 1 3 3 3 5 5 6 7 7 8 9 12 12 13 16 17 17 17 19 19 19 20 22 22 22 23 24 24 28 29 29

3.0 Coffee Cultivation & Production in India 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

Statewise Distribution of Coffee Cultivation Propagation of Coffee Water Requirement/ Irrigation Practices Uses of Fertilizers Effect of Fertilizers Use on Water Quality Diseases of Coffee Plant & Use of Pesticides and Fungicides

4.0 Environmental Effects of Pesticides/ Fungicides used in Coffee Plantation 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.0 General Major Pesticides/ Fungicides Overall Conclusion

Processing of Coffee 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 General Preparation of Parchment Coffee Preparation of Cherry Coffee Curing Works Instant Coffee Selection of Units for in-depth Studies

6.0 In-depth Studies in Selected Coffee Processing Industry and Coffee Plantation Estates 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 General Manufacturing Process Material, Energy & Water Balance Genesis of Pollution and Identification of Pollutants Water Pollution & Wastewater Treatment Air Pollution & its control Noise Pollution Solid Waste Management

7.0

Coffee Curing Unit : Chikmagalur, Karnataka

Mysore

Coffee

Curing

Works

at

32 32 32 33 33 34 35 35 36 37 39 40 40 40 42 43 43 44 45 45 47
61

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5

8.0

General Manufacturing Process Genesis of Pollution and Identification of Pollutants Material & Energy Balance Waste Management Practices

In-depth Study in Large Coffee Plantations

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4

9.0

Tata Coffee Ltd., Nullore Division, Distt. Kodagu Tata Coffee Ltd., Hope Division - Woshally Estate Consolidated Coffee Ltd., Karadibetta Estate, Rayarakoppalu Distt. Hassan, Conclusion

Pollution Control in Coffee Processing

9.1 9.1.1 9.1.2 9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.3 9.4 9.4.1

Instant Coffee Manufacturing Plant Wastewater Treatment practices Air Pollution and its control Coffee Plantation Wet Processing Wastewater Treatment Method Wastewater Treatment Methods used in Other Countries Pollution issues and its control in Coffee Curing Works Suggested Method of Treatment of Wastewater Treatment Objectives

10.0 Proposed Standards for Coffee Processing Industries

10.1 General 10.2 Instant Coffee Industry 10.3 Coffee Curing Works 10.4 Coffee Plantations - Wet Processing

61 61 61 61

1.0 SUMMARY
1. 2. 3. 4. Coffee is manufactured in the states of Karnataka (71%) and Tamil Nadu (8%). The maximum production of Coffee comes from the state of Karnataka. Robusta and Arabic are the two major varieties of coffee manufactured in the country. 98% of the coffee growers have small holdings less than 10 ha. And uses 3,000 lit, of water per day. Medium and large scale holdings have 10-25 ha. And 25 ha. And above area under coffee plantation respectively. Coffee is manufactured by dry process (instant coffee/cherry fruit) and wet processing (parchment coffee) Cherry coffee is manufactured by the use of ripen coffee fruits and is dried naturally. There is no waste generation from this process while in instant coffee manufacturing coffee beans are cleaned, roasted and grounded. The grounded coffee is extracted with hot water followed by evaporation and drying of filtrate having soluble coffee to manufacture coffee powder. Wastewater is generated mostly from the spent coffee waste. The manufacturing of parchment coffee is by using wet process which includes pulping of fruits, its mucilization followed by its drying.

5.

Environmental aspects in Coffee processing industry: 1.

1.1

Instant Coffee industry:

Wastewater generation and its treatment

In instant coffee manufacturing, wastewater is generated from spent coffee waste. The wastewater is acidic in nature and has BOD:600-1000 mg/1, COD: 2500-10,000 mg/l, SS: 100-1000 mg/1. The wastewater generation is about 300 kld which is generally 50-55% of water use. Activated sludge process is generally used for treatment of wastewater followed by physico-chemical treatment for colour removal. Such treatment process has resulted in BOD- 10 mg/l, COD 93 mg/l and SS 14 mg/l.
1.2 Air pollution

Air pollution is mainly caused by hot air generation (by Diesel burning), cleaning of beans, D.G.sets and boilers. For air pollution control cyclones/ bag filters have been provided and results are within the specified limit. For control of odour nuisance, VOC's containing coffee aroma are taken care of by catalytic converters.
1.3 Solid waste

Main source of solid waste is spent coffee waste which is sent to boiler as a fuel
2.
2.1

Wet processing industry (Parchment coffee):

Wastewater generation and its treatment

The main sources of wastewater generation are pulper and washer. About 80-100 cum/ tonne of water is used for cleaning of coffee. The effluent generated is acidic in nature

and has BOD ranges from 2500-12,000 mg/l. While in case of aqua pulper where water is recycled, the BOD may go upto 30,000 mg/l. The treatment of wastewater is done by (i) Anaerobic Aerobic, (ii) By enzyme treatment. The conventional treatment options employed could not yield the treatment results (BOD 5700 mg/l, COD 10, 6405 mg/l, SS 462 mg/1). It may be due to improper operation and inadequate size of units. The enzyme treatments have produced very good quality of effluents having BOD 5 mg/l, COD 56 mg/l, SS 14 mg/l.
3. Coffee curing works:

The entire process of coffee curing is dry with no water pollution while air pollution caused by DG sets. The solid waste produced in husk which is reused in anyway.

Treatment options suggested for wastewater:

Following treatment options suggested for treatment of wastewater and to achieve the discharge standards: 1. 2. To bring down BOD level below 500 mg/l by using conventional biological treatment methods. To adopt suitable technology for tertiary treatment (Physico-chemical) to bring down BOD level below 100 mg/l.

2.0 INTRODUCTION & OBJECTIVE

2.1

Introduction

India is one of the major producers of Coffee in world. In India, two major varieties of coffee are cultivated on commercial scale: - Arabica - Robusta Generally, coffee is grown in hilly regions (western ghat areas) of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and some part of Andhra Pradesh & Northeastern region. Arabica is grown in higher elevation, while Robusta in relatively lower elevation. Coffee is a flowering plant with white fragrant flowers (Photo 1). It is a shade loving plant (Seiphyte) growing mostly on laterite soil with well-distributed rainfall (Photo 2). Coffee beans, after processing & curing, may be roasted & grounded to make a coffee powder and may be used as filter coffee. Powdered coffee may be further processed as Instant Coffee, which now a days is frequently used in India. In India Central Coffee Research Institute (CCRI) at Chikamagalur (Karnataka) is engaged in carrying out extensive research on coffee.

2.2 Objective
As there was no comprehensive national document available on environmental issues related to Coffee processing industry and therefore, Central Pollution Control Board has taken-up the project to carry-out in-depth studies in selected coffee fields and coffee processing industries. The document consist of information about raw materials, processes, pollution aspect, Pollution Control Practices (PCP) and proposed National Standard for the industry, keeping in view the Best Available Technology (BAT), sustenance & applicability under the prevailing conditions.

Photo I: Coffee Plant with Flowers

Photo 2 : Coffee Plants in Shade

3.0 COFFEE CULTIVATION & PRODUCTION IN INDIA

3.1 Statewise Distribution of Coffee Cultivation

Coffee is mainly grown in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu & some parts of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa & North-eastern regions. Land holders which have land upto 4 ha are called as small land holders, 4-10 ha called as medium land holders and those holding more than 10 ha are termed as large holders. The number of estates (holding) are given in Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Distribution of Holding under Coffee(1994-95)
States

No. of estates
<4ha
%

4-10 ha

>10ha

Total

Karnataka Kerala Tamil Nadu Others (A.P.,Orissa, Maharastra & NE regions) Grand Total

33,689 74,240 12,642 10,508 131,079

84.85 97.18 92.52 99.77 93.43

4,160 1,676 728

10.48 2.20 5.33

1,855 477 294 24 2,650

4.67 0.62 2.15 0.23 1.89

39,704 76,393 13,664 10,532 140,293

--

--

6,564

4.68

Table 3.1 shows that small growers (less than 4 ha) account for more than 93% of area under coffee while only 1.9% account for large states of more than 10 ha. Number of estates in the 4-10 ha range constitute 4.68% of total. The table also shows that member of small holding is highest in Kerala, while medium & large holdings are highest in Karnataka. The coffee estates in Kerala and Tamil Nadu are generally small holdings (97.2% and 92.5%) respectively. The statewise planted area of coffee (1995-96) in various states of India has been furnished in Table 3.2. Table 3.2 Statewise planted area of Coffee in India (1995-96) in (ha)
States Arabica
%

Robusta

Total

Karnataka Kerala Tamil Nadu Others Total

96,379 4,166 27,270 18,086 145,901

57 5 83 86 48

72,702 78,182 5,508 2,860 159,252

43 95 17 14 52

169,081 82,348 32,778 20,946 305,153

55.41 26.98 10.74 6.87 100.00

From the above table it is clear that planted area under coffee is highest in Karnataka(55.41 %) as compared to the total planted area in India. Karnataka contributes about 71% of total coffee production, Kerala (21%) & Tamil Nadu (M). The statewise status of coffee production is given in Table 3.3. In Karnataka, main coffee producing districts are Chikmagalur, Hassan and Kodagu.

Table 3.3 Statewise production of Coffee in India (1997-98) in Tones

States
Karnataka Kerala Tamil Nadu Others Total

Arabica
83,700 1,900 13,000 2,000 10,600

%* 52 4 76 100 43

Robusta
78,400 49,000 4,000
--

%* 48 96 24
--

Total
162,100 50,900 17,000 2,000 232,000

131,400

57

%+ 69.7 22.0 7.5 0.8 100.0

Note: * of state's total + of India's total 3.2 Propagation of Coffee

(i) General

Arabica and Robusta can be propagated by seed as well as by clonal means. By seed propagation, high degree of uniformity could be achieved in Arabica Coffee. By adopting vegetative propagation method, uniform plants with desirable characters like high yield, resistance to pests, diseases and good quality could be established in Robusta as well as hybrids of Arabica.
(ii) Propagation through Seeds

For selection of seeds, good mother plants possessing superior agronomic traits like good yields and disease free nature are identified. At correct stage of ripening, mature berries are collected, carefully pulped, sorted and dried with special techniques. After sowing, germination takes place in about 45 days. Seedlings are replanted in fields.
(iii) Vegetative Propagation

Coffee can be propagated by cutting as well as by grafting techniques. In Coffee, two types of shoots viz. Horizontal (plageotropic) and vertical (orthotropic) shoots are produced. Three types of cutting can be obtained from orthotropic shoots viz. (a) single node cuttings (b) terminal cuttings and (c) mallet cuttings. There are particular methods to prepare each type of cuttings. Cuttings of all types are planted in perforated polythene bags, which are then arranged in covered glass house like propagation trenches. Subsequently cutting are hardened for two months under shade and afterwards replanted in the main field in planting section. In grafting, two types of technique are used (a) Seedling grafting and (b) Grafting of plants, called top working. Seedling grafting is useful in overcoming the problems of nematodes, soil borne root diseases and drought conditions. The grafting in mature plants is done for the conversion of old, unproductive, disease susceptible and off-type plants. In recent times, `In-vitro' propagation through tissue culture is being encouraged by the Government Research Labs and private tissue culture firms. The grafted seedlings are planted in the nursery baskets and kept under shade. After sprouting, these are transferred to second nursery

for 6-7 months and then planted in field at various spacing. Table 3.4 shows typical spacing between the plants.

Table 3.4 Spacing between plants Type

Arabica Robusta

Variety
Tall Dwarf S.274, Old Robusta
C xR

Spacing(m) 1.8x1.8, 2.1x2.1 1.5x1.5 3x3, 3.3x3.3 2.4x2.4, 2.7x2.7

After planting, the yield starts from 3` d year onwards, economic yield generally starts from 6` h year. Generally, Dadap is commonly used as a canopy shade. 1 to 2 m long stakes are planted for every two plants of coffee when S-W monsoon commences (in June). During dry season, stems of young Dadap are painted with dilute lime solution to protect them from sun, Silver Oaks can be planted as shade belts in E-W direction to protect coffee from southern exposure at a spacing of 6 m apart within a row and 40 feet between two rows. The Silver Oak stands are alternated with Dadap rows. Permanent shade trees are planted at a wider spacing (30-40 feet) wherever the forest cover is inadequate. Arabica has an economic life of 40-45 years whereas Robusta has a life about 80 years. The fruit bearing seasons are November to February for Arabica and Dec-March for Robusta.

3.3

Water requirement / Irrigation Practices

Coffee is predominantly cultivated as a rain fed crop worldwide. Coffee, being an evergreen plant, requires maintenance of soil & moisture during dry months. In coffee tracts of South India, the S-W monsoon zones predominantly receive more than 60% of rain during Jun-Sept and the rest during N-E monsoon during Oct-Dec. In some years, the N-E monsoon tapers off by the end of Oct. itself. Robusta coffee being sensitive to drought. The first irrigation requires 25-38 mm of water after 20-25 days of cessation of N-E rains. The next successive irrigation has to be done at an interval of 20-25 days throughout the dry period up to the l s ` fortnight of January. In Robusta coffee, blossom can be encouraged during the 2 d fortnight of Feb. by applying 25-38 mm water. Irrigation is done with overhead sprinklers.

3.4

Use of Fertilizers

The amount of nutrient supply through fertilizers depends on yield and soil quality. In coffee cultivation, Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium are considered as macro/major nutrients, Calcium Magnesium & Sulphur as secondary nutrients, while iron, manganese, Copper, Zinc, Molybdenum, Boron, Sodium and Chlorine as micro/minor elements. According to the estimates of the CCRI , one tonne of clean coffee removes approximately 40, 7 and 45 kg of N, P2O5 and K2O for Arabica and 45, 9 and 58 Kg of these major nutrients for Robusta Coffee respectively. Good practice dictates that fertilizers are applied in many splits as possible, not less than three annually i.e. during pre-blossom, mid monsoon & post monsoon. Between fertilizer application

and liming 30 days gap should be given. Agricultural lime is applied to correct the pH of soil. Considering the factors like crop removal of nutrients, nutrient loss through leaching & fixation and Fertilizer Use Efficiency (FUE) in coffee soils, fertilizer doses for different quantities of yield per unit area are given in Table 3.5. Application of fertilizers increased in a substantial manner over a period 1991-1998 in major coffee growing districts of Karnataka are shown in

Table 3.6. Table 3.5 Suggested Fertilizer Dosage for Coffee (kg NPK/ha)
Yield (Kg) Pre Blossom 20:15:20 30:20:30 30:20:30 40:30:40 20:15:20 30:20:30 30:20:30 Post Blossom 20:15:20 30:20:30 30:20:30 40:30:40 Mid Monsoon Post Monsoon 20:15:20 30:20:30 30:20:30 40:30:40 20:15:20 30:20:30 30:20:30 Total 60:45:60 90:60:90 120:90:120 130:100:130 40:30:40 60:40:60 90:60:90

Arabica
500 750 1000 1250 30:20:30 30:20:30

Robusta
500 750 1000 30:20:30

Table 3.6 Application of Fertilizers (MT)

District
Hassan Chikmagalur Year 1991 1998 1991 1998 N 18994 28971 12940 19911 P 5376 6333 4056 6048 K 7951 11331 6703 12557 Total 32321 46635 23699 37416

The fertilizer dosages for high yield coffee are shown in Table 3.7.

Table 3.7 Typical fertilizer dosages for high yield coffee

Type Arabica Robusta N 90 90 P 60 60 K 90 90 Total 240 240

Typical fertilizers used are: Urea, Muriate of Potash, Diammonium Phosphate, other proprietary phosphates e.g.Factamphos 20:20, Mussoriephos etc. rock phosphate. Agricultural lime is also used for soil pH correction. It may be however be noted that actual usage depends on soil, leaf, yield and other location factors. As recommended by the CCRI the plant sustenance dose is 80 kg/ha(30:20:30) per year.

3.5 Effect of Fertilizer on Water Quality:

Using of more fertilizers, in a crop like coffee, it is difficult to assess the effect on the water quality of Rivers/streams. An attempt may be made to consider the trends of use of fertilizers vis - -vis general water quality in a large coffee growing area. In Karnataka, Chikmagalur & Hassan districts are major coffee growing areas which discharged into rivers Tunga & Bhadra. For this purpose, a general trend of selected water quality parameters with reference to certain

selected parameters on the basis of available data could be studied as an example and trends (1991-1994) are presented in Table 3.8.

Table 3.8 Water Quality of R.Tunga d/s of Shimoga Selected parameters, mg/l
Year Nitrate + Nitrate Max. Min. Mean 0.4 0.287 0.2 0.708 0.1 0.221 0.704 0.08 0.349 Free Ammonia Max. Min. Mean Max. Phosphate Min. Mean NA 0.010 0.013

1991 1993 1994

NA 0.08 0.025

NA 0.0 0.006

NA 0.002 0.017

NA 0.010 0.020

NA 0.0 0.0

Table 3.9 Water Quality of R.Bhadra at d/s of KIOCL Road Bridge, Near Holehunnur, selected parameters, mg/l
Year

Max. 1997 0.131

Nitrogen Min.

Mean

Max. 0.3

Phosphate Min.

0.017

0.05

0.001

Mean 0.111

From the above tables it can be concluded that the increase in concentration levels of selected water quality parameters shows the increase in fertilizer use over the years (except for R.Bhadra for which comparable data are not available). Table 3.9 shows Nitrogen & Phosphate concentrations for the year 1997. It is noted that the concentrations are not high. It is seen that the maximum concentrations are significant because of low flow during pre-monsoon period in the river. Hence, usage of fertilizers shows impact on the water quality partially due to agricultural run-off. In view of the pollution potential of nutrients due to run-off, leaching and groundwater recharge, alternatives to inorganic fertilizers need consideration. In this regard, recycling of bio-degradable waste can largely be minimized by the addition of inorganic fertilizer. In many coffee estates, composts are already being used in conjunction with inorganic fertilizers. In Indian coffee plantations, such wastes may include shade tree leaf litter, coffee leaves and prunings, weeded materials, fruit skin pulp and cherry or parchment husks. The following are estimates of various wastes:

Table 3.10 Estimated Nutrient Potential of Various Wastes

Waste NPK kg/ha/year

Shade trees-leaf litter Dadap-tender branches, degradable stakes & leaves All- in from coffee field expect Dadap Waste

N 40-60 96 84-95

P205 30-33 8 40-42

K20 40-60 67 108-123

The above table indicates the reduction in application of inorganic fertilizers, cost of inputs and in terms of pollution by recycling the bio-degradable waste.

3.6

Diseases of Coffee Plant & Use of Pesticides/Fungicides

Arabica & Robusta coffee are susceptible to fungal diseases. Bacterial & Viral diseases have not been recorded so far in India. Arabica is more susceptible to diseases than Robusta. The common

diseases and their causative organisms are presented in Table 3.11. The table also indicates trade & common names of pesticides/fungicides used to control these diseases. The common disease that mostly occurs in coffee field is leaf rust which is caused by Ameba Hemileia Vastatrix. In this disease the pale yellow spots on the lower surface of leaves appear, later turning orangeyellow powdery mass consisting of uredospores. To control this disease, Bordeaux mixture spray is adopted. The spray schedule is presented in Table 3.12.

Table 3.11 Major pesticides / fungicides Used to treat Coffee Diseases

Name of the disease
1. Leaf rust Causative

Recommended
pesticide/fungicide Prophylactic Bordeaux mixture of systemic fungicides oxycarboxin or triamedimefin Bordeaux mixture or benomyl

Alternative names
Oxycarboxin is known as Plantvax also as D735 Triadimefon is known as Bayleton also as Acizol, Amiral Benomyl is known as Bavistin also agricit etc. Carboxin is known as Vitavax

Industry names
Bordeaux mixture (90.5%) Carboxin sufoxide Triamedifen Benomyl(1%) Carboxin

organism
HEMILIEIA

VASTATRIX

2. Black rot

Koleroga noxia

3. Pink disease 4. Root diseases i) Brown root disease ii) Red root disease iii) Black root disease 5. Berry blotch Nursery diseases 6. Berry-eyespot

Corticium Salrnornicolor i) Forces noxius ii) Poria hypolateritia iii) Rosellinia buisodes and Rosellinia arcuata

Same as black rot

Soil drench with benomyl or carboxin

Benomyl is known as Bavistin also Agricit etc. carboxin is known as Vitavax

Benomyl Carboxin

Cercospora cofeeicola Cercospora coffeicola

Bordeaux mixture Captan or maneb or captafol Captan is known as Caparo, Captanex, Captec, Captazel Maneb is known as Dithane-22, Farmaneb, Manesan or Monex captafol is known as Foltaf Mancozeb is also known as Dithane-45 Captan Maneb Captafol

7. Collar rot

Rhizoctonia solani

8. Stem wasting (Kondli)

Not by parasites but by toxicity from copper based pesticides

Treat seeds with benomyl or carboxin or soil drench with captan or mancozeb Avoid Bordeaux mixture; use organic pesticides

Mancozeb

10

Table 3.12 Spray Schedule for leaf rust Control

S.No. Spray Schedule

1. 2. 3.

Bordeaux mixture 0.5% (1 kg CuSO4) : 1 kg CuO:2001) Plantvax 0.03% (300m1/2001)

Ba Teton 0.02% (160 gm/2001)

Pre-blossom(Feb-March) Pre-monsoon(May-June) Pre-monsoon(Sept-Oct) Pre-monsoon(May-June) Mid-monsoon(May-June) Post-monsoon*(Plantvax or Bordeaux mixture) Pre-monsoon & Post monsoon

Black rot (Koleroga) is considered to be the second important disease affecting Arabica & Robusta during the monsoon period. This disease is common in all the coffee growing areas in India, which come under the influence of heavy S-W monsoon. Crop loss of 10-20% is recorded in severely affected areas. The most striking symptoms are blackening and rotting of the infected leaves, developing berries & young twigs. This disease is controlled by the following ways: (i) Removal and destruction of the affected leaves and berries in the initial stage under wet conditions. Adequate coverage of Bordeaux mixture 1.0% on both the surfaces of leaves and also to the developing berries just before the onset of monsoon and during the break in monsoon (end of July or early August). Centering & handling of the bushes by removing criss-cross branches (6 inches radius of the shade trees fallen on the canopy of the coffee bush before imposing pre-monsoon spray).

(ii)

(iii)

11

4.0 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES/FUNGICIDES USED IN COFFEE PLANTATION

4.1 General

For control of pests in coffee plants, several fungicides and pesticides are used. Integrated Pest Management methods are given in "Coffee Guide" authored & published by the Central Coffee Research Institute, 1996. In this section, the environment effects of some of the commonly used major pesticides/fungicides have been dealt with the toxicological and environmental effects of pesticides and fungicides. The effects depend on the following: Soil characteristics Chemical factors

Soil characteristics generally include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Soil texture Soil pH Soil moisture Soil temperature Soil micro-organisms

Chemical factors of the Pesticides/Fungicides include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Solubility in water Chemical degradation Microbial degradation Photo degradation Volatilization

The fact of pesticides in the environment is a complex phenomenon. The process depends on factors listed above. A simplified pathway of fate of pesticides in environment is shown in Fig.

4.1.
The following sub-section deals with the toxicological and environmental effects of some major fungicides/pesticides used in coffee plantation as indicated in Table 3.11.

12

C degradation Photo

Run-off with particles

Fig. 4.1 Fate of Pesticides in Atmosphere 4.2 Major Pesticides/Fungicides

i) Carboxin (A 5,6Dihydro -2 methyl-n-phenyl-1, 4-oxathin-3-carboxamide)

Carboxin is a systemic anilide fungicide used to treat seeds in order to prevent and control existing diseases.
Environmental Fate

a) In soil and groundwater Carboxin is rapidly degraded to carboxin sulfoxide in soil. It has a low persistence in soil. Products that are formed are carboxin fulfone, hydroxy carboxin and CO2. Carboxin does not readily adsorb in soil. Both carboxin and the sulfoxide are mobile and can leach to groundwater.

13

b) In Water In water, carboxin oxidizes to sulfoxide and sulfone. Blue green algae degrade the pesticide rapidly. Ecological Effects Carboxin is highly toxic to fish. It is non toxic to freshwater nonvertebrates. Toxicity birds are also low. The compound does not accumulate in animal tissue. Plants grown form seeds treated with carboxin after six weeks shows no presence of the compund. Carcinogenic Effects Carboxin does not causes cancer. The study shows rates fed with carboxin had no evidence of increased tumor frequency. Conclusion Carboxin/Oxycarboxin can be concluded to be fairly safe General Use Pesticide (GUP), when there is no fish culture ponds fed by leaching water from coffee plantations.

(ii) Triadimefon(1-(4-Chlorophynoxy)-3 3dimethyl-1-(1 H-1,2,4 - trizol-1 -yl) butanone)

;

Triadimefon is a systemic fungicide in the triazole family of chemicals. The compound may also be found in formulations with other fungicides such as captan , carbendazim, folpet ect. Environmental Fate a) In Soil and Groundwater Triadimefon is moderately persistent in soil, the breakdown depends on the soil type. Triadimefon and its breakdown products are moderately mobile and have the potential to reach the groundwater. In Water b) The compound is very stable in water. In water with varying acidity the compound persisted to the extent of 95%. It does not undergo hydrolysis. Ecological Effects Triadimefon is slightly toxic to birds. It is also slightly toxic to fish. The compound is nontoxic to useful insects. Carcinogenic Effects Dietary study in mice shown no evidence of increased tumor frequency but increased livercell hypertrophy. Increased livercell adenoma was detected but no carcinoma. Conclusion Triadiameforn can be concluded to be a safe General Use Pesticide (GUP). But it may have potential to induce defective neuro behavioural patterns, hence should be avoided from being inhaled. Therefore, spraying, specially by female plantation workers, should be avoided and the paste or wattable powder should be used.

14

(iii) Benomyl (methyl-I- [(butyl amino) carbonyl]-H-benzimidazonl-2-yl-carbamate) Benomyl is a systemic benzimidazole fungicide that it is selectively toxic to micro organisms and to invertebrates, especially earthworms. It is used against a wide range of fungal diseases.
Environmental Fate

a) In soil and groundwater It is highly persistent in soil. Benomyl is strongly bound to soil and does not dissolve in water to a significant extent. Therefore it's potential to reach groundwater is low. In Water b) Benomyl completely degrades to carbendazim within hours in acidic or neutral water. Carbendazim is used as a fungicides under trade name of Baristin.
Ecological Effects

Benomyl is moderately toxic to birds. It is very toxic to fish. A single application of Benomyl can substantially reduce some soil dwelling organisms. It is very toxic to earthworms. It is absorbed by plants, it accumulates in leaf veins and at the leaf margins.
Carcinogenic Effects Occurrence of liver tumors has been found in life-time studies in female mice. Carbendazim have similar toxicological properties. Conclusion

Benomyl is non systemic fungicide. However, it accumulates in veins and leaf margins in plants. Hence it has potential of Bio-magnification. It affects earthworms as well as slows down mixing of soil; it may affect paddy plantation downstream to coffee plantations: -It is non-toxic throughthe inhalation route, hence safer for spraying. It may also affect fish: -culture if the leaching water from plantation reach culture ponds.

iv) Captan3a, 4,7, 7a-tetrahydro-2-[(trichloromethyl)thio ]- 1-H-isoindole-1,3,(2H)-dione)

Captan is a non-systemic phthalimide fungicide used to control many diseases.
Environmental Fate

In soil and groundwater a) Captan has low persistence in soil. In Water b) Captan readily degrades in near neutral water.
Ecological Effects

Captan is practically nontoxic to birds. Captan is highly toxic to fish. It is moderately toxic to aquatic nonvertebrates. Captan has a tendency for accumulation in living tissue. Therefore, it has a potential for bio-amplification. Some seeds may be injured by captan at high dose.

15

Carcinogenic Effects

There is a strong evidence that captan causes cancer in mice at high doses. In addition, captan is chemically similar to folpet and captafol which produce cancer in animal. Tumors of gastrointestinal tract as well as kidney has been observed in animals fed with captan.
Conclusion

Captan is a General Use Pesticide (GUP), though not using on food crops in USA from 1989, it may affect fish culture downstream to coffee plantations. Due tro its carcinogenicity, it must be handled carefully by plantation workers. It can cause eye and skin irritation to workers exposed to high concentrations of captan in air which is caused by spraying.
v) Maneb(Manganese ethylenebis(dithiocarbamate)(polymeric))

Maneb is an ethylene(bis) Dithiocarbamate fungicide used in the control of early and late blights and many other diseases.
Environmental Fate

In soil and groundwater a) It has low persistence in soil, but it gets converted to products (ethylenethiourea etc.) which are more persistent. Since they strongly bind to soil and have low solubility in water, they do not percolate into groundwater. In water b) In water, Maneb degrades completely within one hour under anaerobic aquatic conditions.
Ecological Effects

Maneb is practically non-toxic to birds. Maneb is highly toxic to fish and other aquatic organisma. Maneb treatment on crop foliage may be toxix to livestock.
Carcinogenic Effects

In one study Maneb did not show significant carcinogenicity in laboratory animals. But in another study malignant tumors were observed in rats injected with maneb. Therefore no conclusion about its carcinogenicity can be drawn.
Conclusion

Maneb is a carbamate fungincide. Though, it is nontoxic by the ingestion route, it is toxic by the inhalation route. Acute exposure to Maneb may result in hyperactivity, incoordination, nausea, vomiting and respiratory paralysis. Therefore, spraying should be avoided and the wettable powder form should be used. As other fungicides, it may affect fish-culture downstream to coffee plantations.
4.3 Overall Conclusion

The pesticides/fungicides used in coffee plantation do not pose any serious threat to environment. Their use will not affect other agricultural activities except for fresh-water fish culture downstream to coffee plantations (if any), as most of the fungicides used are toxic to fish. Carboxin and Triadimefon have the potential to leach to groundwater. Use of pesticides like Captan and Folpet discourages for their carcinogenicity. The use of Bordeaux mixture should be weighed against the occurrence of Kondli. 16

5.0 PROCESSING OF COFFEE

5.1 General

In India, coffee is processed in two ways: (i) (ii) Wet processing by which parchment coffee is prepared Dry processing by which cherry coffee is prepared

Parchment coffee prepared by the wet method is popular in the market. For preparation of both parchment & cherry coffee, coffee fruits is picked as & when they become ripe. The under - ripe & over - ripe fruits cause deterioration in quality and is rejected. The collecting bags for harvested fruit are washed & dried frequently. Bags in which fertilizers, pesticides & fungicides are stored cannot be used for this purpose.

5.2

Preparation of Parchment Coffee

Parchment coffee processing involves following steps: (i) (ii) (iii) Pulping Demucilaging & Washing Drying

5.2.1 Pulping
Fruits are fed to the pulper through siphon arrangements to ensure uniform feeding. Uniform feeding ensures proper removal of skin and prevents cuts and choking of pulper. Preparation of coffee by wet method requires pulping equipment & adequate clean water. The pulped parchment should be sieved to eliminate any unpulped fruits & fruit skin. Generally the recirculation of water is done at pulping section, recirculated water may be used only for one working day, otherwise the quality of water may deteriorate.

5.2.2: Demucilaging & Washing

The mucilage on the parchment skins may be removed by: Natural fermentation Treatment with alkali Enzymatic method Frictional removal in machines like Aqua pulpa

5.2.2.1 Natural fermentation Fermentation is carried out in concrete tanks usually having size of (3m x 1.5m x 1.2m) with a sloping ground which accommodate approximately 4.5 cum of beans. One tonne of fruits approximately yield 0.5 cum of wet parchment; this quantity requires a tank space of about 0.6 cum. Thus for production of 1 tonne marketable coffee, 3.6 cum of tank is required. These tanks

17

are constructed in brick masonry with smooth surface sloping floor running towards the outlet. Fermentation is controlled so that it is wholly alcoholic, not acidic. Usually acidic fermentation occurs under dry, high temperature & high pH conditions in the top 10 cm layer. Acidic fermentation produces unpleasant odours, this is avoided by covering the fermenting mass. The mucilage breaks down in the process of fermentation. In case of Arabica it takes about 24-36 hrs, while in Robusta even 72 hrs is not sufficient. It is therefore, desirable to resort to either alkali treatment or frictional removal for complete removal of mucilage. 5.2.2.2 Treatment with Alkali Removal of mucilage by treatment with alkali takes about 1 hr for Arabica & 1.5-2 hrs. in case of Robusta. The beans obtained after pulping are drained off excess water & spread out in the vats uniformly and furrowed with "gorumanes" (wooden ladles with a long handle). A 10% solution of NaOH dissolved in evenly applied into the furrows using a rose cane. About 1 kg of NaOH dissolved in 10 litres of water is sufficient to treat forty litres of wet parchment. The parchment is agitated thoroughly by means of "gorumanes" so as to make the alkali come in contact with the parchment. When the parchment is no longer slimy and makes a rattling noise, clean water is let in. 5.2.2.3 Enzymatic Removal of Mucilage The time of fermentation process could be reduced by use of pectinolytic enzymes. Concentration of enzymes & temperature of the ambient air determine the fermentation time. 5.2.2.4 Removal of Mucilage by Friction This method is widely used, particularly in medium and large estates. There are pulpers such as "Aqua Pulpa" which pulp & demucilage the beans in one operation. These machines are especially suitable for demucilaging robusta parchment. The adjustment of machine is essential to obtain uniform pulping & demucilaging. Uniform feeding using siphon arrangement is very essential to rectify the defect of naked & bruised beans. Pre-fermentation of pulped coffee for 12 hrs in case of Arabica & 24-36 hrs in case of Robusta is desirable before letting into aqua washer for effective removal of mucilage.
5.2.3 Drying

The next stage in processing is drying the parchment in the sun until the moisture content is sufficiently reduced to permit storage of beans till they are dispatched to curing works. The wet parchment coffee has a moisture content of around 50% and has to be brought down to 10%. Surface drying is best, carried out in trays with wire-mesh bottom. These trays may be mounted on wooden poles at a height of 75-90 cm above floor level. The parchment is spread in trays to a thickness of 4-7 cm. The coffee may be turned repeatedly to facilitate quick drying and to prevent cracking of parchment skin. Surface drying in trays may take about 24-48 hrs. a tray of 1.75m x 1.75m with 7 cm height side walls can hold 3-4 tits of parchment or cherry spread to a thickness of 4 cm. Drying yard requirement for drying 1000 kg clean coffee for different spreads are as follows:
- -

Parchment equivalent, 4 cm spread Parchment equivalent, 7 cm spread Cherry equivalent, 7 cm spread 18

= 9.5 x 9.5m = 7.3 x 7.3 m = 11.0 x 11.0 m

After the surface drying the parchment is spread on clean tile or concrete drying floor. The parchment is required to be dried slowly in the later stages by spreading to a thickness of about 7-10 cm. Drying should be steady & continuous. Storing & turning over at least once an hour is necessary to facilitate uniform drying. The parchment should be heaped up in the evening & kept covered until next morning. For covering, polythene sheets are used. It is desirable to keep the parchment covered during the hottest part of the day, between noon & the early part of the afternoon. Sun drying may take about 7 to 10 days under bright weather conditions. At the right stage of dryness the parchment becomes crumbly and the beans split clear without a white fracture when bitten between the teeth and the dark spots at either extremity of the beans just about disappear. This indicates that the parchment is ready for the test weighing. Drying is complete when sample forlits of coffee record the same weight for 2 consecutive days. At this stage coffee is shifted to stores where it is spread on the floor for 2-3 days to attain the uniformity in the moisture content. The coffee may then be bagged into clean new gunnies. Coffee of different lots is bagged separately. 5.3 Preparation of Cherry Coffee

For preparation of cherry coffee, fruits should be picked as & when they ripen. The fruits should be spread evenly to a thickness of about 7-8 cm on clean drying ground. It is desirable that drying is carried out on tiled or concrete floors. Coffee should be stirred & ridged at least once in evening hours. The cherry is dry when a fistful of the drying cherry produces rattling sound when shaken and a sample forlit records the same weight on two consecutive days. The cherry would be fully dry at the end of 12-15 days under bright weather conditions. 5.4 Curing Works

After drying it is taken by the farmers to the curing works. In Curing works the coffee beans are put into peeler machine in which the outer parchment is taken off through a process of rubbing. After which it is sent to the Polishers; here the beans are polished to remove the slightly whitish remains of the outer parchment. It is then graded in graders where it is sieved according to the sizes. Grading and sorting were done (and is still practiced) manually on a traveling conveyor; in modern curing works it is done by optical fibre colour- sorters and electrically operated sieves. The beans are sold as such for further use. The beans may be roasted & grinded to produce coffee powder. This is done by private parties with the help of electric roaster & grinder. It is finally used as filter coffee. 5.5 Instant Coffee

Coffee beans are cleaned to remove foreign matters and then roasted to a degree to get the desired final product. Roasted coffee beans are ground & extracted with hot water to leach out coffee soluble solids in extract form in a battery of extraction columns. Coffee extract is concentrated to a higher concentration by evaporating water in the evaporator and then dried to instant coffee powder in the spray drier. The process flow diagram of Instant Coffee Production is shown in Fig.5.1.

19

Green Beans
Dumping Cleaning Dust

Dust Removal

Blending Roasting Destoning Rework

Grinding Filtered Extraction RWLi. I Clarification I Filtration

Rework Addition

Thermal Concentration j

Spray Drying

Sieving

I Powder Collection

Fig. 5.1 Flow Diagram of Instant Coffee Production 5.6 Selection of Units for In-depth Studies

Based on the type of units and processing described in this section, it is clear that production of coffee beans from berries by small farmers does not produce any appreciable pollution or environmental problem. Production of beans by wet method by medium and large cultivators however need attention owing to the nature and extent of water pollution. From the cultivators, the beans are taken to curing works, which is an entirely dry process. Nevertheless, it deserves attention with respect to air pollution (due to fuel burning for auxiliary power source) and generation of solid waste (husk).

20

Unlike wet processing of coffee and coffee curing, which operate only a few months in a year, production of instant coffee is done in large or medium industries operating throughout the year. It has potential of water, air and noise pollution and thus deserves particular attention. In view of these considerations, it was desired to carry out in-depth studies for one unit each with respect to the following: Instant coffee industry ( Hindustan Lever Ltd, Mysore) Large coffee plantation( Tata Coffee Ltd, Nullore & Hope division( Kodagu Dist) and Consolidated Coffee Ltd, Hassan) Coffee curing works(Mysore Coffe Curing works, Chikmangalure) Karnataka being the largest producer of coffee and having also the largest concentration of units, the in-depth studies were carried out in Mysore, Chikmagalur and Hassan districts.

21

6.0 IN-DEPTH STUDIES IN SELECTED COFFEE PROCESSING INDUSTRY AND COFFEE PLANTATION ESTATES
A. Instant Coffee Manufacturing Industry
Hindustan Lever Ltd., Mysore

6.1 General
Hindustan Lever Limited (HLL) has instant coffee processing unit in Hebbal Industrial Area, Mysore. HLL manufactures instant coffee under the trade names of `BRU" and "Green Valley", most of which are sold in the domestic market. The product is a mix of instant coffee and chicory roots. The plant has an annual production capacity of 3000 tons. Raw materials used are green coffee beans and roasted chicory roots. Coffee beans are obtained from coffee curing works in and around Mysore and Jamnagar. Production of year 1997-98 was 2270 tons, i.e. a plant utilization capacity of 75.7% was achieved. The plant operates on a continuous basis.

6.2 Manufacturing Process

(i) Green coffee beans are cleaned to remove foreign matters and then roasted to a degree to get the desired final product. Roasted coffee beans are grinded and extracted with hot water to leach out soluble coffee solids in extract form in a battery of extraction columns. Coffee extract is concentrated to a higher concentration by evaporating water in the evaporator and then dried to coffee powder in spray driers. The cleaning of green beans is done in a series of sieve-shakers and magnetic separators to remove sticks, stones, nails, etc., and dust. Dust is blown with air and arrested in cyclone collectors. During roasting in electrically heated roasters, moisture is removed along with off gases. Chaff is also removed in the process. HLL roaster capacity is 2000 kg/h (based on 330 working days per year) whereas the grinder (electrical operated) has a capacity of 1000 kg/h. The higher capacity of roaster is to roast in batches to save energy because according to moisture content in green cleaned beans the required roasting time is adjusted. In instant coffee production, the main process is extraction of soluble coffee portion. The process flow diagram is shown in Fig 5.1. In the extraction column roasted chicory is mixed according to product specification*. Soft Water from boilers at a temperature of 175C at 20 kg/cm 2 pressure is introduced. The extracted liquor contains 14% soluble coffee (it also contains suspended solids), which requires being further concentrated. This is done by first passing the liquor through centrifugation to remove suspended solids and then by triple effect evaporation. During evaporation the aroma, which contains mostly volatile organic compounds is separated in chilling columns where aroma is arrested. The aroma is very important component of the product. `BRU' contains 30% Chicory; `Green Valley' contains 47% Chicory. After evaporation, the decoction contains 40 to 45% concentration of soluble coffee. The chilled aroma is sent back to extraction columns thereby making it a closed loop. This is

(ii)

(iii) (iv)

22

then sent to the spray drier. The spray drier is a closed chamber under vacuum (3mm WC) where the decoction is sprayed from the top alongwith hot air (200-210 C) in cocurrent motion. The purpose of co-current motion is to capture fine powders in an effective manner. Hot air is generated in hot air generator by burning diesel with excess air. The collected instant coffee powder is fluidised (to prevent formation of lumps) by dehumidified air. The powder is then sent for packing in pouches.
6.3 Material, Energy & Water Balance

Typical production losses reported in the literature (Shankaranaya, 1994) indicates that 100 gms of green coffee yields 85 gms of roasted coffee which in turn yields 38.7 gms of instant coffee. During the in-depth study of HLL Mysore, it was found from the last 3 months' data that following losses can be taken as typical:
Table 6.1 Material Losses in HLL, Mysore Sl. No. Loss Waste

1. 2. 3. 4.

Cleaning loss Roasting loss Extraction loss Packing loss Total

= 1.00% = 12.25% = 46.49% = 0.8 1 % = 60.55%

Stones/Sticks Chaff Spent Coffee Powder

This indicates that out of 100gms of raw coffee beans, 39.45 gms of instant coffee is produced by HLL. The use of energy (as electricity bought from KSEB as well as electricity generated by HLL using HFO and LFO) for the last two years are summarised in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Energy Use in the HLL Instant Coffee Plant, Mysore Sl. No. Source/Parameter 1998 1997

1 2 3 4 5 6 7`
8

KSEB Electricity, kWh -Do-, GJ HFO, GJ LFO, GJ Total Energy, GJ Coffee Production, MT . ' Energy Use GJ/Ton -Do- kWh/Ton

13,30,746 4,791 64,824 91,046 1,60,661 2,270 `` 70.8., 19.7

11,93,360 4,296 71,586 91,986 1,67,868 2,120

r

79.2'

22.0

It is seen that specific energy consumption has improved in 1998 compared to that in 1997. HLL typically uses about 600 kl of water daily. There are three uses (i) process, (ii) drinking, canteen, toilet, etc. and (iii) cooling water. The overall wastewater generation over the last two years is given in Table 6.3.

23

Table 6.3 HLL Wastewater Generation (kl) Si No.

1 2

Wastewater
EffluentETP Cooling Water Blowdown

1998
1,08,858

1997
1,08,879 3,200

3,300

Considering, on an average 330 working days a year, the rate of total wastewater generation is estimated at 340 kld (both in 1998 and 1997). Considering 20 kld as wastewater discharge from human use, the total wastewater generation comes to 360 kld which is 60% of overall water input. The loss of 40% can be attributed to (i) evaporation losses, (ii) as moisture with spent coffee waste and ETP sludge and (iii) drift and consumption losses.

6.4 Genesis of pollution and identification of pollutants

In instant coffee processing, all three kinds of pollution occur air, water and noise.

6.4.1 Water Pollution & Wastewater Treatment

The first part of instant coffee processing (i.e. up to grinding) is dry. Thereafter, the process is wet up to spray drying. During this middle part, wastewater is generated. Wastewater is generated mostly from the spent coffee waste. Of the total water usage of 600 kld., part goes for (i) cooling make-up, (ii) the process water including boiler and (iii) domestic water use (i.e. drinking, canteen, toilet, etc.). The wastewater generated is 310 kid and domestic wastewater is in the order of 20 kld. The process wastewater goes to the ETP while the domestic goes to the septic tank and soak pit. Photo 3 shows a general view of the ETP. A close-up of Aeration Tank is shown in Photo 4. On an overall basis, therefore about 50-55% wastewater is generated on the basis of overall water use excluding cooling water blow downs. Considerable variation is noted in the raw wastewater characteristics observed from time to time. However, the following observations can be made: (i) Wastewater is acidic and require neutralization (monitored sampletaken after neutralization) BOD is quite high (except Sept '98 observation) BOD: COD ratio is low @11-14% indicating that it is not readily biodegradable; also, nutrient addition is required. Presence of colour is rather difficult to remove due to presence of dissolved organic substances particularly, tannin and lignin.

(ii) (iii)
(iv)

24

Photo 3 : General view of HLL Wastewater Treatment Plant

Photo 4: Close-up View of Aeration Tank, HLL

The characteristics of raw wastewater is given in Table 6.4

Table 6.4 HLL Typical Characteristics of Raw Wastewater Parameter Feb '98 (2) Sept '98 (3) Monitored March 2001

Colour Temp C pH
BOD (5 day, 20 C)

Brown * 4.5 1,710.0 11,918.0 1,340.0 520.0 50.0 N.D.

* * * * * * * *

Brown * 5.65 285.0 2600 126.0 700 60.0 288

* * * * * * * *

Brown 29.0 9.43 646.0 3702 90.0 2110 8.5 256 40 0.45 7.05 12.50 8.50 Nil Nil 1.1

COD S.S. TDS

Cl
-

SO4 Phosphate Fluoride Ammoniacal N Kjeldal N Oil & Grease Phenolic Compound Residual Chlorine Sodium Absorption Ratio
Notes

*Not recorded 2&3 : Results monitored by KSPCB : Results monitored in March 2001 during in-depth study 4 Industry employed two stage activated sludge process (Fig 6.1); Urea and di-ammonium phosphate are added as nutrient. For neutralization, caustic soda is used. For removal of colour, sodium hypochlorite is used. Poly-electrolytes and ferric alum are used to bring down total dissolved solids. Typical characteristics of treated effluent are presented in Table 6.5

Table 6.5 HLL Characteristics of Treated Effluent Parame ter Feb `97 April `97 Sept `97 Nov `97 Dec `97 Feb `98 Geom Mean Monit oring Mar, 2001 6.94 Feb `05 Limits of consent order

H
BOD

COD S.S. TDS Cl SO4 2NH3-N

-

6.6 3 152 216 1164 70 40

7.2 34 348 90 1560 196 214

5.3 12 186 50 975 150 334 1.2

7.0 15 162 70 650 50 320

8.0 8 116 30 955 50 660 1.8

5.2 22 183 40 975 100 464

SAR 15.0 Source: KSPCB and Monitoring by ENC, CPCB(Feb 05)

6.6 11.6 177.5 55.6 996.4 98.1 224.9 1.5 15.0

10
93 14 1924 206 520 5.39 1.39

8.17 10 82 208 2085 NA NA 2.53 2.79

6.0-8.5 "' 30 250 100 2100 1000' 1000 50

The results show satisfactory compliance (BOD and COD), except once. The effluent is used for gardening for which the standards enforced by KSPCB seem to be stringent. The cost of treatment of wastewater in shown in Table 6.6. It is seen that as a percentage of overall cost of production it is 0.26% which is considered reasonable.
Table 6.6 Operating Cost of Effluent Treatment Plant Cost of Cost per Annum (Rs.)

Non Ferric Alum Sodium Hypochlorite Urea DAP Sulphuric Acid Poly-electrolyte Caustic Lye Cost of Man Power Cost of Power Cost of Repair Depreciation Total Impact of effluent treatment on cost of production: As percentage of overall conversion cost: Rs. 1160/T 0.26%

4,61,920 1,52,188 29,256 21,500 8,970 21,757 1,87,113 3,49,320 9,68,400 51,000 2,04,619 24,56,043

27

Wastewater Utilisation

The entire amount of treated wastewater is reused as irrigation water for the garden and landscaped areas within the factory premises. The vegetation growth was found to be luxuriant. The practice is considered satisfactory.
6.4.2 Air Pollution and its control

The sources of air Pollution are as under: - Hot air generation (by diesel burning) - Pneumatic Handling of beans - Cleaning of beans - Roasting - Diesel electric generators - Boilers In the pneumatic handling of beans, mostly dust and chaff are emitted. In hot air generator, diesel is burnt; the hot gas passes through spray drier. The exhaust contains SPM, SO2 and also aromatic compounds of coffee. The boiler exhausts emit SPM, SO2 and NO as products of combustion. For dispersal of SO2, stack (chimney) heights are stipulated by the KSPCB in their consent order. For control of SPM, cyclone/bag filters are stipulated whilst cyclones and multicyclones are installed by HCL. For control of odour the industry has installed catalytic converters to completely burn the VOCs containing coffee aroma. The results of stack monitoring are shown in Table 6.7.
Table 6.7 Air Pollutants in Stack Emissions from HLL, Mysore Si. No. Stack/ Height (m) PCD Pollutant conc. m m3 Limit in consent order

1. GB Airveyor/23 2. GB Silo/23 3. Roaster/23 4. Spray Drier/54 5. Boiler/45 6. 1000 KVA DG set #1/22 7. 1000 KVA DG set #2/22 8. 437.5 KVA DG set#3 /7

Cyclone Cyclone Cyclone Multi-cyclone Multi-cyclone

SPM 40.0 SPM 99.63 SPM 53.85 SO2 0.85 SPM: 89.0
: : : -

SPM 150 Stack heights are as per consent order

SPM: 98.34 SO2 4.65 SPM 50.28 SO2 -2.4 SPM: 75.66 SO2 0.35 SPM 94.97
: :

28

There was no smell of coffee outside the plant building. The quality of ambient air is given in the

Table 6.8. Table 6.8 HLL Ambient Air Quality (conc. in g/m 3
Location Near Security SPM 66.6 SO2 17.0
)

NO, 14.0

Fugitive Emission
The ambient air quality data indicate that there is no evidence of fugitive emission outside the plant. Most importantly, there is no smell of coffee within the premises (outside the plant building) because in the processing unit catalytic converters are installed at stacks.

6.4.3 Noise Pollution

The plant is contained in a tall 5-6 storied building. Noise is generated_in pneumatic handling, blowers, sieves and rotating equipments. The results of noise monitoring during plant visit are shown in Table 6.9.

Table 6.9 HLL Results of Noise Monitoring (15m from source) Source Equipment
Roaster Clarifier-Evaporator Hot air generator

Noise Level dB (A)

80-82 80-82 98

Type
Continuous when in operation Continuous Continuous,

The hot air generator is in an enclosed space and worker presence is required only occasionally. However noise reduction is required in this equipment to satisfy the stipulated noise level. In the consent letter issued by KSPCB, the day- time noise level is required not to exceed 75 dB (A) and 70 dB (A) during night- time.

6.4.4 Solid Waste Management

Main solid waste generated is spent coffee waste because coffee contains only around 42% soluble coffee, which is converted to final product, the rest being spent solids. Spent coffee waste is sent to Hosur plant as boiler fuel. A part is also sold to third party, who recovers oil from spent coffee waste. The next is the sludge from the effluent treatment plant. Other solid wastes are of small quantity. Various kinds of solid waste generated in the factory and their disposal practices are summarized in Table 6.10. No substantial amount of scrap or waste was found in the factory premises. The waste management practices are found satisfactory.

29

Table 6.10 Solid Waste Generated in HLL, Mysore Plant S1. No. Disposal Route

Source of Waste

Quantity (tpa)

Composition

Spent Coffee Waste

4,600

70-80% moisture (agricultural product)

Sent to Hosur plant as boiler fuel. Also sold to third party Given to farmers as manure (free of charge) Sold as Scrap

ETP Sludge

640

20-30% moisture, rest sludge solids

Packaging Material Waste

10

Torn bags, torn laminates, etc. Scrap pipeline, vessels, structure, etc. Waste packing, damaged pallets Waste oil from D.G. pumps Used glassware

Steel, Scrap

21

Sold as Scrap

Wooden Scrap

10

Sold as Scrap

Lube Oil

Sold as Scrap

Glassware from Laboratory

0.03

Sold as Scrap

No hazardous waste is generated from the process. The major waste that is spent coffee waste is used mainly as boiler fuel. The ETP sludge is also used as organic manure. Thus the waste management practice is considered satisfactory.

HINDUSTAN LEVER LIMITED, MYSORE PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANT

Raw Effluent Collection Tank 32KLX2 I

I
SLUDGE

I Stage Clarifier 95 KL (D-8.8 M.H.-2.1 M)

Final Polishing Pond 836 KL

S Screen

II Stage Aerator 2x7.5FJP 384 KL Aerato s

Treated Effluent to Garden

Raw Effluent Collection Tank 32KLX2

II Stage Clarifier 95 KL (D-8.8 M.H-2.1 M)

Effluent Holding Tank 32KLX3

Effluent Collection Pond 500 KL

Filter Press Cap 5K1/H65% solid

Dry

ReactionTank 32KLX3

Urea

Flash Mixer 0.5 KL

lAlum

I Stage Aerator 2025 KL

I
70%

Clariflocculator F. 50 KL (D-4.9 m H 3M)

OVERT

3x25HP Aerators

UNDER FLOW

* 30% DRY BEDS l Ox 120KL Capacity MLSS MAINTAINED IN 1 ST STAGE AERATOR : 2500-3000 ppm F/M RATIO : 0.05 TO 0.15 Fig-6.1

31

7.0 COFFEE CURING UNIT MYSORE COFFEE CURING WORKS AT CHIKMAGALUR, KARNATAKA
-

7.1

General

In coffee curing works, the husk or parchment is removed from coffee beans. Then they are graded, sorted and packed. Coffee from each producer are often separately processed in curing works. Later similar grades are mixed together. These are then packed in bags and sold/dispatched. Mysore Coffee Curing Works, modernised a few years ago, has a large capacity of 10,000 TPA. The capacity utilisation was 7283 T in 1996-97 and 7889 T in 1997-98. The works is situated just outside Chikmagalur town in Kadur-Mangalore Road. The plant operates for about 8 months a year.

7.2

Manufacturing Process

Dried coffee beans, brought to the works in bags are fed to the raw coffee bin. The material handling is by pneumatic means. The works is a tall building with 4-5 floors. The material (coffee beans) moves from one unit to another by gravity, unless lifted pneumatically. From the raw coffee bins, the coffee beans pass to precleaner and destoner which contain sieves with electrically operated shakers to remove sticks, stones, etc. It then passes through magnetic separator to pick up nails, pieces of iron, etc. The cleaned coffee beans are then hulled. Hulling is meant to break open the husk or parchment and separate them from the bean. This is done in peelers by friction breaking followed by forced air (aspiration system) to carry away parchment pieces and dust. The hulled coffee is then sent to polisher. Polisher is used to remove the silver skin from washed coffee. Polisher is not required for cherry (unwashed) coffee. Green coffee seeds, as they come out of the huller is an assorted lot with seeds of different sizes, shapes, impurities and in perfections. Therefore they are to be graded before marketing. Size separation is carried out by the use of screens of different size apertures with vibrating flat bed type shaker sieves. After grader, the beans were earlier sorted out manually by handpicking (called garbling). For several years now, the unit uses a 39 channel fiber optic colour sorter to grade the beans according to colour. Bluish green coloured bean is the most desirable according to cup characteristics. Final products, i.e. cured coffee from each producer are separately processed in the curing works. Similar grades are then mixed together (bulking). After bulking different grades are packed separately in bags.

32

7.3

Genesis of Pollution and Identification of Pollutants

Since the entire process is dry, there is no water pollution. Air pollution is caused during husk handling. At present the husk is discharged just outside the plant building in to the open (Photo 5). The husk could be stored in silo type storage facility with unloading chute loading directly onto trucks for transporting away. The plant uses a 224 KVA DG set as standby power service, which is fitted with a stack. Noise is generated in shaking/vibrating sieves and pneumatic handling equipments. The consent order issued by the KSPCB stipulates that the noise generated in the factory shall be within the prescribed limits of 75 dB (A) Leq during day time and 70 dB (A) Leq during night time. The observed day time noise levels are generally found within the stipulated limits. Outside the plant building no appreciable noise was felt.

7.4

Material & Energy Balance

In the curing process, husk/parchment is separated. Only a small portion of dust/stones/sticks upto 1% is lost as impurities.

Raw Green Beans

I Precleaner I Clean G.B Hulling/ I Cured Beans

Polishing

Sticks, Stones, etc. @1%

Husk

Table 7.1 Sl. No.

1 2 3 4

Tonne of Clean Green Bean

Arabica Parchment Arabica Cherry Robusta Cherry Robusta Parchment

Husk Generated( kg)

225 904 962 194

The overall energy allocation in the plant is shown in Table 7.2. The load of the new plant, old plant is 388.83 kW. Assuming the plant runs on an average of 16 h/day for 8 month annual consumption is 1.5 million kWh, which brings processing energy per ton of product at 190 kWh or say, 200 kWh including lighting load.

33

Photo 5 : Discharge of Husk: Mysore Coffee Curing Works Table 7.2 Overall Energy Allocation Si. No. Plant/Unit HP kW

1 2 3 4 5

New Plant Copper Sulphate Plant Old Plant Pump House Lighting Total Load

452.45 8.00 66.00 30.00 50.00 606.45

339.33 6.00 49.50 22.50 37.50 454.83

7.5 Waste Management Practices

The main waste is husk. Cherry husk is often used for fuel briquetting. Sometimes the company uses the husk for captive power generation in its Copper Sulphate plant. Robusta cherry and Arabica cherry can be used either for fuel briquetting and is sold @ Rs. 250 per tonne. Parchment husk cannot be used for fuel briquetting but it is usually sold @ Rs. 150 per tonne. Thus the entire waste is reused. Other wastes include stones/sticks etc. which are buried/taken out of plant. Unusable gunny bags are also sold. These are, however, insignificant. During in-depth study no appreciable quantity of waste was noted. The plant was found to be reasonably clean and housekeeping practices were found to be satisfactory. However, the husk storage needed improvement either by putting up a closed room or a silo type arrangement

9M

8.0 IN-DEPTH STUDY IN LARGE COFFEE PLANTATIONS

8.1 Tata Coffee Ltd., Nullore Division Pollibeta, District Kodagu

8.1.1 General

Tata Coffee Ltd. has several large coffee estates of which Nullore is an important estate. It has
390.6 ha under Arabica and 80.9 ha under Robusta plantation. The approximate productions of clean beans are : Arabica - 485 tons and Robusta - 53 tons in the year 2000-01. Irrigation is obtained from several tanks within the estate.

8.1.2 General Description of Process & Treatment of Wastewater

Nullore estate uses dry process for 110 tons (about 20%) of their harvest. Balance 80% i.e. 430 tons is subjected to wet processing. This is done during end November to mid March, i.e. the crop harvest season. For wet processing, Pulper and Aquawasher is used. The aquawasher needs about 12.6 kl of water for Arabica and 14.4 kl of water for Robusta per tonne of clean beans. On an average 88 to 90 kl of water per day is required. Pulping goes on for about 60 days usually in the afternoon / evening (4=30 to 10=30 p.m.) After processing and drying the clean beans (called Parchment Coffee beans) are transported to curing works (not in the estate). This estate has two pulphouses served by two ETPs. Each of the ETPs comprises three earthen tanks in series. Effluent from one is treated conventionally i.e. neutralization (by lime addition)anaerobic-aerobic ponds; other is treated with enzyme without neutralization. The tanks in the ETP with enzyme treatment are lined with polythene sheets. The ETP with conventional treatment has no lining. No details about the enzyme or its dosages were disclosed by the Estate. It was indicated that the enzyme was a combination of pectinase and other enzymes to breakdown lignin, cellulose and lipids (no action on polyphenols). The raw wastewater and treated effluents were monitored. On the day of monitoring, there was no effluent overflow. The effluent goes down an earthen drain and reported to be used for irrigation.

Results of Monitoring
The results of monitoring of quality of treated wastewater carried out during in-depth study are given in Table 8.1 for both kinds of treatment practiced in the estate.

35

Table 8.1 Quality of Treated Wastewater, Nullore Estate (in mg/l except pH) S. No. Parameter Enzyme treated Second Tank Enzyme treated Final Tank of Final Tank Conventional ETP

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

pH BOD (3 days, 27C) COD Suspended Solids Dissolved Solids Sulphate Oil & Grease Ammonia N Nitrate

5.8 6600 12400 688 6056 220 N.D. 97 N.D.

8.1 5 56 14 1328 43 N.D. N.D. N.D.

5.9 5700 10640 492 6544 256 N.D. 140 N.D.

It is noted that conventional treatment does not render the wastewater of desired quality at all. BOD is too high, signifying that the process is not at all effective. On the contrary, the treatment given with enzyme produces effluent of very good quality, which has not been experienced or reported from any other estate .
8.2 Tata Coffee Ltd., Hope Division - Woshally Estate District Kodagu

8.2.1 General

This estate grows mostly Robusta in an area of about 198 ha. During harvesting and pulping, clean coffee @ 4 to 5 tons per day is produced.
8.2.2 Wastewater Treatment

The requirement of water for pulping varies from 14000 to 16000 litres per ton of clean bean. In a particular season, 200 tons are pulped in about 60 to 70 days. The wastewater is given similar treatment with enzyme and retained in a series of three tanks. During in-depth study, pulping was in progress. Raw wastewater quality was monitored (before addition of enzyme); enzyme was being added from a jerrican in drops onto the raw water channel leading to the earthen tanks. The final tank was getting filled up. The results of monitoring are given in Table 8.2
Table 8.2 Quality of Treated Wastewater, Woshally Estate (in mg/l except pH) S. No. Parameter Raw Wastewater (Before enzyme addition) Enzyme Tank treated Final

1 2 3 4 5 6

pH BOD (3 days, 27C) COD Suspended Solids Dissolved Solids Sulphate

6.2 28000 64400 15120 32096 152

5.5 12000 18000 500 5512 48

S. No.

Parameter

7 8 9
8.3

Oil & Grease Ammonia N Nitrate

Raw Wastewater (Before enzyme addition) N.D. 132 N.D.

Enzyme Tank N.D. 104. N.D.

treated

Final

Consolidated Coffee Ltd., Karadibetta Estate, Rayarakoppalu, District Hassan

8.3.1 General

Consolidated Coffee Ltd. (CCL) is known to be the biggest coffee plantation in corporate sector having about 4850 ha of coffee plantation. Karadibetta estate has about 381 ha under coffee plantation of which about 127 ha is under Arabica Plantation and 254 ha under Robusta plantation. The approximate production is about 350 tonne of clean beans p. a. Approximately one-third of the crop is unirrigated. Irrigation water is obtained from about a dozen open tanks in the estate. CCL uses various inorganic fertilizers such as Factamphos, Urea, Muriate of Potash (K2SO4) and Rock Phosphate. During the in-depth study, CCL mentioned that they use mostly fungicidal sprays (Bourdeaux mixture 1%) @ 25 kg/ha for Arabica only. Other fungicides are also used.
8.3.2 Manufacturing Process

CCL, Karadibetta uses dry process for 40% of their harvest. Balance 60% is subjected to wet processing. This is done during end November to mid March, i.e. the crop harvest season. For wet processing, Pulper and Aquawasher is used. The aquawasher needs about 10-12 kl of water per tonne of clean beans. On an average 25 to 30 kl of water per day is required. After processing and drying the clean beans (called Parchment Coffee beans) are transported to curing works (not in the estate). The wastewater from Pulper-Aquawasher is taken to the Effluent Treatment Plant by gravity. The wastewater is first neutralized in a neutralization tank (6m x 6m x 1.2m) where lime is applied. (The nutrients are also added in the neutralization pit but details were not made available.) From the neutralization tank the wastewater is led into an Anaerobic lagoon (19m x 8m x 3.3m deep) which is understood to have a detention time of nearly 20 days. From anaerobic lagoon, the wastewater flows to an aerobic lagoon of size 17.7m x 11.6m x 1.2m deep from where it goes to an unlined tank. Photo 6 shows a general view of the ETP.
8.3.3 Genesis of Pollution & Identification of Pollutants

As mentioned earlier, during wet processing, the outer skins and fleshy pulps are separated and mixed with water. Apart from soluble and suspended matters, fruit skins and settlable matter are also present in the wastewater. These can be removed by settling.

37

Photo 6: General View of Effluent Treatment Plant, CCL

The wastewater is high in organic content, low in pH and substantial dissolved solids. The characteristics of raw wastewater from CCL, Karadibetta and other plantations nearby are shown in Table 8.3

Table 8.3 Characteristics of Raw Wastewater from Wet Process ETP Si. No.
1 2 3
4

Plantation/ Estate
CCL, Karadibetta Karadikhan Estate Manjunath Estate Hoshally Estate (Coffeelands Ltd).

pH
5.0 3.2 3.2 3.4

BOD

COD
-

SS
596 236 1,624 1,496

TDS
-

28,000 930 15,600 31,000

2,360 26,400 51,208

1,946 5,618 3,288

The BOD /COD ratio is in the range 42.6% - 60.5% indicating that the wastewater is amenable to biological treatment. The anaerobic-aerobic two-stage treatment given to this wastewater after neutralization and nutrient addition does not yield wastewater of desired quality. This is evident from the Table 8.4.

38

Table 8.4 Characteristics of Treated Effluent from Plantations/Estates Using Two-Stage Treatment SI. No. Plantation/ Estate PH BOD COD
-

SS

TDS

1 2 3
4

CCL, Karadibetta Karadikhan Estate Harley Estate, Sakleshpur Sulugodu Estate Alur taluk Standard of KSPCB

3.9 4.3 4.3 4.7 6,0 to 9.0

10,500 480 2,250 1,860 100

1,392 4,993 4,533

-

348 64 110 192 200

1,816 1,918 3,940

-

8.3.4 Material & Water Balance

Fruits are the raw materials and (clean) green beans are the finished product in the plantation/estate. During wet processing, only water is added. Typical figures obtained during indepth studies are shown in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5 Material Balance in Production of Beans from Fruits Variety Fruit Dry Parchment (Figures in Kg)

Clean Coffee

Arabica Robusta

5500 4700

1225 1200

1000 1000

Roughly therefore 78% by weight of Arabica and 74% by weight of Robusta fruits are removed in wet process. However a considerable part of it is lost as moisture because dry parchment contains about 12% moisture. Generation of wastewater by wet process is reported to be 80 kl per tonne of clean beans (CCRI, 1996-97) whereas CCL, Karadibetta has reported wastewater generation @ 10-12 kl per tonne of clean coffee because CCL uses high proportion of recycled water in the aqua pulper. This low water usage could be the reason for very high BOD of raw wastewater.
8.4 Conclusion

From the above it appears that the quality of treated wastewater is far from the desired one. This is despite the fact that the 'enzyme' is being added. When compared to the quality of similarly treated wastewater in Nullore Estate of the same owners, it is not clear why there is such a wide variance ( BOD varying from 5 mg/I to 12000 mg/1). No firm conclusion can be drawn about the effectiveness of enzyme treatment from these two estates, who did not divulge details about the enzyme, dosage and performance However, it is abundantly clear that the present method of treatment (recommended by KSPCB as per old NEERI study) practiced by the large estates is not at all satisfactory to render the quality suitable for irrigation according to the existing standards.

39

9.0 POLLUTION CONTROL IN COFFEE PROCESSING

General
The pollution problem in coffee plantation and coffee processing industries have been studied thoroughly and its status is summarized as below: A. Instant Coffee manufacturing result in water pollution and therefore deserve attention. B. Wet processing of coffee fruits in manufacturing of parchament coffee result in water pollution and therefore deserve attention. C. Dry processing of coffee is carried out by the farmers usually in small scale. Air pollution is negligible. D. Coffee curing is a dry process and no water is used in the process. Air pollution may be caused by (i) Fuel burning for energy production (as stand-by source of electricity in general) and (ii) Emission of dust due to huller operation and use of air aspiration. The stack emission is usually controlled. Husk generated as solid waste is reused completely.

9.1

Instant Coffee Manufacturing plant

9.1.1 Wastewater Treatment Practices

1. The wastewater treatment in HLL is carried out by aerobic biological treatment followed by chemical treatment to reduce colour (Tertiary treatment). 2. Asian Coffee Ltd. (Production 2000 tonnes; annual turnover : Rs. 54 crores) located in Medak District, Andhra Pradesh uses the following process: - pH correction - Chemical precipitation - High Rate Anaerobic Filtration - Activated Sludge Extended Aeration By this process ACL is able to bring down the raw wastewater characteristics of BOD:2180, COD:4160, pH:5.45, O&G:28.0, Total Solids:3880 to BOD:100, O&G<10.0 and TSS:2000 mg/l. The wastewater is required to be discharged on land for irrigation as per the consent order of APPCB. 3. Nestle India Ltd. reported that they use Activated Sludge Process, but no details were available. Their stipulated standard of treatment is BOD <30.0, COD<250.0 and SS<150.0 for their plant at Nanjangud, Mysore. Apart from the use of (a) Two stage aerobic biological treatment and (b) Anaerobicfilter followed by extended aeration, and other processes have also been tried. Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) Process is often used. However, reports of the treatment of instant coffee wastewater in UASBs are conflicting. While some report successful full scale mesophilic operation, others reported failure in operation beyond 50 days, resulting in rise in Total Volatile

Fatty Acids (TVFA) (Lanting, 1989). A study by Dinsdale et. al. (1997) examined operation of UASB in the thermophilic operation. The wastewater characteristics are shown in Table 9.1. In the aforementioned study, Nitrogen and Phosphorus (as urea and DAP) were added to give a COD: N: P ratio of 400:7:1. Seed was taken from a pilot plant UASB operating mesophilically on instant coffee wastewater at the Nestle Instant Coffee Factory, Hayes, London, U. K. It was found that both mesophilic and thermophilic UASBs could be operated with low TVFA and good COD removal. The mesophilic reactor achieved a marginally better effluent quality with average COD removal of 76% and TVFA of 25 mg/l compared to 70% COD removal and 100 mg/l TVFA level in the thermophilic conditions. The maximum sustainable Organic Leading Rate was 10 kg COD/cum./day on the basis of settled wastewater and after nutrient addition.
Table 9.1 Characteristics of Raw Settled Coffee Waste for Treatment by USAB Process (after Dinsdale) Analysis
(

Range of Values

Total Solids /l) 10.4 13.2 (3) Volatile Solids (g/1) 10.4 13.0 (2) Suspended Solids (g/1) 0.6 1.0 (2) Total COD (mg 02/1) 7400 18,000 (15) Total Lipids (g/1) 1.5 (1) Calcium (mg/1) 70 90 (2) Potassium (mg/1) 90 110 (2) PH 4.1-4.6(5) = 0= Number of separate samples taken from the effluent stream for analysis.

Since BOD reduction has not been reported, it is unclear what was the order of reduction. However, as is common with characteristics of UASB reactors, further treatment would be required to bring down the effluent to stipulated level of 100 mg/1 BOD, as well as removal of colour. The typical characteristics of raw wastewater of three major manufacturers of instant coffee in India are shown in Table 9.2. It appears that there is substantial variation in the characteristics. One of the reason is that HLL uses chicory roots which has more carbonaceous matter. The other reason is very limited data. Only typical values are indicated for Nestle and Asian while HLL figures are based on geometric mean of three sets of data.
Table 9.2 Typical Characteristics of Raw Wastewater of Major Manufacturers of Instant Coffee Sl. Characteristics Manufacturers SO42 Cl" No H BOD DS COD SS

1. HLL, Mysore 2. Nestle, Nanjangud, Mysore 3. Asian Coffee, A. P.

5.60 5.60 5.45

1022 510 2180

5162 1346 4160

402 210 640

815 1195 3240

56 10 71

90 29 290

41

The treated effluent characteristics are shown for these plants in Table 9.3. The cost of treatment related to the turnover is Rs. 747.8 per ton by ACL, whereas the same for HLL is Rs. 1160/- per ton. However the percentage of cost of treatment related to overall production cost to ACL is 0.16% whereas the same for HLL is 0.26%. These percentages are considered to be reasonable considering this is an agro-based industry.
Table 9.3 Characteristics of Treated Effluents of Major Instant Coffee Manufacturers Sl. ManufacNo turers Characteristics TDS COD SS

Treatment details

pH

BOD

Cl"

SOa

1.

HLL, Mysore

2. 3.

Nestle, Nanjangud Asian Coffee, A.P.

1. Aerobic biological treatment 2. Chemical treatment to reduce colour Activated Sludge Process 1. pH correction 2. Chemical precipitation 3. High rat Anaerobic Filtration 4. Activated Sludg Extended Aeration

6.6

11.6

177.5

55.6 996.4

98.1 224.9

80

6.7

182.0

36.2 667.8 180.5

72.4

90

100.0

2000

Notes: (a) SI. No. 1 data based on geom. mean of 7 sets of data. (b) Si. No. 2 data based on geom. mean of 6 sets of data.

It is clear that the current practice of wastewater treatment in India is satisfactory and the cost associated with it is reasonable. Consequently the existing standards are achievable with reasonable technical and financial input.
9.1.2. Air Pollution and its Control

During processing, appreciable dust is generated. To control the air pollution, air pollution control devices i.e. catalytic converter, cyclone & multi-cyclone are installed depending upon the suitability of particular device Fuel oil & HSD are used as an energy source, which gives rise to air pollution in the form of SPM, SO2 and NO . The relevant standards of emission & chimney heights are applicable which are followed by the industries.
R

42

9.2

Coffee Plantations - Wet Processing (Parchament Coffee)

Preparation of washed coffee requires pulping and washing equipment and substantial quantity of clean water. The approximate water requirement for production of one tonne of clean coffee is 80,000 1 for Arabica & 93,000 1 for Robusta while using conventional pulper & washers. The coffee effluents are acidic, containing high amounts of suspended and dissolved organic solids, effluent BOD ranges from 2,500 to 12,000 mg/l. To reduce water consumption, wash water is recycled in aqua pulpers. State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs), apply general standard for discharge of wastewater to contain the pollution of perennial water sources in accordance with the Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act (1974). The coffee processing industries are required to obtain permission from SPCBs for wet processing of coffee by giving an undertaking that the effluents will be treated to the standards prescribed, or stored within their premises. As already mentioned, such standards are not quite achieved particularly in case of wastewater of high BOD.

9.2.1 Wastewater Treatment Method

The various studies conducted at the CCRI (Central Coffee Research Institute) in collaboration with the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NERRI), Nagpur from 1978 to 1980, have shown that biological methods involving anaerobic digestion followed by aerobic lagooning were suitable to treat the high strength organic wastes. After removing the coffee pulp using an appropriate screen (8 mm dia), wastewater from different sections is diverted to an equalization tank 9since effluent of different strength are produced in different sections, like pulping washing etc., so there is a need to equalize the effluent of various strength at various sections). The equalization tank is generally built of brick masonry with acid proof cement with suitable arrangement of water tightness, the suspended solid settles at the bottom so proper arrangement of the de-sludging has to be made. The detention time is usually kept as 1 day. The pH of wastewater needs to be corrected to 6.5 to 8.0 before it enters into the anaerobic lagoon. Generally, the wastewater is deficient in Nutrients, primarily Nitrogen. For sustainability & efficiency of the biological processes the BOD:N:P should be 100:2.5:0.5. In case of nutrient deficiency, additives like urea for Nitrogen & Phosphoric acid for Phosphorous are to be added into wastewater to match the desired ratio. Wastewater is neutralized by addition of lime dose @ 250 mg/1. the effluent from equalization tank is fed to anaerobic lagoon, the detention period of 8 days. The effluent from the anaerobic lagoon is led to Activated Sludge Process and extended aeration system. The under flow from the sludge drying beds can be mixed with final effluent also. To maintain the required mixed liquor suspended solid about 4000 mg/1 in the aeration system, part of the sludge from the secondary settling tank is recirculated into the ditch. The effluent from the extended aeration activated sludge unit is led to a secondary settling tank for sludge separation and disposal. The supernatant from the clarifier shall be disposed off into the nearby river body, provided the effluent standards for disposal (BOD max = 30 mg/1) is achieved. If the desired effluent standard for disposal into river body is not achieved, then some

43

other alternatives i.e. anaerobic lagoon followed by aerated lagoon & finally polishing pond or anaerobic filters (double stage) followed by polishing pond may be deployed. The filtrate form the sludge drying beds can be led back to aeration tank or can be disposed off along with final effluent. The system flow diagram is presented in Fig 9.1. The dried sludge can be used for agricultural purposes or can be disposed off by incineration (the former being preferred).
9.2.2 Wastewater Treatment Methods Used in other Countries

In many coffee producing countries, both aquapulper and fermentation are used. The sources of wastewater generation are as under : Pulping Waste Beanwash after pulper Fermentation tank Typical characteristics of wastewater are given in Table 9.4. Two types of treatment schemes have been employed. (i) The first is Anaerobic Lagoon/ Filter followed by Diffused Aeration (Fig. 9.2). In this scheme, 95 96 % BOD reduction is reported to be achieved. This means that at the higher end of wastewater strength (BOD being in the order of 8,000 mg/1), typical treated effluent BOD would be about 400 mg/l, which would still need treatment, before being used for irrigation.

Table 9.4 Typical Characteristics of Raw Wastewater in Coffee Wet Processing Si. No.
1 2 3 4 5 6

Parameters
Colour PH COD BOD TSS Total Solids

Range (mg/1)
Brown 3.5-4.6 15,000 30,000 5,000-8,000 5,000 8,000 20,000 30,000

(ii) The second scheme of treatment (Fig. 9.3) substitutes a Trickling Filter in place of Aeration Tank, other unit operations/processes remaining the same. The efficiency goes down to 80 85 % removal of BOD/COD. This means that the treatment would not yield the desired quality of effluent. With influent BOD of 5,000 mg/l, the finally treated effluent would have BOD 750 mg/l. Further treatment would be required to bring down the BOD and COD level of effluent.

In Costa Rica, UASB process has been used in San Juanillo Coffee Mill. The flue gas from burning of biogas is used for drying coffee. The salient features reported are shown in Table
9.5. Table 9.5 Aspects of UASB Treatment Plant for San Juanillo Coffee Mill, Costa Rica

SI. No.

Aspect

Value

1 2 3 4

Capacity of WTP Treatment Efficiency Biogas generated (max) Substituted lumber

4,000 Kg COD / day 500 cum./ day @ 8 Kg COD/cum. 80% COD removal 1000 cum. / day 150 cum. per season

It has been reported that the treatment plant cost is US $ 113,776 to set up which is equivalent to US $ 228 per cum. per day or Rs.11,000 per cum. per day. The quality of treated wastewater is not reported; however, it can be derived to be 1600 mg/l of COD and perhaps 500 to 600 mg/l of BOD. The operating cost has been reported to be US $ 2 per tonne of berries. Considering US $ 500 per tonne of berries (fruits), the percentage cost of treatment with respect to product is 0.4 %. This percentage would increase, if add-on treatment is considered. Such details have not been reported in case of San Juanillo plant.
9.3. Pollution Issues and its Control in Coffee Curing Works In coffee curing, entire process is dry and as such there is no water pollution. Air pollution is

caused by fuel burning in the D.G. set used as standby power source. The stack heights are stipulated by the concerned SPCB, which are followed by the industries. No hazardous materials are used. Noise pollution is generally within the stipulated limits. The only solid waste produced is husk, which is reused anyway.
9.4 Suggested Method of Treatment of Wastewater

It is seen from the foregoing paragraph that the existing methods of treatment are not adequate so much so that the desired quality of effluent is achieved. One of the reason is that the wastewater is fairly strong; other reason is inadequacy of treatment units. It may be noted, however, that the wastewater is amenable to biological treatment after addition of nutrients. Quantity of Wastewater generation : Small farms with cultivated area of less than 4 ha each constitute the largest cultivation i.e., more than 93.4% of national total. However, they mostly use dry processing. Even if some of them use wet processing, the resultant quantity of wastewater would be very small: Average production of beans per ha = 867 kg ('98-'99) Total production for 4 ha = 867 x 4 = 3468 kg Wastewater generated @ 80 litre/kg = 277 kl Assuming that this wastewater is produced in 100 to120 days, wastewater generated = 2.3 kld.

On similar basis, wastewater generated for medium plantations (more than 4 ha and upto 10 ha), would be about 5.9 kid. It is to be noted that wet processing is a batch process and therefore the daily discharge can vary widely. Furthermore, the number of days of operation may be even lesser. On the other hand, by using recirculation of water in aquapulper, actual wastewater generation may be considerably less than the often used figure of 80 litre per kg of clean bean. For large plantations, the area under cultivation varies widely. Furthermore water use varies substantially. Some use recycling of water thereby reducing the water use. This makes the wastewater quite strong and difficult to bring down the BOD /COD to acceptable limit. Others may use more water to make the raw wastewater easier to treat. To illustrate this point, two examples can be considered from the data gathered. In Karadibetta estate (381 ha cultivated area) (i) Total annual production Wet processing done for 60% Water consumption in aquawasher @ 12 kl /T of bean = 350 T of clean bean = 210 T of clean bean =2520k1

Wastewater generation is reported as 20 to 24 kld No. of days ETP is used (ii) = 126 to 105 days

In Kolarkhan estate, Sangameshwar, (175 ha) = 300 - 400 T fruits = 72 to 96 T green beans

Total annual Production

Wastewater generated is reported to be 160 kld If 100 days working is assumed, Water consumption = 160x100/84 = 1901/kg of bean This figure is high so there is a possibility that fresh water may be mixed to dilute treated wastewater.
Quality of Raw Wastewater

As mentioned in the foregoing, the quality of raw wastewater is dependent on water use and therefore the variation is quite large. However, a typical case may be considered: = 200 ha Area under cultivation Production of beans @867 kg/ha =173.4 T Wastewater 80 1/kg = 13872 kl = 13872/120 = 115.6 kld Wastewater/day @ 120 days A typical flow rate of 100 kld would be reasonable. Figures for generation of BOD per unit weight of beans are not readily available.

46

Internationally, a range of 5000 to 8000 mg/1 of BOD is reported. In previous studies by NEERI, a BOD range of 3000-4000 mg/l was used. With recycling in place it is considered that a figure of 6500 mg/1 for BOD should be a reasonable average. The alternative treatment schemes have been conceived with the following raw wastewater quality: Color & Odour Brown Coffee like Color and Pungent Coffee Odor pH - Acidic (pH range between 3.5 - 4.6) COD - 25,000 mg/1 BOD - 6500 mg/l TSS - 5000 mg/1 T. Solids - 25,000 mg/1 The major constraints to be considered in deciding the treatment technology are: That the coffee processing is a seasonal industry operating for 120 to 180 days per year, It is a batch process resulting in release of wastewater in batches Therefore the treatment scheme that is adopted should be one which must have a waste equalization facility and the process units be such that: - have the ability to accept shock loads the startup period is short . be based on a technology that requires minimal operator attention Considering the above constraints the following basic schemes / technology options have been studied. All the process options would essentially involve primary treatment comprising screening, equalization and pH correction. The latter is required to adjust the pH as the coffee waste has low pH (about 3 to 5) and need to be adjusted prior to any form of biological treatment. Equalization will depend upon the capacity of the wastewater generated.

9.4.1 Treatment objectives

By and large, the treated wastewater is used for irrigation in coffee plantations both in India as well as in other coffee growing countries. In India, despite the enforcement standards of water act by the SPCBs, the compliance is far from satisfactory. Judging by the data gathered, it is seen that wastewater is strong and it is quite difficult to bring down the BOD to less than 100 mg/l resorting to tertiary treatment. For this study, two approaches have been considered:

Approach A : Secondary biological with an objective to bring down the BOD to less than 500
mg/1

Approach B : Secondary biological treatment followed by tertiary treatment to bring down the BOD to less than 100 mg/1
These two approaches have been considered keeping in view the treatment adopted in other countries and techno-economic viability or achievability of treatment objectives.

47

The conceptual treatment schemes for Approach A are described below:

1) Treatment Scheme I
This scheme comprises the following units (Refer Fig 9.4 for the diagram) a) Screening, equalization, waste transfer by pumping, pH adjustment. Recommended equalization is of 24 hour. b) Anaerobic lagoons bulk volume type with a HRT of about 30 days. c) Bulk Volume Aerated Reactor - Aerated Lagoon with floating surface aerators operated on low MLSS and F/M ratio. d) Settling Pond cum polishing pond a gravity settling pond with facility of storage of sludge for one season. The removal efficiency and the expected waste water quality after each stage of treatment is shown in Table 9.6.

Table 9.6 Treatment Scheme - I: Process Efficiency Parameter ( mg/I)

BOD COD TSS

Inlet Cone
6500 25000 5000

After Anaerobic Lagoon Removal

70 to 75 65 to 70 75 to 80

Concentration
1600 -2000 8 to 10,000 1000-1250

After Aerated Lagoon /Stab Pond % Removal Concentration

75 to 80 60-65 85 to 90 300 to 500 3000 -4000 200 to 250

This option would require a relatively a large area for treatment. Advantages: Low expertise in operation As the process is based on Bulk Volume reactors large volumes ensure that stabilization and start up vis a vis filling of reactors is commensurate with each other i.e. by the time the reactors are filled, the waste water will be achieving a desired water quality. The water stored in the reactors can be utilized as irrigation water in dry season. 2) Treatment Scheme II This schemes comprises the following units: (Refer Fig 9.5 for flow diagram) a) Screening, equalization, waste transfer by pumping, pH adjustment.

48

b) Bulk Volume Anaerobic bio Reactor with covered floating Polythene roof with bio gas recovery, storage and utilization. c) Bulk Volume Aerated Reactor - Aerated Lagoon with floating surface aerators operated on low MLSS and F/M ratio. d) Settling Pond cum polishing pond and gravity settling pond with facility of storage of sludge for one season. The removal efficiency and the expected waste water quality after each stage of treatment is shown in Table 9.7.

Table 9.7 Treatment Scheme - II: Process Efficiency

Parameter (mg/l) Inlet Cone After BV Anaer. Reactor % Removal Concentration After Aerated Lagoon /Stab Pond % Removal Concentration

BOD
COD TSS

6500 25000 5000

80 to 85 75 to 80 75 to 80

1000-1300

75 to 80 60-65 85 to 90

300 to 400

5000-6000 1000-1250

2000-2400 200 to 250

Advantages:

Energy positive

possible to recover energy about 25 to 30 litres of bio gas having a energy potential of 24 to 28 kW per kg of berry processed of which about 30 % is recoverable in form of electric energy.

Due to its large volume the bulk volume bio-reactor (anaerobic reactor) can take shock loads without effecting the performance. As the second stage of the treatment is based on Bulk Volume Aerobic reactors, large volumes ensure that stabilization and start up vis -a -vis filling of reactors is commensurate with each other i.e. by the time the reactors are filled the waste water will be achieving a desired water quality. The water stored in the reactors can be utilized as irrigation water in dry season. Disadvantages Higher capital cost due to membrane cover. Bio Gas generation & handling requires proper safety measures.

3) Treatment Scheme III

This schemes comprises the following units (Refer Fig 9.6 for flow diagram) a) Screening, equalization, waste transfer by pumping, pH adjustment. b) Enhanced High Rate Physico Chemical Treatment (PCT) to remove the colloidal and supra colloidal organics using chemicals basically Poly Aluminum Chloride (PAC) & polyelectrolyte and clarification using a high rate, clarification system such as TPI or DAF. Removal BOD and COD is excepted in the range of 60 %. c) Two Stage Activated Sludge first stage loaded at an organic loading rate of 5-6 kg/m3 and operating at MLSS of 6 to 8000 mg/l followed by Second Stage which would be loaded at about 2kg/m3 and operating at MLSS of 4000 mg/l. The overall efficiency of the system will be about 90 %. d) Sludge Dewatering Beds. The removal efficiency and the expected waste water quality after each stage of treatment is shown in Table 9.8.

Table 9.8 Treatment Scheme - III: Process Efficiency Parameter ( mgn)

BOD

Inlet Conc
6500 25000 5000

After PCT % Removal Concentration

60 to 65 % 55 to 60 % 98% 2200-2400 10-11,000 100

After 2 Stage ASP % Removal Concentration 90 % 225 to 250

75% 95% 2500 to 2700 less than 100

COD TSS

Advantages : Low land area PCT ensures more or less instant start up and up to 60 % pollutants removal. The biological reactor will have a start up of about 2 weeks or so Disadvantages Higher Operating Costs Higher Sludge Generation; however the sludge can be converted into compost and used.

The comparative costs (capital as well as operation and maintenance) of suggested schemes in Approach A are shown in Table 9.9.
Table 9.9 Comparative Cost of Alternative Treatment Methods (Approach A) Alt Ia Method Lagoon Capital Cost/m O+M Cost/rri

Ib Ic

Anaerobic. + aerated lagoon Stabil pond BV Anaerobic reactor + aerated Lagoon + Stabil pond Physico - chemical treatment + 2 stage ASP

25,375 60,525 34,245

25.30 19.90 35.30

Approach B

Treatment of wastewatwer by biological methods such as anaerobic lagoons and aerated lagoons or any other biological treatment system would be able to bring down the BOD of treated wastewater to a level of about 500 to 600 mg per litre as described in Approach A. Normally, this level of BOD should be acceptable for reuse in the coffee plantation itself. However, the current standards specify that for discharge of the treated wastewater for use as irrigation water the BOD should be less than 100 mg/1 & total dissolved solids less than 2100 mg/l. In order to reduce the BOD to that level it would be necessary to put in a Physico-chemical Treatment (PCT). The PCT may involve oxidation of the organic wastewater which basically comprises of caffeine, lignin, tannin and alkaloids present in both soluble and supra-colloidal form exhibiting both BOD & COD. The conceptual treatment scheme proposed for reducing these organic substances by chemical oxidation is based on use of hydrogen peroxide as the oxidizing agent in presence of Ferrous Ion as a catalyst to oxidize and precipitate the organics (Fenton's Reaction) producing CO2, H2O plus inorganic salts. The extent of oxidation depends upon the amount of H 2 O 2 used. The theoretical H2O2 requirement is of the order of 2.1 kg per kg of COD/BOD oxidized. However in many cases complete digestion of the organics to CO2 and water is not required and this would reduce the H202 and other chemical requirements. The physical separation of BOD /COD with H2O2 may occur in two ways: Partial oxidation of organic contaminants results in polar (i.e. charged substances) which are amenable to sorption onto coagulants and flocculants. Enhanced physical separation by flotation is provided by H202 - which occurs by natural decomposition of H2O2 to oxygen & water i.e. H2O2 supersaturates the .wastewater with oxygen which results in the formation of evenly dispersed micro-bubbles which scavenge the organic particles as they rise to the surface. In the present case as only partial reduction is desired, the dosage of H 2 O 2 will be limited to physical separation by adsorption on to flocs of Coagulants/ Flocculants.

51

The dosage of H202 required about 300 to 400 mg/l in presence of Ferrous Ion concentration of 35 to 40 mg/l plus a lime dosage of 100 to 120 mg/l and a polyelectrolyte dosage of 1 to 1.5 mg/1. These are estimated dosages; the final dosages need to be established after bench scale studies of the wastewater. The conceptual scheme would comprise of the following units. A sump in which the wastewater from the Aerated Lagoons will be collected and then transferred for tertiary treatment by H20 2 . The wastewater would be pumped to a reaction tank having an agitator. In this reaction tank, Ferrous Sulphate and Hydrogen Peroxide would be added. The Ferrous Sulphate is only for make-up and for the initial starting of reaction it acts as a catalyst. Hydrogen Peroxide will be consumed. The pH may drop in the reaction and to adjust the pH it would be necessary to provide an alkali (such as lime, caustic soda or soda ash) for pH adjustment; a small dose of polyelectrolyte (about 1 mg/l or so) would be required. Clarification of the wastewater in a TPI or a tube settlers is proposed. The above chemical oxidation of wastewater will be able to reduce colour and BOD and it will ensure that the BOD of the treated wastewater is less than 100 mg/l on a consistent basis (Table 9.10). For flow sheet, refer Fig 9.7.

Table 9.10 Expected Quality of Treated Wastewater (Approach B)

Scheme

Description

Quality of Wastewater

BOD mg/1
II a Anaerobic Lagoon + Aerated Lagoon + PCT & 90

COD mg/l
700

SS mg/1
20

SDB
II b BV Anaerobic Reactor (Covered) + Aerated Lagoon + PCT & SDB PCT + Activated Sludge + Chem. Oxidation & Tertiary Filter + SDB 90 700 20

II c

90

700

10

Comparative costs of alternative treatment methods (Approach B) are shown in Table 9.11.

52

Table 9.11 Comparative Cost of Alternative Treatment Methods (Approach B) Alt Treatment Process Capital Cost/m3 (Rs.) Direct Operating Cost (Rs.) Energy Recovery O+M Cost/m3 (Rs.)

II a II b II c

Anaerobic. + aerated lagoon + PCT & SDB BV Anaerobic Reactor + Aerated Lagoon + PCD & SDB PCT + Activated Sludge + Chem. Oxidation & Tertiary Filter + SDB

43,351 78,651 41,305

38.10 48.30 44.40

0 16.50 0

38.10 31.80 44.40

A comparison of treatment costs for Approaches A & B is presented in Table 9.12. While working out the annualized cost it is assumed that the interest on capital at the rate of 16% would be applicable for comparison. No repayment of capital has been considered.
Table 9.12 Comparative Cost of Alternative Treatment Methods (Approaches A & B) Treatment Alt. Ia Annualized Cost/ m3 (Rs.) 0 & M Cost/ m' (Rs.) Treated Wastewater (BOD/SS)

lb Ic II a II b II c

4085.30 9703.90 5514.50 6974.26 12615.96 6653.20

25.30 19.90 35.30 38.10 31.80 44.40

450/100 450/100 250/100 90/20 90/20 90/10

It is seen from the Table 9.12 that the most cost effective alternative would be alternative I a with the quality of treated wastewater as BOD 450 and SS 100. The most cost-effective alternative for bringing the BOD to less than 100 would be alternative II c. however it would nearly double the operating cost. Moreover, the cost of chemicals is expected to rise due to cost escalation thereby making it more expensive over a period of time. It is imperative therefore that the treatment objective for the immediate future may aim at reducing the BOD to less than 500. Once this is attained, further reduction may be attempted at.

53

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10.0 PROPOSED STANDARDS FOR COFFEE PROCESSING INDUSTRIES

10.1 General The existing general standards for discharge of wastewater in water bodies have been reviewed with respect to each of the three categories of coffee processing industry- (a) the instant coffee manufacturing (b) Coffee curing and (c) Coffee plantations. The review was based on mainly three aspects: Compliance of existing standards in force Cost of achieving the standards Technical/ Managerial problems in complying with the standards

In the following paragraphs these are dealt with for each of the three categories. 10.2 Instant Coffee Industry A review of consent conditions stipulating the standards and compliance records with respect to a few instant coffee producing units show that the industry does not face any serious problem in attaining the stipulated standards with respect to air and water pollution. The results of in-depth study clearly indicate that as far as control of air pollution is concerned, the consent conditions are complied with. These relate mostly to air emissions from the stand by power source (DG sets) and from the processes. The use of stacks of stipulated height for control of SO2 does not warrant any change. The control of SPM by use of cyclones in the process units as an existing system is also fairly satisfactory, economical and attainable. While some SPCB stipulates SPM emission standard as 115 mg/m 3 , others use 150 mg/m 3 . The ambient air quality standards used by the SPCBs are as per existing standards under the Air Act and are complied with by the industries. As far as control of odour (aroma, in this particular case) is concerned, the industry uses catalytic converters for complete oxidation of aromatic compounds. 10.3 Coffee Curing Works In the coffee curing works, there is only air emission, both from the processes and also from the stacks of DG sets. The existing emission standards as stipulated by the SPCBs require no change i.e. the control of SO2 by stipulated stack height and emission of SPM shall not exceed 150 mg/m3, Further more the consent condition requires that there shall be no smell or odour nuissance from the industry. These standards and conditions are achieved without any difficulty by the industry. Furthermore, the noise standards for noise generated with in the factory premises and in ambient should also remain unaltered. 10.4 Coffee Plantations - Wet Processing As discussed in detail in section 5 (in-depth studies) the existing standards for quality of treated wastewater are not met at all. In fact, in most cases, the quality is far from the stipulated BOD and SS. This is particularly true for medium and large plantations. The reason is that the

61

wastewater is very strong and the existing method of treatment is completely inadequate. In almost all cases the wastewater is used for irrigation in the coffee gardens. The coffee pulping & washing wastewater contains not only high BOD but also colour due to presence of lignin. Removal of these requires expensive secondary and tertiary treatment. To achieve the existing standards such treatment as given in Approach B would be necessary. It is doubtful whether such elaborate and expensive treatment would be practicable in coffee plantations which are located in rural and semi-rural areas. Moreover the treatment plants would be operated only 3-4 months a year. The choice therefore lies between (i) the existing situation where effluents containing several thousand mg/l of BOD are discharged and (ii) adopting very sophisticated treatment requiring skillful operation and high cost of treatment. While the former is not desirable, the latter would be very difficult to achieve. In view of the above difficulties, it is considered desirable that a step by step approach would be practical and perhaps acceptable given the constraints. The treatment alternatives suggested in Approach A to bring down the BOD to 500 mg/l and use it for irrigation in the coffee plantation itself, as an interim measure would be feasible. Once this is achieved, further reduction may be considered at a later date depending upon the success towards the introduction of a stricter standard. This interim standard can be introduced considering the special problems of the coffee plantations. For small plantations, no standard is suggested as the volume of the discharge is very small and therefore their impact on soil is considered insignificant. In Kerala, there are large number of such small plantations for which the KPCB does not enforce the provisions of the Water act. For such small plantations two alternatives may be considered - (i) solar drying of effluents in lined ponds (ii) using the effluent for mixing with compost which would be gainfully used as organic manure. The sludge can be used for growing mushrooms. The findings of the in-depth study were deliberated by the Peer & Core committee of the Central Pollution Control Board and the following standards were recommended for notifications:
A. The points of di :'fissions could be summarized as follows:

(i)

Coffee growers with more than 25 ha plantation area could be considered as growers with medium to large size holdings.

(ii) 98% of the coffee growers have small holdings covering plantation area less than 10 ha. There growers use about 3000 litres of water per day and contributes to less than 20 kg BOD a day. (iii) Small to medium growers 10-25ha)generates 20-50 kg BOD /day and uses 3000-10000 litres of water per day. (iv) Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore has developed a high rate bio-reactor using methanobacterial attachment for treating coffee effluent along with production of bio-gas. Bioreactor shall replace anaerobic lagoon and its area requirement will be equal to 5% of equivalent anaerobic lagoons. The reactor's efficiency in terms of COD removal will be around 70%.

62

(v) Educating the planters is the need of the day. (vi) Modern Aquapulper has reduced the water consumption by one-third. Originally water usage per ton of coffee bean processes was 80,000 liter for Arabica and 93,000 liter for Robusta in conventional pulpers and its washers. (vii) The concept of transporting wastewater of coffee plantations from the area of small growers through tankers would not be possible as the plants grow in altitudes i.e. hills. (viii)The treated wastewater with a BOD more than 100 mg/1 is unsuitable for irrigation. The BOD and COD values in the untreated coffee effluent are in the ranges of 10,000 13,000 mg/l and 18,000-23,000 mg/l respectively. B. The following interim standards were recommended for notification: (i) The coffee growers of 25 ha and above i.e. large sized holding shall meet a BOD3 27 C limit of 500 mg/l for their wet coffee processing wastewater within a period of one year from the date of notification of the standards. In the mean time, the Coffee Board will come up with alternative technologies to cope with the standard by April 30, 2005. The treated wastewater after dilution with 5 times of irrigation water can be used for irrigation and in no case shall be discharged into surface water bodies. (ii) The small and medium growers of wet coffee processing plantations of area less than 25 ha, shall store the wastewater arising out of plantation activities in lined polythene sheet storage lagoons for solar evaporation. The sludge could be mixed with compost and used as organic manure. The small to medium growers (10-25 ha) shall provide primary treatment comprising equalization followed by neutralization for wet coffee processing wastewaters prior to its storage. (iii)(a) The coffee processing wastes, in case of an `Instant Coffee' industry shall be treated in a full fledged two stage activated sludge plant (ASP) so as to comply with the following standards for irrigation: Parameters S.No. 1. 2. 3. PH BOD TDS Standards 6.5-8.5 100m /1 2100 m /1

(b) The treated wastewater shall not be disposed into surface water bodies.

63