Abstract

Peripheral areas experiencing an economic downturn in traditional industries such as agriculture often consider tourism to be a viable alternative. Unfortunately these areas do not always enter into the business of tourism with a very clear understanding of the associated difficulties and challenges. This paper reports on a review of 11 case studies describing tourism development in peripheral regions from around the world. These cases were analysed using a Tourism Systems Framework adapted from Winnetts (1992) Behavioural Systems approach. Factors found to contribute to the success of tourism development in peripheral regions included the presence of a champion or leader, effective privatepublic sector partnerships, the identification and development of specialist attractions, government control and support, good market research, and community involvement. The analyses also identified a number of barriers to successful tourism development including a lack of control over negative impacts, difficulties with finance, community opposition and a lack of infrastructure. The results supported the use of the Tourism Systems Framework for guiding the planning, implementation and control of tourism development in peripheral regions. Ms Anna Blackman is a PhD student at James Cook University, Townsville, Australia. Ms Faith Foster is a Tutor at James Cook University. Ms Tracey Hyvonen is a James Cook University Graduate. Mr Alf Kuilboer is a PhD student at James Cook University. Dr Gianna Moscardo is a Senior Lecture in Tourism, James Cook University.

Factors Contributing to Successful Tourism Development in Peripheral Regions

Anna Blackman, Faith Foster, Tracey Hyvonen, Bronwyn Jewell Alf Kuilboer, and Gianna Moscardo

Introduction As peripheral communities experience downturns in global and regional economies, and loss of employment opportunities, services and young people, tourism is often pursued as the `saviour' of their towns. Although tourism can have many advantages such as providing employment, generating foreign exchange, and providing infrastructure, the realities of tourism are not always clearly understood (Jeffreys & Munn, 1997; Knowd, 1998; Lewis, 2001; Murphy & Murphy, 2002). This paper will examine these realities in more detail presenting the results of a review of 11 case studies of tourism development taken from around the world. These case studies were examined for factors contributing to successful and problematic outcomes with the resulting themes organised into a tourism systems

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model based on a framework offered by Winnett (1992). Characteristics of tourism in peripheral regions Brown and Hall (2000) note that peripherality is often defined as spatial feature. Peripheral areas are those that are located at the distant or remote edges of regions. This spatial dimension is however, only one part of a definition of peripherality. According to Brown and Hall (2000) definitions must also include political, social, and economic dimensions. Peripheral regions are often considered to be insignificant in political processes and lack political power. Peripheral regions are usually economically disadvantaged and experiencing a decline in traditional activities, usually agriculture. Peripheral regions typically suffer from a number of social problems associated with economic and political disadvantage. Botterill and colleagues (2002) provide the following set of characteristics that distinguish peripheral from core regions. Peripheral regions typically - Have low levels of economic vitality and are dependent on traditional industries - Are more rural and remote , often with high scenic values - Have an aging and declining population - Are reliant on imported technology and information - Are remote from decision making and feel alienated - Have poor infrastructure and amenities (adapted from Botterill, et al., 2002, p. 9). In addition to these features, a number of authors have listed characteristics of, and challenges for, tourism to peripheral regions . These include - Importance of tourism as an alternative to declining traditional industries or extractive activities

Limited market opportunities Access difficulties for visitors Seasonality Dominance of small and medium enterprises - Potentially negative impacts on small communities and sensitive environments - Lack of community capability in terms of education, resources and experience (see Buhalis, 1999a; Pearce, 2002; Wanhill, 1997). Research into tourism in peripheral regions

Blomgren and Sorenson (1998) provide a major review of research into tourism in per ipheral regions. They concluded that this research can be seen as falling into two main categories. The first category they labelled concrete-practical and it included the bulk of the published research. This type of research describes attributes of tourism in various peripheral regions usually with a focus on a specific factor. Typically such research is based upon a case study method, but often the analysis is only concerned with a specific factor. Wilkinson (1994), for example, provides case studies of four Caribbean islands with a factor specific focus on evidence of the use of sustainable tourism principles in government policies and planning. Augustyn (1998) investigates the same focus in a Polish case study. Weaver (1998) provides another Caribbean example with two cases exploring the impact of tourism on the differences between core and peripheral areas. In contrast to this type of research, Blomgren and Sorenson (1998) argue for more research that is critical-reflexive. That is, more examination of the perceptions of tourists. Two other points can be made about the existing research into tourism in peripheral areas. Firstly, many papers have emphasised failures and the factors associated with failure (see Buhalis, 1999a; Sharpley, 2002; and Wilkinson, 1994, for

examples). Not surprisingly, Pearce (2002) argues for more analyses of success. Murphy and Murphy (2002) provide the second key point to be made about the research into this area - that it focuses on planning rather than management. According to Murphy and Murphy (2002), managing includes planning, organising, leading and c ontrolling. The majority of tourism management texts have however, focused on planning and/or organising without due consideration given to operation or implementation. Other aspects not considered are the concepts, influencing factors, procedures and methods that complement the management process (Hall, 2000; Knowd, 1998; Lewis, 2001; Murphy & Murphy, 2002; Winnett, 1992). Figure 1 is a conceptual and strategic framework for planning and developing tourism in peripheral communities labelled the Tourism Systems Framework. This model was adapted from Winnett's (1992) Behavioural Systems Framework which was developed in the conte xt of managing effective persuasive communication programs in national parks and other protected areas. It is not offered as a final or definitive approach to tourism planning and management, but rather as a model that begins to incorporate more detail into the implemen-tation and operational stages of managing tourism at a destination. The Tourism Systems Framework describes the management process of tourism in four steps Planning, Organising, Leading and Controlling. The first step, planning, involves the community as a collective with all stakeholders a part of the process. Consensus amongst parties is needed, especially about the type of tourism product and image to be portrayed. Failure to consider all stakeholders, whether direct or indirect, can lead to ventures failing. Once consensus is reached,

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STEPS
PLANNING - Stakeholders - Community - Operator

CONCEPTS, INLUENCING FACTORS, PROCEDURES, METHODS

CONCEPTS - Determine Consensus - Type of tourism image and product to portray - How Control

ORGANISING - Marketing - Promotion - Community Goals/ Objectives

Formative research

INFLUENCING EFFECTS - Plan of Action - Carrying Capacity - Authenticity - Development - Impacts - Feasibility - Competitive Advantage - Transport

LEADING - Individual Champion - Directing/Influencing Stakeholders - Motivation

Facilities for tourists and locals

PROCEDURES - Education - Training - Arrangements for Mutual Benefit

Retention of independence of stakeholders CONTROLLING - Monitoring - Evaluating - Corrective Action

METHODS - Environmental Audits - Carrying Capacity Management - Committee Reviews - Process Monitoring Data

Figure 1: Tourism Systems Framework organising development and delivery of the area as a product is required. Although this step involves marketing and promotion to ac hieve the community goals and objectives already established, more research and analysis is required. This includes a structured plan of action with awareness of influencing affects such as the carrying capa city of an area, transport, development issues, possible environmental and social impacts, the feasibility of ventures, and competitive advantages in the market place. Peripheral communities need to consider internal and external regional markets, as well as an analysis of actual and potential visitors, demand and financial viability. The third step in the Tourism Systems Framework is l e a d i n g . Winnett (1992) argues that successful programs often have an individual champion or leader. These champions provide motivation and direction for stakeholders. The champion influences procedures such as education and training of stakeholders, and arranges for mutual benefits for stakeholders and partners. Ventures that have been successful in the first two steps may fail at this level. Champions may leave the area, leadership may be lacking, and education and training ignored. To ensure ongoing success of a peripheral tourism venture, the final step, controlling, r e q u i r e s monitoring, evaluating, and if necessary, corrective action. Although a community may have included this in their initial planning, many do not implement this step. Methods for tourism include environmental audits, carrying capacity management, committee reviews and monitoring systems. Undertaking this final step in the management process can eliminate unwanted negative affects and failure. Monitoring and evaluating of internal and external factors can identify potential problems in time for corrective action to be implemented. A final point on

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the Tourism Systems Framework are the arrows leading back to planning (Winnett, 1992). This is to acknowledge that tourism as an industry is not static but an ongoing evolving organism with constant changes taking place. Case studies as research method Case study methodology can be defined as a unique approach to research that concentrates on the study of complex phenomenon within a real life context. A hallmark of cases study design is the focus on collecting in-depth information, often using multiple sources of evidence to illuminate a single event or process (Lindstrom & Benz, 2002, p. 70). Case studies typically involve the detailed analysis of a single example of some phenomenon (Stake, 1995). According to Laws, Faulkner and Moscardo (1998), case studies are useful to explore new areas of research because they explicitly allow for a consideration of the complexity of the phenomenon under study and because they can provide practical as well as academic outcomes. The challenge then is to be able to use case studies to build toward s theories. Guidelines and advice for the sampling and use of a set of case studies to develop conceptual frameworks and theories can be found in Eisenhardt (1989) and Yin (1994). Of particular importance is the need to seek diversity in the sample of case studies chosen and to develop from the relevant literature a set of propositions or some framework to guide the analysis. Aims of this study The literature review identified a number of gaps and weaknesses in the existing literature on tourism development in destination regions. These included a d ominant use of

individual case studies focused on specific features of tourism, an emphasis on failures, and the lack of a broad framework of management. The numerous published case studies d o, however , provide detailed descriptions and analyses of real tourism development experiences. The overall aim of this study was to build upon these resources by analysing a sample of case studies seeking not just factors associated with failure, but also factors that contribute to success. In addition, the study sought to conduct this analysis within the Tourism Systems Framework that incorporates implementation and control as well as planning and organising. Method The case studies were identified by searching a variety of electronic data bases of academic journals with phrases based around combinations of the words peripheral, rural, or remote and tourism development. In addition these phrases were used in a search of the internet in general. This sec ond search strategy was designed to find resources available through channels other than academic ones. These searches identified a number of possible inclusions. These references wer e then previewed and a final selection of 11 were chosen based on two criteria. The first was that the authors identified the cases as having successful outcomes, while the second was the detail provided on the history and progress of the tourism development described. In other words, the case study had to provide sufficient analysis and detail that factors contributing to success could be identified. Table 1 provides a summary of the 11 cases that were used for further analysis. As can be seen the cases came from a variety of countries in most of the continents, although Asian, African and South American examples were difficult to find.

The style of tourism developed in each region varied and the sample included nature based and eco-tourism examples, as well as farm tourism, cultural tourism and large scale resor t and recreational styles of tourism. The cases also differed in terms of the nature of their peripherality. The most common factor was the need to develop alternative economic activities. Many were also geographically remote or isolated, with some marginalised by difficulty of access. The cases also differed in terms of the history of the tourism development in the region with a range from several hundreds of years of tourism contact (Caucasian region of Russia) to only a few years of tourism development (Tumby Bay, Australia), although the majority d escribed relatively recent tourism developments. Results and Discussion Each case study was read in detail and content analysed. The content analysis was specifically concerned with the identification of factors associated with the success and/or failure of tourism development in these peripheral r egions. Core themes and examples in these two categories were identified and listed. Table 2 shows the 12 most common themes about fac tors that contributed to successful peripheral tourism. These themes were organised into the four main steps of the Tourism Systems Framework. Although the cases were selected for successful outcomes (as described by the authors) the analysis of the cases did identify a number of challenges for, or barriers to, tourism development as well as factors contributing to set backs. These are summarised in Table 3. As in Table 2 several themes were identified for each of the four steps in the Tourism Systems Framework. In the case of planning the dominant success theme was the

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Table 1: Brief Description of the Case Studies Chosen. Location Roznava Okres, Slovak Republic Alto Minho, Portugal Dimensions of Peripherality Type of Development Cultural/heritage tourism Cultural tourism based on built heritage and festivals Recreational activities including theme parks and island resorts Fishing and local cuisine Source Clarke, et al., 2001 Edwards & Fernandes, 1999 Henderson, 2001

Geographically isolated Economic diversification required Distant from urban centres Govt. identified need for economic alternatives Small islands adjacent Access barriers to Singapore Lack of development Govt. identified need for economic alternatives Lofoten & Hardanger, Small population Norway Limited infrastructure Challenges to traditional economic activities Tumby Bay, Australia Geographically remote Small populations Challenges to traditional economic activities Rural counties, Small population Indiana, USA Distant from urban centres Prince Edward Island, Geographically remote Canada Challenges to traditional economic activities Caucasian region, Russia Geographically remote Challenges to traditional economic activities Tortuguero, Costa Rica Geographically remote Small population Challenges to traditional economic activities Tohoku, Konton, Kyushu Distant from urban centres & Okinawa, Japan Govt. identified need for economic alternatives Viljandimaa, Estonia Small population Distant from urban centres Govt. identified need for economic alternatives

Holmefjord, 2000

Small scale farm and beach tourism

Jeffreys & Munn, 2002

Crafts and built heritage Ethic tourism

Lewis, 2001 MacDonald & Jolliffe, 2003 Piterski, & Rattchina, 2003 Place, 1991

Spa resorts

Eco-tourism based on a National park

Resorts, golf courses and theme parks Eco-tourism based on built heritage and national parks

Rimmer, 1992

Wickenhagen et al., 2002

development of effective associations and partnerships between the various stakeholders and interested groups. All of the case studies reviewed included descriptions or discussions of various cooperative arrangements or partnerships between different organisations and stakeholders. The need for strategic alliances and cooperative partnerships in tourism has been argued elsewhere including in tourism planning (Hall, 2000) as well as other areas (see Go, 1998, for a discussion of alliances in tourism education, Brown and Butler, 1995, for examples in the US wine industry, and Morrison, 1994, for the hotel sector). Although the cases analysed in this study did not investigate these partner-

ships in detail, other research indicates that successful alliances require strong leaders, good administrative support, adequate representation of all interests, a shar ed vision and open communication (Selin & Myers, 1998). In most cases these cooperative groups were responsible for encouraging more extensive community involvement in the development of tourism, another important success theme to emerge from the case study analysis. The importance of community led tourism planning is a long established principle in the tourism planning literature (Hall, 2000). The community led tourism initiatives also contributed to the third success

theme identified, that of the choice of development scales and types that suited the destination environment. In many of the cases the developments described are small in scale and locally owned. Community led tourism and the associated control by residents over the type of development often means that the image presented in tourism marketing to tourists matches the image held by the residents. Several authors have argued recently that destination image is an important but neglected aspect of sustainable tourism development (Ashworth, 2003; Moscardo & Pearce, 2003; Pearce, 2002; Walsh, Jamrozy & Burr, 2001). Organising is the second step of the Tourism Systems Framework

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Table 2: Tourism Development Success in Peripheral Regions Common Themes. Theme Planning Good working relationship and co-ordination with private and public sectors; partnerships with regional tourism organizations and local businesses The Portugal case provides an example of how associations of accommodation owners worked with the regional tourism board to develop centralised reservation systems and marketing campaigns. The Slovak case describes an umbrella organisation that brought together several interests into a single unit. The Canadian example highlights the role of a cooperative board in tourism initiatives. The Norwegian case describes a number of partnerships between fishing and farming businesses and tourism businesses to develop culinary heritage as a tourism product. Development of canal cruises in Tortuguero case. Development of fishing and farm stays in Tumby Bay. Redevelopment of farming and fishing related buildings for accommodation in Norway. Tumby Bay tourism initiatives were generated by a community organised group and community lead process. In the Portugal case local associations generated the majority of the tourism initiatives. Organising The identification and development of specialist attractions (e.g.,. cultural heritage, scenery and landscape, markets and fairs, special accommodation) In the Portugal case the recognition and protection of regional heritage acted as a catalyst for tourism development. The Canadian case highlighted the importance of identifying and focussing on unique cultural heritage based products. In Estonia the prime focus of the tourism development was on restoring historic buildings and developing access to the National Park. The Japanese case describes the connection between the activities offered in the resorts and the regional environment. The Russian case is based on the development of health or spa resorts. Several of the cases were based on detailed action plans, often sponsored or funded by government initiatives, including those in Japan, Singapore, Norway and Portugal. The Slovak case described the benefits of a government funded three year detailed marketing plan. A major factor contributing to the success of the tourism development in the Canadian case was the building of a bridge which made access for visitors easier. The Slovak development included investment in Tourist Information Centres The tourism plans in the Estonia case included a network of visitor centres and a strong web presence. Example

Appropriate development for the environment

Community involvement

Having action plans/models, organisational structure, standard procedures Marketing research into promotion, marketing strategies developed Development of transport infrastructure Action plans included technical and distribution networks travel agents, other businesses, and use of the internet

Leadership Leadership the presence of champions, who motivated and influenced direction Education and training of staff and stakeholders The importance of leaders was noted in the Tumby Bay, Norway, Portugal, Indiana and Slovak cases The Estonia and Slovak cases described a range of training programs and study tours run for local businesses Control Government control and contribution. The benefits of strong government regulation were described in the Japanese and Singapore cases. The Portugal case noted the importance of government support and funding for the restoration of heritage buildings for tourist accommodation. The Canadian case included regular visitor surveys and the incorporation of this data into planning

Visitor expectations and satisfaction levels met, visitor suggestions noted and used.

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Table 3: Challenges Identified for Tourism Development in Peripheral Regions . Theme Planning Community opposition to development driven by external interests The two cases with substantial levels of resort and theme park development, Japan and Singapore, both describe some hostile reactions from local residents concerned about the negative impacts and the development of a style of tourism that is in conflict with local perceptions of their community. This is particularly the case when the developments were owned by external interests and there were limited opportunities for locals to be involved in tourism. Organising Negative socio-economic and environmental impacts The Russian case highlights the potential for serious negative environmental impacts from uncontrolled development. The Tortuguero case identifies pressure from increasing numbers of visitors on existing waste management systems as having the potential to result in environmental damage. Among the resident concerns in the Singapore case were also concerns over environmental damage related to resort development. Lack of accommodation was cited as a barrier to development in several cases including Canada, Slovakia and Estonia. Delayed decisions and poor decision making processes were identified as a barrier to sustainable development in the Singapore case where there has been only limited success in organising a structure for effective cooperation between the competing interests of different government and private groups. Leadership Loss of leaders Loss of two leaders was seen as a factor contributing to a loss of momentum in the tourism development process in Tumby Bay. Control Financial problems - economic leakages, lack of investment, issues with financial viability Inability to maintain standards Poor financial returns, an inability to access finance to develop tourism and leakage of economic benefits to external suppliers of products and services were identified as barriers in Tortuguero, and Singapore. The Russian and Singapore cases both described problems with maintaining standards of activities and facilities as a problem for current and future tourism development. Example

Limited infrastructure, especially accommodation Limited organisational structures

and it refers to the development of more specific plans, actions and organisational structures to achieve the objectives developed in the earlier stage of planning. The most commonly mentioned theme in the 11 case studies for this step was the identification and development of specialist attractions. Considerable space is given in all the case studies to the description of the choice of attractions and activities to develop and promote and how these reflected unique and special qualities of the destination area. This process not only contributes further to the development of appropriate forms of tourism, but also supports the creation of a unique marketing advantage.

A common theme in the previous literature on failures in the development of peripheral region tourism has been problems with developing a unique set of experience to offer potential visitors. Sharpley's (2002) analysis of Cyprus warns against rural hinterland regions seeking to simply attract the existing markets away from the coastal resorts. The basis of this argument is that peripheral regions must attract new and different markets to those that already exist in the respective core destinations (Pearce, 2002). While very little research exists that specifically looks at people who seek peripheral region

experiences, what is available supports this argument. Murphy and Williams (1999), for example, studied Japanese travelers to Canada and found that those interested in visiting rural areas differed significantly from other Japanese travelers on sociodemographics, styles of travel, motivation and expected levels of facilities and services. Alford (1998) analysed the destination images provided in the marketing of regional tourism boards in England and surveyed potential visitors about these images. The survey found that visitors were often confused about the types of experience offered by the different regions. This was partly because there were few unique

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features that distinguished between the regions and partly because often the promotional material was a listing of product such as attractions and accommodation with little attention paid the to typ e of experience offered for visitors. This study concluded that themed brochures were more effective than region based ones because they emp hasised the benefits to the visitor and thus made a more direct link to the market. Shields and Schibik (1995) confirmed this problem for destination regions where there is a lack of cooperation between operators resulting in confusing images and poor knowledge and suspicion on the part of consumers. It is important to note that effective marketing strategies require good market intelligence, something that is often lacking in tourism development in peripheral regions (Murphy, 1992, Pearce, 2002). Specific marketing plans based on good quality market intelligence are just part of total planning package. Successful tourism development in per ipheral regions is also associated with existence of good action plans that include more than simply land-use planning (Augustyn, 1998). This argument was supported by the present case study analysis with the existence in several of the cases of detailed and comprehensive plans, often funded by government initiatives. Of particular importance were the inclusion of transport infrastructure, a factor often linked to successful tourism development (Pearce, 2002, Prideaux, 2000), and consideration of the connections to existing travel distribution systems (Buhalis, 1999b, Pearce, 2002). Good detailed action plans can also assist in managing the problems identified for this step in the case analysis - limited infrastructure, negative impacts and poor decision making because of competing interests and conflict

between groups, especially government agencies. Augustyn (1998) notes that often action plans and strategies do not address issues of establishing and maintaining quality standards and typically lack monitoring strategies. This analysis of tourism development in rural Poland also highlighted the misuse of consultants. While consultants can provide useful advice, specially about planning processes, many destinations give external consultants considerable power. It is not uncommon for a consultant to advocate a style of tourism that may have worked elsewhere but is not appropriate in the present situation. Wearing and McDonald (2002) also warn of the power that is given by peripheral communities to

being somewhat knowledgeable about the tourism industry, is enthusiastic, energetic, and able to motivate others. Eventually, a diverse group of individuals who are interested in tourism development and mirror the values of the community must be brought together to pool their ideas, interests, concerns and resources (p. 22). In addition to this analysis of Long and Nuckolls (1994), the examination of the 11 cases in the present study stresses the importance of the emergence of a leader or champion for the tourism development. This person typically has some relevant expertise or experience and often, but not always, is a tourism entrepreneur.

Enthusiasm, energy, motivational power and the knowledge of a leader (or a leadership group) is important to planning success.

consultants, external agencies and tour operators in the quest to develop tourism. Leadership emerged as a major theme in the majority of the cases and is a component often ignored in traditional tourism planning texts. For example, no mention is made of leadership in Hall (2000), Gunn (2002), or the World Tourism Organizations (1994) tourism planning textbooks. Leadership in tourism in general is a neglected area with little research published into the qualities of leadership, or the processes that identify and support tourism leaders. Long and Nuckolls (1994) provide one of the few published studies of leadership in tourism. They conclude that to be successful in tourism development effort, there needs to emerge at least one individual, who, in addition to

The emergence of a leader with skills and/or experience is a challenge for many peripheral regions where such expertise may simply not exist. A common theme in the published literature on rural and peripheral tourism development is the high proportion of businesses that are small and/or family owned. Wanhill (1997) concluded his analysis of rural tourism development in Europe by listing a set of characteristics of such businesses which limit tourism development. These included limited access to finance, a lack of appropriate skills, low entrepreneurial motivation, a lack of understanding of the relevant markets, a focus of costs and prices rather than quality of the products or experiences offered, and a tendency to rely on the public sector or large businesses to take the responsibility for regional planning and marketing. These are sentiments repeated in

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Fleischer and Felsenstein's (2000) analysis of rural tourism development in Israel and Getz and Carlsen's (2000) study of rural tourism operators in Western A ustralia. Not surprisingly then, training and education were found to be factors associated with success in the present analyses as well as in others (Augustyn, 1998, Sharpley, 2002). The problems with a lack of access to finance is one of several economic issues raised in the 11 cases and elsewhere as barriers to tourism development. Low returns for operators have been noted as a problem particularly where government funding to encourage locals to enter into tourism creates an oversupply of services such as accommodation (Sharpley, 2002). High leakage of money from the community to external suppliers of goods and services is also a problem noted in the present cases and elsewhere (see Hohl & Tisdell, 1995, for an Australian example). Success then is associated with longer term financial support from governments, especially for the development and maintenance of infrastructure and facilities (Augustyn, 1998, Wanhill, 1997). Limitations of the present study It is important to note a number of limitations of the sample of 11 cases used for the present study. Firstly, the sample was chosen to focus on factors associated with successful tourism development in peripheral regions and the decision was taken to rely upon the case study authors to define success. Definitions of success of tourism development are, however, problematic and so it is possible that not everyone involved in the tourism development reported in the 11 cases considered the development to have been successful. Sharpley (2002) and Wilkinson (1994) both warn against the use of simple measures of tourism development success such as increases in

visitor numbers, as these may hide a range of issues and problems. In addition, Wilkinson (1994) argues that success as defined by government evaluations of policies or strategies is typically focussed on short term measures rather than longer term viability. Further research is necessary to explore measures of success of tourism development. The second core limitation is that the tourism development in the majority of the cases is in a very early stage with small numbers of visitors and continued reliance upon other economic activities. In other words many of the host communities in the cases have not yet had much tourism experience and tourism is still not their sole source of income. Studies in the social impacts of tourism development have consistently found that as the level of dependency on tourism as an economic activity rises, so do the levels of resident perceptions of negative tourism impacts (Smith & Krannich, 1998). Residents are not always well prepared for the realities of tourism development (Huang & Stewart, 1996) and negative impacts may yet emerge in some of the cases chosen for this study. Conclusions and future directions The present study, which examined in detail themes associated with, and barriers to, successful tourism development in peripheral regions, did support the value of the Tourism Systems Framework set out in the introduction. In particular, the themes of leadership, financial issues and the need to control and manage the implementation of development plans are not ones typically included or considered in tourism planning textbooks or manuals. Tourism development needs plans that can incorporate the full range of features of tourism including transport and other infrastructure, marketing and connections to distribution systems. It also requires action

plans or strategies and organisational structures to monitor and control the quality of the tourist experience, the quality of the operator experience, and the quality of the host environment. The present study also highlighted a number of gaps in tourism research and knowledge about development in peripheral regions . These included Limited research into the markets for the typ es of specialist experiences offered in peripheral regions, Almost no research into the process and qualities of leadership in destination communities, Few independent evaluations of government policies and funding mechanisms, Virtually no examination of the role of consultants in the development process. Successful tourism development does seem possible for peripheral regions but it is not a rapid or simple solution to the economic and social problems that many of these regions face. Successful development requires substantial, long term government support and extensive training, research and planning processes. The potential though, does exist, especially as trends in consumption contribu te to a growing number of tourists seeking the sort of specialised experiences available in peripheral regions.

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