SCIENCE

SchooI
Certificate
Notes

3 N43 W%N
Chapter 1-Forces at work

1. A machine is a device that makes a physical task easier.
2. A lever is a simple machine that uses the turning effect of a force to make a task
easier.
3. Force multipliers reduce the effort needed to perform a task while speed
multipliers increase the speed at which a load is moved.
4. Ramps, wedges, and screws are all inclined planes which are force-multiplying
machines.
5. A wheel and axle is a rotating lever. It can be used as a force multiplier when
the effort is applied at the wheel rim and as a speed multiplier when the effort is
applied at the axle.
6. In order to reduce the effort needed to perform a task the effort needs to move
through a greater distance. In order to increase the speed at which a load is
moved, a greater effort must be used.
7. A pulley is a grooved wheel and axle around which a rope or cable can be used
to change the direction of the effort needed to move a load.
. A block and tackle consists of two or more pulleys which can be used to move a
large load with a small effort.
9. Gears are wheels and axles with teeth. Two or more gears can be used to make
wheels turn faster or slower, change direction or multiply a force.
10. Compound machines consist of two or more simple machines.
11. Robots are machines that perform physical tasks without human assistance.
12. Bridges are structures which are designed to support a large load. Features like
trusses and arches are used to increase the load that can be supported by a
bridge.
13. Bridge design depends on many factors, including the size of the load that need
to be supported, the distance the bridge must span and the type of surface
under the bridge.
14. The balancing point of an object is at its centre of gravity.
15. An object will fall over if its centre of gravity is not above its base.
16. The lower the centre of gravity of an object, the less likely it is to fall over.

Chapter 2-Reproduction

1. $exual reproduction occurs when offspring result from the joining together
(fusion) of a male reproductive cell and a female reproductive cell. These special
reproductive cells are called gametes.
2. The joining of a sperm and egg cells is called fertilisation. The cell resulting from
this cell is called a zygote.
3. In some animals, fertilisation occurs outside the females body. This is called
external fertilisation. In other animals, for example those that live and breed on
land, internal fertilisation occurs.
4. Human sperm travels through the vans deferens from the testes to the urethra.
5. Human ova are produced in the ovaries whereas sperm are produced in the
testes.
6. In humans, the males penis is placed in the females vagina during sexual
intercourse. Fallopian tubes are the tunnels in which the sperm and the egg
meet, and house the site of fertilisation.
7. The uterus is the site of implantation of the embryo and the `house of the
developing fetus.
. Changes that you may be currently aware of are indication that you are
becoming an adult. These physical changes are called puberty. The changes are
due to substances which travel through your bloodstream called hormones.
9. The release of ovum from the ovary is called ovulation.
10. The monthly discharge or shedding of the uterus lining is called menstruation or
a period. A menstrual cycle is the time from the first day of one period to the
first day of the next.
11. The fetus obtains its nutrients and oxygen through a special organ cell called the
placenta. The total time spent in the uterus is often called the gestation period
12. Asexual reproduction does not require the sex cells of another organism.
Examples include vegetative propagation, parthenogenesis, budding, binary
fission and regeneration. The scientific name for the development of new
individuals from an unfertilised egg is parthenogenesis.
13. There are a variety of different strategies used by organisms to increase the
chances of fertilisation occurring. Due to environmental factors and predators,
not all fertilised eggs survive.

Chapter 3-The Body At War

1. A disease is a condition which prevents or stops the body or any of its parts from
working.
2. The skin is a physical barrier to microbes. $aliva and stomach acid are chemical
barriers to microbes.
3. Inflammation is an example of the bodys internal defences at work. White blood
cells can act like scavengers and destroy foreign particles.
4. The lymphatic system is one of the bodys last lines of defence against disease.
5. All of the small organisms that prevent the body from working properly are
called pathogens.
6. Viruses can only live and reproduce inside a host cell.
7. Bacteria reproduces by dividing in two in a process called binary fission.
. Parasites are organisms that depend upon their host for food and shelter.
9. Tinea, thrush and ringworm are diseases caused by fungi.
10. Contagious diseases are those that are spread by contact.
11. Vectors such as mosquito carry diseases from host to host.
12. Diseases such as cholera and gastroenteritis are spread by contaminated water.
13. Personal hygiene and care with food preparation are two of the most effective
ways of fighting the spread of disease.
14. Disinfectants are used to kill pathogenic organisms on many surfaces.
15. Antiseptics are not as powerful as disinfectants and can be used safely in the
skin.
16. Antibodies are special chemicals that the body makes to fight pathogens.
17. A vaccine is a substance taken or injected to produce an immunity to a disease.
1. Nutritional, chemical, inherited diseases and cancer are all examples of non-
infectious diseases. They cannot be spread from person to person.

Chapter 4-It's A Material World

1. $ynthetic materials can be moulded into different shapes.
2. Polymer is a word to describe the materials we commonly call plastic.
3. Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating units called monomers.
4. 19
th
Century chemists divided the study of chemistry into organic and inorganic
chemistry.
5. Polymers which softer when heard are called thermoplastic polymers. Rigid
polymers which char when heated are called thermosetting polymers.
6. Nylon and polyester are examples of synthetic fibres.
7. Fibres made from cellulose are called regenerated fibres.
. Most ceramics are made from clays, which consist largely of silicates,
(compounds of silicon and oxygen).
9. Glazing is used to make the surface of pottery more attractive and less porous.
10. Colloids contain particles which are too small to remove by filtering.
11. Emulsions are colloids consisting of two liquids such as water and oil.
12. A mixture consisting of a solid dispersed in water is known as a gel.
13. Most metals are malleable, ductile, lustrous and good conductors of electricity.
14. An alloy is formed by nixing a metal with other metals or non-metals.
15. Using electricity to coat objects with a layer of metal is called electroplating.
16. Two reasons for recycling plastics are that they are made from our dwindling oil
reserves and that they are non-biodegradable.

Chapter 5-Chemical Energy

1. Chemical reactions which absorb energy from the surroundings and lower the
temperature are called endothermic reactions.
2. Reactions which increase the temperature of the surroundings are called
exothermic reactions.
3. $tored chemical energy is transformed into other forms of energy when a
chemical reaction takes place.
4. Whether energy is released or absorbed during a chemical reaction can be
observed by comparing the temperature of the reactants before the reaction
with the temperature if the products after the reaction.
5. Explosions are chemical reactions in which a large amount of energy is released
very quickly.
6. When an atom loses an electron it forms a positive ion.
7. $alt solutions conduct electricity well because ions are able to carry the current
through the solution.
. A solution that conducts electricity is called an electrolyte.
9. Metals are good conductors of electricity because free electrons can move freely
towards the positive terminal of a battery.
10. A battery consists of several cells connected together.
11. Chemical reactions in a cell cause electrons to flow from the negative electrode
through the device being powered, and back to the cell.
12. Coal, natural gas and oil are fossil fuels.
13. Crude oil is a mixture of many hydrocarbons.
14. An increase in the amount of greenhouse gases is largely responsible for global
warming.
15. Fuels that consist of plant and animal wastes are called biofuels.
16. Chemical energy is stored in the carbohydrates, fat and protein that we eat.
17. Energy is transformed inside each body cell by a chemical reaction called cellular
respiration in which glucose reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and
water.
1. Energy is measured in a unit called the joule.

Chapter 6-Electrical Circuits

1. All electrical circuits consist of three essential items. They are:
i. a power supply to provide the electrical energy;
ii. a load, in which electrical energy is converted into other forms of
energy;
iii. a conducting path which allows electric charge to flow around the circuit.
2. The electrical energy is transformed into other forms of energy when the
conducting path of an electric circuit is complete. A switch in the circuit allows
you to control whether or not electrical current flows.
3. Electric current is a measure of the movement of the amount of electric charge
passing a particular point in an electric circuit every second. Electric current can
be measures with an ammeter.
4. Voltage is a measure of the amount of electrical energy gained or lost by electric
charge as it moves through an electric circuit. The voltage across any two points
in an electric circuit can be measures with a voltmeter.
5. Electrical resistance is a measure of how difficult it is for electric charge to flow
through part of a circuit.
6. Conductors of electricity have very little resistance.
7. In metallic conductors, as long as the temperature remains fairly constant, a
graph of voltage drop versus electric current for the conductor yields a straight
line. Its resistance is ohmic.
. A variable resistor can be used to change the voltage across and electric current
flowing through parts of electric circuits.
9. When three light globes are connected to a power supply so that they are in
series, if one light globe `blows, the others stop glowing. When, on the other
hand, the dame three light globes are connected in parallel, if one globe `blows
the others remain glowing.
10. A short circuit could make a battery go flat very quickly
11. The electric current supplied by a cell or battery is direct current. The electric
current provided to your home is called alternating current.
12. Fuses or circuit breakers inside a meter box at home stop the flow of electric
current if it gets high enough to cause a fire risk.
13. Electrical power is a measure of how constant electrical energy is transformed
into other forms of energy. It can be measured in watts.
14. Resistors, capacitors, diodes and transistors are examples of components that
make up electronic circuits.
15. The circuits etched onto the silicon chips inside electronic devices are called
integrated circuits.

Chapter 7-Keeping An Eye On Light

1. ou can see beams of light only when particles in the substance like air scatter
some of the light towards your eyes.
2. When light meets a boundary between two different substances, it can be
reflected, absorbed or transmitted.
3. Everything that you see is an image.
4. When light travels from one medium to another, it changes speed and, unless it
crossed the boundary at right angles, changes direction as well. This process is
called refraction.
5. When light travels from water into the air, it bends away from the normal.
6. A diverging lens is curved outwards on both sides. It converges light toward a
point called a focus.
7. A biconvex lens spreads light out.
. The action of the lens in obtaining a sharp image on the retina is called
accommodation.
9. Most of the bending of light done by the human eye occurs at the cornea.
10. if the combined focusing power of the lens and the corneas is too weak for the
length of the eye, images of nearby objects become blurry. This condition is
commonly known as long-sightedness.
11. Endoscopes, which include bundles of optical fibres, can be used to look inside
the human body.
12. The total reflection of light when it travels from glass into air is called total
internal refraction.
13. The separation of white light into its colours, called dispersion occurs because
different colours of light are bent by different amount as they refract.
14. RGB can be combined together to produce white light.
15. The colours yellow, magenta, and cyan are used in printing, paints and dyes
because they can be combined into different proportions to produce a wide range
of colours, including white.
16. The receptor cells on the retina detect the brightness and colour of light. It is the
cone cells that respond to colour.

Chapter 8-Dynamic Earth

1. The crust of the Earth varies in thickness between about 5km and 70km.
2. A volcano erupts when magma moves upward through the Earths crust.
3. The theory of plate tectonics provides and explanation of the patterns of volcanic
activity on Earth.
4. The plates which males up the earths crust move slowly and can slide past each
other, push against each other or move away from each other.
5. The forces below the Earths surface are large enough to cause solid rock to fold
or crack.
6. When movement occurs along a crack in rocks, the crack is called a fault.
7. Movements along faults are responsible for many earthquakes.
. All living matter on Earth is referred to as the biosphere.
9. $ome earthquakes can cause tsunamis, which are the hydrospheres most
destructive force.
10. The Australian environment suffers regular damage from cyclones, which cause
strong winds and torrential rain along the coast.
11. Mineral exploration is the name given to the search for useful minerals beneath
the Earths crust.
12. Extraction of a meat l from its mineral ore usually involves three stages;
concentration, reduction and purification,
13. Reduction is a process involving chemical reactions that change the metal ions to
metal atoms.
14. The process of electrolysis is used in the process of reduction of aluminium and
in the process of purification of copper.
15. Most coal mined in Australia is used in the generation of electricity in power
plants.
16. Black coal takes longer to burn than brown coal and contains less moisture.
17. Fossil fuels are non-renewable natural resources and cannot be replaced for
hundreds of millions of years.
1. After the completion of a mining operation, the land must be rehabilitated.

Chapter 9-Following Orders

1. rganisms are made up of atoms. Collections of atoms make up molecules.
rganelles are made up of many molecules. Cells are the basic building blocks of
all living things. Groups of similar cells that carry out a specialised job are called
tissue. rgans are made up of one or more different kinds of tissue and carry
out one or more functions. $everal organs working together make up a system
2. Coordination describes how the various systems in living things work together so
that they can function properly.
3. The human nervous system is composed of the central nervous system (the
brain and spinal chord) and the peripheral nervous system (the nerves that
connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body).
4. $ensory neurons carry the information from the receptors, interneurons carry
the information through the central nervous system and motor neurons take the
information to the effectors.
5. Neurotransmitters are chemicals which pass the information across the synapse
to the next neuron.
6. In a negative feedback mechanism, the response leads to the removal of the
need for a continued response.
7. The human brain has three main structural pat. These are the cerebrum, the
cerebellum and the brain stem.
. The cerebrum is responsible for complex thoughts, the cerebellum for the
coordination of complex muscle movements and the brain stem for the control of
heartbeat, breathing and blood pressure.
9. Mind maps appeal to the right cerebral hemisphere which processes colours,
relationships, pictures and symbols.
10. Chemical messengers called hormones are produced in your endocrine glands
and released directly into your bloodstream.
11. Plant hormones are mainly produced in the growing tips of root and shoots, in
buds and in the developing fruits.
12. the effects of the endocrine system are slower but longer than those of the
nervous system.


























433N% % 3N33 N%W
Atoms with the sume utomic no, huve identicuI chemicuI properties
:mber of ne:trons cun be worked o:t by s:btructing utomic no,
from the muss no,




ro:p I - AIkuIi
II- AIkuIine Eurth MetuIs
VII- HuIogens
VIII- obIe uses
Iock in the middIe witho:t gro:ps: Trunsition MetuIs
izug Iine down right {3/4 wuy ucross} sepurutes metuIs und non
metuIs und the Iine ure metuIIoids,
Mass no. 1.0
SYMBOL eg. H
Atomic no. 1

huructeristic Puttern down u gro:p Puttern ucross u period
Atmoic no & muss no Increuses Increuses
MeIting Points Dec- I-V Inc V-VIII generuIIy inc then dec,
Reuctivity metuIs become more reuctice und non mentuIs
become Iess reuctive is high then dec, und then inc, ro:p
VIII eIements ure inert und don't reuct,
MetuIIic churucter Inc Dec
Most utoms where the Protons & e:trons ure heId strongIy ure
suid to be stubIe not heId strong und its instubIe
Isotopes thut ure :nstubIe disintegrute to form other eIements
they're isotopes cuIIed Rudioisotopes
Energy emitted by Rudiouctive s:bstunces is cuIIed :cIeur
Rudiution becu:se it comes from the n:cIe:s
Different types of Rudiution - 1, AIphu {purticIes}
Z, etu {purticIes}
3, ummu Ruys
Rudiocurbon duting- Finding o:t the uge of orgunic or non-orgunic
s:bstunces by finding o:t how m:ch rudiouctive eIement remuins,
-Rudiouctive properties of :runi:m ure :sed in the generution of
eIectricity in n:cIeur reuctors,
&runi:m is converted to :runi:m dioide then seuIed in rods cuIIed
F:eI Rods
hen utoms come in contuct with euch other they often goin with
euch other to form moIec:Ires
EIectrons in euch utom thut ucco:nt for uII chemicuI behuvio:s
EIectron sheII diugrum->simpIified modeI of utom
)th sheII hoIds mu Zn)Z eIectrons
ro:ps: sume n:mber of eIectrons in o:tersheII
Periods: :mber of sheIIs
hen utoms receiver energy {heuting} the eIectrons cun move
from sheII to sheII to higher energy IeveIs
hen the eIectrons move between energy IeveIs they ubsorb or
emit un umo:nt of energy bused on the difference of energy
between the energy IeveIs,
EIectrons ret:rning to u Iower energy IeveI emit Iight energy, The
size of the difference in energy IeveIs determines the coIo:r of
the Iight, Th:s fIume coIo:rs cun be :sed to identify eIements,
ompo:nd: Z eIements
obIe guses do not reuct to form compo:nds coz they ure stubIe
EIectron urrungement hus in the o:tersheII most utoms reuct to
become stubIe Iose/guin un eIectron
Atoms thut huve Iost or guined un eIectron und therefore huve un
eIectric churge cuIIed ions
Positive churged ions ure cuIIed cutions
egutiveIy churged ions ure cuIIed unions
hen utoms combine with euch other und Iose or guin eIectroncs
these compo:nds ure cuIIed ionic compo:nds, Eg, MetuI & non
mentuI combine
Ionic compo:nds simiIurities
-mude :p of positive und negutive ions
- :s:uIIy soIids ut room temp
- dissoIve in wuter to form uq:es soI:tions
3
rd
sheII hoIds onIy 3 eIectrons when it's the o:ter sheII coz it wiII
be :nstubIe
hen Z or more utoms SHARE eIectrons the chemicuI bond
formed by the shuring of eIectrons- ovuIent ond
ompo:nds formed ure cuIIed covuIent or moIec:Iur compo:nds,
E,g, Oygen gus consists of moIec:Ies formed when Z oygen
utoms shure eIectrons,
Shured eIectrons ure cuIIed onding EIectrons
Str:ct:ruI form:Iu cun be druwn und dushed muy be :sed for
ovuIent onds













ovuIent compo:nds properties- They eist us guses Iiq:ids or
soIids Iow boiIing points coz moIec:Ie uttruction force is weuk

ATOMS OMPOUND Structura Formua

O
O
O O O O
on-metuI eIements e,g, O H moIec:Ies form when utoms of
the sume non-metuI goin together by covuIent bonds, E,g, HZ- Z
Hydrogen utoms to muke euch moIec:Ie of hydrogen,
MoIec:Iur Form:Iu - wuy of describing n:mber of utoms thut goin
to form u moIec:Ie
VuIency of eIement is the n:mber of eIectrons thut euch utom
needs to guin/Iose to fiII its o:tersheII, The convention is thut if
eIectrons ure Iost the vuIency is + und if eIectrons ure guined the
vuIency is -
on-metuI eIements und form:Iu
Hydrogen --- HZ
itrogen --- Z
hIorine --- IZ
romine --- rZ
Oygen ---OZ
S:If:r ---S
Phosphor:s --- P4
VuIency in Periodic TubIe
ro:p VuIency
1 +1
Z +Z
3 +3
4 +4
-3
-Z
7 -1
Ionic compo:nds metuI ions combine with non-metuI ions
PoIy-Atomic ions- hydroide ions OH- S:Ifute ions SO4)Z-
ummoni:m ions H4+
These gro:ps huve un overuII negutive churge cept for H4+ und
ure treuted us u singIe entity,
Hydrogen ion uItho:gh u non-metuI ion :s:uIIy eists us u positive
ion,


































HEMIAL REATIOS
onds between utoms in the OriginuI chemicuIs reuctunts ure
broken in chemicuI reuctions
Luw of conservution of Muss- which stutes thut mutter cun be
neither creuted nor destroyed d:ring chemicuI reuction
Luw of constunt proportions- u compo:nd no mutter how it is
formed uIwuys contuins the sume reIutive umo:nts of euch eIement
PhysicuI chunge- when u soIid goes to Iiq:id etc
Eothermic reuctions - ubsorb energy eg,, when icepucks
{chemicuIs inside reuct}
hen s:bstunce is being dissoIved the ions breuk off und
sepurute
Precipitution Reuctions- chemicuI reuctions in which precipitutes
ure form,
orrosion Reuctions- {how its suid} - eg metuI reucting with oygen
in the uir cu:sing deteriorution of metuI
uIvunized iron - cousted in zinc
hen un eIement dispIuces unother eIement from u compo:nd -
DispIucement Reuctions
omb:stion- when something reucts with oygen und heut is
reIeused
Decomposition Reuction- one singIe compo:nd breuks down into Z
or more simpIer chemicuIs,
ombinution Reuction - Z eIements combine to form u compo:nd
EIectron trunsfer - eIectrons moving from one utom ion or
moIec:Ie to unother
Redo Reuctions - chemicuI reuctions which invoIved eIectron
trunsfer
Redo Reuctions is reuIIy Z reuctions huppening sim:Ituneo:sIy one
reuctunt Ioses und one guins eIectrons
Oidution - Ioss of eIectrons
Red:ction - uin of eIectrons
OIL - oidution is Ioss
RI - Red:ction is uin
Oidution & Red:ction occ:r together
Photochromic Iusses - goes durk when eposed to &V ruys
uttery Redo reuction eIectrons puss thro:gh circ:it to other
eIectrode chemicuI prod:cts formed ut both eIectrodes
More reuctive f:rther deeper in the eurth they ure
MetuI + HydrochIoric ucid suIt + hydrogen us
DispIucement & Redo reuction
Redo coz eIectrons from metuI to Hydrogen in ucid forming
positive metuI ions & Hydrogen gus

Antoine Lavoisier deveoped the Law of Conservation of Mass which states that
Matter can neither be created or destroyed during a chemical reaction.
He aso provided evidence Ior the Law of Constant Proportions which states that a
compound, no matter how it is formed, always contains the same relative amounts of
each element.
nergy must be suppied to start a reaction. The energy is needed to begin the process
oI breaking the bonds in the reactants, which aows the atoms to rearrange and Iorm
new bonds in the products.
An exothermic reaction is one which gives out or reeases energy whie an
endothermic reaction absorbs energy Irom the surroundings
hen two soutions containing dissoved ions are mixed together these ions are abe
to come in contact with each other, iI these ions are oppositey charged they attract
and iI the attraction is strong enough to Iorm ionic bonds and thereIore it Iorms an
ionic compound. II this compound is insoube (doesn`t dissove in water) a soid
Iorms which is caed a precipitate. This process is caed a precipitate reaction
orrosion reactions are ones where meta is `eaten away` by substance in the air or
water
Dispacement reactions are ones where one eement is dispaced another eement in a
compound
A ombustion reaction is a reaction where a substance reacts with oxygen and heat is
reeased
A decomposition reaction occurs when a compound breaks down into two or more
simper chemicas
Sometimes two eements combine during a chemica reaction to Iorm a compound
hemica reactions which invove the transIer oI eectrons is caed a redox reaction
Oxidation is the oss oI eectrons whie reduction is the gaining oI eectrons
Acids have the Ioowing properties; they are sour, very corrosive, contain hydrogen
& react with soid substances
Bases have the Ioowing properties; they are bitter, soapy, very corrosive, they react
with the hydrogen in acids. Bases that can be dissoved in water are caed akai`s
The reaction between a meta and a meta carbonate produces sat, water and carbon
dioxide
hen an acid and a base are mixed the chemica reaction is caed neutraisation, they
react to Iorm sat and water
You can increase the rate oI a chemica reaction iI you:
Increase the temperature or the concentration oI reactants
Increase the surIace area oI soid reactants
And sometimes the exposure to ight can speed up a reaction
Adding a catayst
A catayst is a chemica that heps speed up a chemica reaction but is not changed
during the chemica reaction and there is aways as much catayst present at the start oI
the reaction as there is at the end. It works by heping bonds break down more easiy
so that ess energy is needed to compete the reaction. Another advantage is that
cataysts can be used over and over again.
The enzyme amyase heps breakdown sugar and starch, whie cataase heps break
down hydrogen peroxide
Biouminescence is the process oI iving things producing ight












































Electricity at work
Magnets attract iron, nicke & cobat and any aoy which contains it
A magnets have a North & South Poe (ike repe and opposites attract)
Permanent magnets retain their magnetism at a times whie temporary magnets ony
contain magnetism when another magnet is present
A magnetic Iied is a region in which a magnetic Iorce exists
An eectromagnet is a type oI temporary magnet consisting oI a coi oI wire
(Soenoid) and an iron core
An eectronic motor is a device that converts eectrica energy into kinetic energy
A transIormer consists oI an iron core and 2 cois oI wire the primary coi is the input
whie the secondary coi is the output
In a step-up transIormer the secondary coi has more turns which makes the output
votage higher than the input votage but it reduces output current
A step-down transIormer increases current but decreases votage
The armature is the turning point oI the motor on which the cois oI wire are wound
and rotate the armature these cois are caed rotor cois
The brushes connect to the power suppy and ighty touches the commutator
The shaIt is attracted to the device that the motor is turning such as the Ian oI gear
whee it turns with the armature
The commutator aows the armature to keep rotating in the same direction
The brushes aow current to trave through the rotor cois
urrent Iows in generators (aso known as a dynamo) as ong as there is reative
movement between the magnetic Iied and the coi
You can increase the current by increasing the number oI turns in the wire, increasing
the strength oI the magnet and by increasing the reative movement between the coi
and Iied magnet
Aternating current changes direction every haI turn
In a direct current generator a commutator aows the current to Iow in one direction
whie the armature turns
A turbine is a arge disc or whee that turns an axe



















Invisible Waves
A ave is abe to transmit energy Irom one pace to another without moving any
matter over the same distance
aves on water are caed transverse waves. Transverse waves trave at right anges
to the direction oI energy transIer
Sound waves are compression waves. ompression waves move back and Iorth in the
same direction as energy transIer this is aso known as ongitudina waves.
The Irequency oI a vibration or wave is the number oI compete vibrations or waves
passing a point in one second. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz), Irequency aso
determines the pitch, a high Irequency produces a high pitch.
The aveength is the distance between two crests or two troughs, in transverse
waves waveength is the distance between the centre oI two neighbouring waves or
two rareIactions. The higher the Irequency the more cosey together the
compressions become. This means that ow Irequency sounds have ong waveengths
The ampitude oI a wave is the maximum distance that each partice moves away
Irom its usua resting pace, the higher the ampitude the ouder the sound
The speed oI a wave is the measure oI how Iar it traves in a substance. ave speed
Irequency times waveength or v I2
choocation is what whaes, dophins & bats use to sense their surroundings another
exampe is Sonar
The high Irequency sound used in industry and medicine is caed utrasound.
Decibes (dB) is the unit oI measuring the intensity oI sound energy, which is reated
to the ampitude
The study oI how sound is absorbed, transmitted and reIected is caed acoustics
#everberation is the reIected sound oII hard, smooth surIaces.
The eectro magnetic spectrum is made up oI #adio waves, Visibe ight, InIra-red
radiation, utra-vioet radiation, X-rays & Gamma #ays
ectro-magnetic waves transmit energy Irom one pace to another just ike a waves
but these waves can trave through air at 300000000 metres per second. It can aso
trave through a vacuum which sound waves and water waves cannot do. The waves
consist oI a repeating pattern oI eectric and magnetic Iorces produced by changes in
the speed or direction oI moving eectrica charge and are transverse waves. The
Irequency oI eectromagnetic waves is a measure oI the number oI times per second a
new eectric or magnetic Iorce is generated. The waveength is the distance between
adjacent eectrica or magnetic Iorces.
#adio aves are emitted naturay by stars. They can aso be produced artiIiciay
when eectrons in a meta rod (caed a transmitting antenna) are made to vibrate
rapidy. The radio waves are picked up by a receiving antenna which is just ike a
receiving antenna.
The sound signas that radio stations transmit must Iirst be changed to an eectrica
signa caed an audio wave the radio waves it is sent o are caed carrier waves. AM
(ampitude moduation) FM ( Frequency moduation)
Microwaves transmit TV & radio signas, computer data and teephone messages over
ong distances but to do this repeater stations must be used so that the signa doesn`t
Iade away.
oaxia cabes aow sound, pictures and data to be transmitted as puses oI eectric
current than as eectromagnetic waves. The signas are carried in conductor wires
inside tubes
O THE MOVE
Speed is the meus:re of the rute thut something moves over u
distunce
Averuge Speed = Distunce truveIed/ Time Tuken
Direction doesn't mutter when cuIc:Iuting speed veIocity hus u
mugnit:de {u size},
Averuge AcceIerution = chunge in speed/time tuken
If the unswer is negutive then it's u decreused ucceIerution
{deceIerution}
ewton's 1
st
Luw of Motion- uny obgect wiII remuin ut rest tiII un
:nbuIunced force is ucted :pon it,--- Inertiu
Inertiu is the property of obgects thut mukes them resists
chunges in their motion,
ewton's Z
nd
Iuw of motion- the muss of un obgect uffects the
wuy thut it moves when ucted :pon by one or more forces, A= f/m
u=ucceIerution f=force m=muss
ewton's 3
rd
Iuw of motion- for every uction there's un eq:uI und
opposite reuction,
ork Done= Force Distunce
ruvitutionuI PotentiuI Energy: stored energy in obgects thut muy
fuII us u res:It of the force of gruvity
inetic Energy: energy ussociuted with movement
PotentiuI Energy: Stored energy e,g,{eIustic when obgects ure
stretched or compressed guck in the bo}
EIectricuI PotentiuI Energy: present in obgects in which positiveIy
und negutiveIy churged purticIes ure sepuruted, AIso present when
Iike churges ure bro:ght cIose together, {cIo:ds--Iightning}
hemicuI PotentiuI Energy: present in uII s:bstunces us eIectricuI
forces hoId utoms together, form of eIectricuI energy
:cIeur energy: energy stored in n:cIe:s of uII utoms,
Luw of conservution of energy: the totuI umo:nt of energy in the
:niverse remuins constunt,
Muss: umo:nt of muteriuI in un obgect {g kg}
eight: the force of gruvity on un obgect {ewtons}






Year 9 Science Assignment
The Mysterious Universe

1) Modes oI the Universe
audius Ptoemy beieved in the
geocentric mode oI the universe, a
panets, moons and stars orbit the earth
which was in the midde oI the universe.
He theorised the Ptoemaic system, which
is shown on the eIt. There was a probem
with his system because it was Iigured out
that the panets did not have a concentric
orbit around the earth. AIter this was
proved opernicus suggested the
heiocentric mode oI the universe. In the Heiocentric mode a panets in our soar
system orbit the sun. This made a ot more sense because the panets a had ogica orbits
around the sun. ven though this theory was proved the church and some oI the other
peope did not beieve it.

2) Panets That an Be Seen
Panet A panet is a arge mass which orbits around a star, but is not a star itseI. The
word panet is not a deIinite deIinition so some peope think some panets shoud not be
cassiIied as panets and some shoud.
Panets that can be easiy seen unaided:
O Venus
O Mars
O upiter
O Saturn
Mercury can aso be seen but you must know when it is visibe and Uranus can be barey
seen. The two panets that can`t be seen by the naked eye are Puto and Neptune and this
is because they are not cose or bright enough.

3) Heiocentric Gaieo
Gaieo used the teescope, which he had not created but had enhanced, to observe
many wonders oI space. The heiocentric mode oI our soar system suggests that the sun
is at the centre oI the soar system. Gaieo discovered some oI upiter`s moons but coud
not observe them and identiIy them correcty unti he considered the Iact that the arth
orbited the moon, which proved that not everything revoved around the earth. He had
aso Iound Venus which had phases ike the moon which Iurther disproved that a panets
and moons revoved around a stationary arth. The evidence that Gaieo Iound was used
to prove or disprove other scientist`s theories, athough many oI them just did not accept
his evidence because they had spent a ot oI time working on their theories.
4) Paraax
Paraax is a method oI using anges to Iigure out the distance Irom the arth to a near by
star. hen you move your view point there is a shiIt in the background oI Venus. Venus
appears to have moved
higher Irom point A to
point B on the sun. Using
Mathematica methods
such as Trianguation a the
engths and anges can be
Iound Irom ony one
known ength in the
triange, this is the ength
Irom A to B on arth.

5) DeIinitions
Gaaxy A very arge number oI stars gas and dust. Many gaaxies Iorm the universe
Nebuae A arge spread out amount oI gas or stars or both. They ook ike areas oI
darkness or ight.
Binary Stars Two stars that orbit around each other because they have the same
gradationa pu aso caed doube stars.
omet A sma Irozen mass that orbits the sun, usuay consisting oI a tai which can be
quite ong. Scientists beieve they consist oI ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide, and
water.
Meteor A rock Iaing to the earth that has been heated by that Iriction oI the
atmosphere and appears to be a bright ine, aso caed a shooting star.
Meteorite hen a meteor hits the earth the metaic or stony materia is caed a
meteorite.
Parsec A unit oI astronomica measurement
Light Year A unit which represents the distance that ight traves in a year, in a vacuum.

6) Using Data #emember
&sing Data
mc
2.2 x 10
25
m x (3 x 10
8
)
m2.2 x 10
25
(3 x 10
8
)
m 244 444 444.4kg

Remember
1) Hydrogen Gas takes up most oI the matter in space.
2) Sunspots are dark ooking spots on the suns surIace, because they are not as hot. They
indicate how much activity the sun is experiencing, they aso te us at which part oI the
cyce the sun is at.
3) Sunspots produce a ot oI partices which are caught by the earth and make patterns in
the sky, but whie this is happening ong-distance radio transmissions are eIIected very
bady. II there is too many sunspots the radio transmissions are disrupted but iI there is
very ow sunspot activity the radio transmissions are aso eIIected.


7) Hertzsprung-#use Diagrams










































8) Magnitudes
pparent Magnitude Apparent Magnitude is the brightness oI a star or body in space
as observed Irom the earth. II an object is bright it wi have a ower numerica vaue Ior
its magnitude.
bsolute Magnitude Absoute Magnitude is the same as the apparent magnitude but at
a Iixed distance away Irom the viewing point on the arth. This is so the brightness oI
bodies in space can be compared without distance being a Iactor.
Magnitude is measured in a scae a stars have diIIerent brightness so they
needed to be sorted out. The higher the number is the ess visibe it is to us, so a star with
a magnitude oI 6 woud just be visibe to us but a star with zero magnitude woud be very
bright. Some stars are even brighter than zero so a negative magnitude had to be made,
but not many stars have such a magnitude.

9) SurIace Temperatures oI Stars
oour #ed Orange Yeow hite Bue- Bue
hite
Temp
(K)
2000-
3500
3500-
5000
5000-
6000
6000-
7500
10000-
30000
30000-
60000










10) Main Sequence H# diagram
Main sequence stars range Irom end to end on the coour scae spanning Irom 0.0 to the
other end at 20, Irom white to red. The uminosity oI the main sequence stars on went on
a downwards sope Irom very uminous at up to 1000 at the top eIt to a ow 0.0001 at the
bottom right. The temperatures ranged as the coours did with the most uminous and
white stars being at around 30 000K (Kevin) at the eIt oI the chart to ony around
2500K at the right. The Magnitude oI the Stars had a great range Irom a du 16 to an
amost binding -4 at the other end oI the range.









#ed Yeow hite Bue
11) LiIe yces oI Stars

Stars start oII as dense couds caed giant moduar couds (GMs) with miions oI
partices very cose together, the couds can get triggered into compressing with a
gravitationa coapse. It turns into a protostar as it produces heat and coapses. Some
protostars do not reach a high enough temperature to create a arge panet and scientists
have named them Brown DwarIs. II the star is hot enough then it starts nucear Iusion and
becomes a stabe star. The mass oI the star determines the coour and temperature. AIter
miions years, depending the size oI the star a the hydrogen needed Ior nucear Iusion is
depeted, the star coapses and heium Iusion begins which causes the star to expand
greaty. II the star is not arge enough to create enough heat to star heium Iusion then a
#ed DwarI is Iormed, which aIter triions oI years turns into a hite DwarI. Super
Massive Stars have expanded into Gigantic #ed Supergiants the core pus the outer
ayers inwards making the star smaer, hotter and denser the eements begin to Iuse into
other heavier eements. hen iron begins to be Iormed energy stops being reeased and
starts being absorbed, at this point the star coapses and sends out shockwaves though
space as a supernova.


























Star Forming Nebua
Interstear Medium
Main Sequence Star
#ed Supergiant
#ed Supergiant xposions
Supernova
Back
Hoe
Neutron
Pusar

12) Big Bang Theory
The Big Bang Theory suggests that 13.7 biion years ago the universe used to be
a arge and very dense hot mass. According to this theory and with some prooI Irom the
Hubbe Space Teescope the universe is aways expanding and getting arger and arger.
The universe started when that hot dense mass expoded using nucear Iission, at the start
there were arge amounts oI energy and heat everywhere and aIter time passed the
universe became cooer as it expanded. Sowy tiny partices combined to Iorm some
eements and panets Iormed.

13) Age oI Universe
Scientists have estimated the age oI the universe by using three Iactors:
1. The Age oI the Odest hemicas
2. The Age oI the Odest Stars
3. The Age oI the Odest hite DwarI Stars
The estimated age oI the universe is 12-14 Biion Years Od

14) #ed ShiIt
The #ed ShiIt describes the coour oI a distant gaaxy. oours oI ight are given oII by
sources and they are emitted at a certain waveength, but iI the source oI the ight is
moving away then the waveength increases causing the coour to change. A red ight is
given oII when the sources waveengths are getting Iurther away and bue iI they are
coming coser. II the distant gaaxies or other objects in space appear to be red then that
proves that the universe is expanding, this can be used as prooI Ior the Big Bang Theory.

15) Geostationary Orbit (GO)
A geostationary Sateite has to maintain its position above the arth. They orbit the
arth at around 22300 Mies (35880.7 Kiometres) above the quator, it stays at zero
atitude and at the same ongitude. Because oI that they cannot reach the north most or
southmost areas oI the panet. They ast Irom ten to IiIteen years.













ETTI ITO EES
eII Theory: - AII Iiving things ure composed of ceIIs
- AII ceIIs ure prod:ced from pre-eisting ceIIs














OrguneIIes ure very smuII str:ct:res in the cytopIusm euch
s:rro:nded by u membrune {cept for ribosomes}, They work
together to muintuin the metuboIic {Iife process} of the ceII,
AII ceIIs ure s:rro:nded by u ceII or pIusmu membrune
PIunt bucteriuI und f:nguI ceIIs huve u ceII wuII us weII us u
membrune
AnimuIs pIunts f:ngi und protistu ure composed of e:kuryotic
ceIIs, These ceII's n:cIe:s huve membrunes uro:nd it,
Prokuryotic ceIIs s:ch us bI:e-green uIgue und bucteriu do not
huve u n:cIe:s nor other orguneIIes heId in membrunes,
Look ut diugrum on puge 1
Vir:ses do not huve orguneIIes nor do they curry o:t processes
thut Iiving things do,
They penetrute the ceIIs of orgunisms un ingect their core of
n:cIei muteriuI in them the host ceII d:pIicutes these vir:s
purticIes und once the ceII membrune breuks uII the IittIe vir:sies
ure reIeused,
Look ut TubIe on 19 importunt to remember mentioned thut it
muy be in yeurIy
iotechnoIogy: the wuy we :se pIunt und unimuI ceIIs und micro-
orgunisms to prod:ce :sef:I s:bstunces for :s und perform tusks
for :s, E,g, brewing breud cheese yog:rrrrrrt,
Retting: process in muking Iinen from fIu by p:tting stems of fIu
pIunts into pits of wuter,


Enzymes: Iurge protein moIec:Ies inside the micro-orgunisms thut
controI the kinds of reuctions thut tuke pIuce,
S:gur{yeust & enzymes} curbon dioide + uIcohoI + energy
Fermentution tukes pIuce in the ubsence of oygen und is
therefore un eumpIe of unuerobic respirution,
Antibiotics ure chemicuIs mude by some microorgunisms thut
inhibit or prevent the growth of bucteriu
:It:ring is u method of controIIed growth of micro-orgunisms on
speciuI n:trients it enubIes Iurge scuIe prod:ction of untibiotics
:cIe:s needs to be stuined to become visibIe in Iight in
e:kuryotic ceIIs,
:cIe:s contuins chemicuI compo:nds cuIIed n:cIeic ucids,
DA: deoyribon:cIeic ucid which is ubIe to store coded
instr:ctions und ribon:cIeic ucid {RA} which uIIows the DA to
reud the coded instr:ctions
1m of DA in euch ceII
hen ceII is bo:t Z divide Iengths of DA {chromosomes} shorten
und coiI,
hromosomes uppeur Z b mude :p of Z strunds or chromutids
heId together by u centromere,
eII Division: the chromosomes divide into singIe strunds which
then go into diff ceIIs, They then become do:bIe strunded uguin
coz DA moIec:Ie cun repIicute itseIf euctIy which ens:res thut
instr:ctions ure pussed on :nchunged,
O A iving things are composed oI ces
O Organees are very sma structures in cytopasm, each surrounded by a
membrane. A the organees work together to maintain the metaboic process oI
the ce.
O Anima, pants, Iungi and protista have eukaryotic ces
O ukaryotic ces have a nuceus in them
O Prokaryotic ces (bacteria) do not have a nuceus
StuII in ces
Part 1ob or Function Feature/Location
e Membrane ontros movement oI
substances into and out oI the
ce
Forms the boundary ayer
surrounding the ce
ytopasm Thick Iuid carrying organees
and materias in soution
ontents oI the ce
Nuceus ontro center oI the ce,
contains coding instructions Ior
production oI diIIerent enzymes
which contro metaboic
processes, contros ce division
Large, dense, spherica
structure in cytopasm
and growth
Mitochondria Mini powerhouse` were aerobic
respiration suppies energy Ior
ce activities
Organee in cytopasm
Gogi Bodies rap up and package
substances Ior transport out oI
ces
Semi-circuar ayers oI
membranes in the
cytopasm
Vacuoes Large bubbes` oI sap ommon in cytopasm oI
pant ces
e a Supports, strengthens and
protects ces, varies in
composition between pants,
bacteria and Iungi
Forms a ayer outside ce
membranes oI prokaryotic,
Iungi pant ces
horopasts ontain chorophy which
absorbs ight energy
Organees in cytopasm oI
photosynthetic ces
#ibosome`s ManuIacture proteins incuding
enzymes and hormones
Attached to the # or Iree
in the cytopasm
ndopasmic
#eticuum(#)
Transports substances within the
ce
Network oI channes in the
cytopasm

O nzymes are arge protein moecues inside the micro-organisms
O The word equation Ior the process oI Iermentation is:
yeast
Sugar---------- carbon dioxide acoho energy
nzymes
O The nuceus oI our ces contains chemica compounds caed nuceic acids.
They are:
4 Deoxyribonuceic Acid (DNA) which is abe to store coded
instructions and
4 #ibonuceic acid (#NA) which aows the DNA to read the coded
instructions

O Humans have 23 pairs oI chromosomes, or 46 in tota
O hromosomes are engths oI DNA
O Femae Sex chromosomes are both X (XX) whie mae sex chromosomes are
diIIerent (XY).
O hen there is reproduction, the Iemae parent passes one oI their two sex
chromosomes to the chid (obviousy an X chromosome) and the mae
parent passes down one iI its chromosomes (X or Y). II the mae passes
down an X, that wi give the chid two X chromosomes, the chid wi be
Iemae. II the mae passes down its Y chromosome though, the chid wi
then have an X and Y chromosome, thus making it mae. This shows that
there is a 50/50 chance oI the chid being either sex.
O Karyotyping chromosomes is the process oI sorting chromosomes into their
matched pairs. This can be used to investigate chromosoma disorders.
O Phenotype is how iving things appear and Iunction.
O DNA is organized in the doube heix` pattern (the twisting adder)
O The Iour diIIerent types oI bases Iound in nuceotides are
- adenine (A) ytosine ()
- thiamine (T) Guanine (G)
- Parings are : A/T, T/A and G/, /G

O A sequence oI three nuceotides is caed a tripet, which provides the coding
Ior a particuar amino acid.
O hen DNA is transcripted`, the adder unzips and spits into two sides. The
sides then attract Iree nuceotides and make a copy oI the origina DNA
sequence.
O The copy oI the DNA sequence is caed Messenger #NA (m#NA)
O In, m#NA, the thiamine (T) is repaced by Uraci (U) as the #NA strand is not
quite the same
O In asexua reproduction, an organism produces a iving thing identica to itseI
through mitosis, during which two ces identica to the origina ce are
Iormed. The new ces are caed daughter ces.
O In sexua reproduction, organisms produce gametes through a type oI ce
division caed meiosis. The sperm Iuses with the ovum to Iorm a new
individua, a zygote.
O Aees are the genes that give you your Ieatures.
O Seective breeding is choosing parents with desirabe characteristic traits and
mating/crossing them.

Mendel Experiment
Mende crossed a pure-breeding` ta pant (a pant that is pure breeding` Ior a certain
characteristic e.g. height has not shown the aternative trait Ior man generations. It
may/may not have two ta genes) with a pure breeding short pant.

Scenario (1
st
generation)
Pure` Ta
T T

Pure t
Short t

#esut: 4 Tt, which means a wi be ta

Hybrid (2
nd
generation)
T t
T #esut: 1 TT: 2 Tt: 1 tt
Hybrid ThereIore three wi be ta, but one wi be
short, as the
t recessive gene reappeared aIter the cross

Tt Tt
Tt Tt
TT Tt
Tt tt
Mende concuded that iI you bred a ta (dominant) pant with a short (recessive) pant,
then in the Iirst generation, a pants woud be ta hybrids. He then said that iI you
crossed the hybrids together in the second generation, the ratio oI ta pants to short
woud be 3:1 (the monohybrid ratio)

O II two aees (pairs oI etters, e.g. TT. Tt, tt) are the same then the zygote Ior the
gene is homozygous (e.g. TT. Tt. AA, aa, bb, KK)
O II the aees are diIIerent, it is heterozygous (e.g. Aa, Gg, Tt)
O A carrier is someone who is heterozygous and their recessive aee has a certain
characteristic (e.g. Hair coour, disease)
Homozygous
Has no recessive trait
So is saIe, does not
carry


O o-dominant aees occur when neither diIIerent aee is dominant over the
other. This happens when an anima/iving thing has (eg) white and red hairs
O Incompete dominance between aees occurs when two equay dominant aees
have a bend oI their characteristics



$umming &p

1. Very sma structures encosed in membranes caed organees have been
identiIied in the cytopasm oI ces. ach oI these carries out a particuar
Iunction to maintain the metaboic processes oI the ce. es within these
structures are described as eukaryotic.
2. As ces deveop, they speciaise Ior diIIerentiate. Some pant ces
transport water, others photosynthesise. In mammas, some ces become
nerve or bood ces.
3. the instructions that determine how a ce deveops are carried out by
moecues pI DNA, which is a nuceic acid. The nuceotides oI the DNA
TT TT Tt Tt
arriers
Tt
Another carrier
parent
Tt Tt
TT tt
arriers
SaIe
Has two
recessive
aees so they
inherit the trait
which wasn`t
shown in the
previous 2
generations
TT
Heterozygous
Has a dominant aee,
so the recessive trait is
hidden, but is carried
Tt
doube heix ink up according to the rue oI genetics (?) rue. Ony certain
sections oI the DNA moecues, base pairings code Ior particuar traits or
characteristics.
4. occasionay, changes occur to genes and chromosomes. These mutations
can give rise to genetic disorders.
5. Karyotyping is a method oI identiIying and sorting these structures.
6. hen gametes Iorm in the process oI meiosis, the number oI
chromosomes is haved so that when Iertiization takes pace thee is no
doubing oI the origina number oI chromosomes.
7. The sex oI many iving thungs, incuding humans, is determined by the
particuar sex chromosomes that is carried in the gamete. In humans, the
presence oI the Y chromosome in the sperm that Iertiizes the egg means a
boy wi be conceived.
8. Many micro-organisms, such as yeasts and bacteria are used in making
products useIu to us. This is known as biotechnoogy. Long chains oI
protein moecues, caed enzymes, in the micro-organisms, contro the
reactions.
9. Scientists are abe to manipuate the genetic programming oI the DNA in
the nucei oI ces. This kind oI gene technoogy resuts in changes to the
genetic make up or genotype oI the organism.
10.The study oI pedigree`s invoves knowing how characteristics are passed
Irom one gene to another. It invoves the anaysis oI genes, which assist in
Iinding out iI a person is ikey to be heterozygous or a carrier oI a genetic
disorder.
11.individua characteristics, such as the coour oI pea pods or coour oI eyes,
can be traced Irom one generation to the next. This is reIerred to as
studying a monohybrid cross.
12.The non-sex chromosomes are caed autosomes.
13.The process oI mitosis resuts in new body ces with the same number oI
chromosomes as their parent ce.















Year 9 Science Assignment 5
LiIe Goes On

1) Biotic vs. Abiotic
Abiotic Ieatures oI the oca environment are not iving things.. Physica Iactors aIIect
where, when or how many oI the organisms ive.
Biotic Ieatures oI the environment are iving things.
2) Living assiIication
Scientists cassiIy iving things because it heps them communicate to each other and to
know that they are taking about the same thing. It aso is useIu when there are a ot oI
types oI a certain anima and they want to singe one out.

3) Mnemonic assiIication
Kingdom King
Phyum Phiip
ass an
Order Observe
Famiy Freaky
Genus Green
Species Spiders

4) assiIying Organisms
Living things are grouped using three characteristics which are:
4 Interna and xterna structure
4 e Structure
4 hemica omposition

5) Same Species
Two organisms in the same species woud have simiar ce structure, body shape,
chemica composition and body structure.

6) ScientiIic Names
To make a scientiIic name Ior an anima there are some simpe guide ines the have to be
Ioow:
O ScientiIic names must be in Latin or Latinised which means the grammar oI the
Latin anguage must be Ioowed.
O The name cannot be rude and must be in proper Iorm.
O They have two words in them the genus as the Iirst and the species as the second.



nimals Plants

7) ommon/ScientiIic Names

8) DeIinitions
Prokaryotic an organism in the Monera Kingdom made oI bacteria and cyanobacteria
whose DNA doesn`t contain chromosomes. It aso has a membrane bound nucei.
Eukaryotic an organism which has a membrane bound nucei in their ces.
Motile Having the power to move spontaneousy.
Diffusion The sudden mixing oI two partices Irom random therma motion.
utotroph an organism that can make its own Iood Irom inorganic substances such as
ight oI chemica energy
Common $cientific Common $cientific
Giant Goden
Moe
hrysospaax
treveyani
hite ash Fraxinus
americana
#ed Panda Aiurus Iugens Yeow archange Lamium
gaeobdoon
Monkey Bat Pteraopex
acrodonta
Hercues's cub or
Devi's waking
stick
Araia spinosa
Pygmy
himpanzee
Pan paniscus Back chokeberry Aronia
meanocarpa
#ed oI anis ruIus Naked ady Amaryis
beadonna
Kingdoms haracteristics #eproduction xampes
Monera OSinge eed
OSimpe Nuceus
OMicroscopic
Oompex structura
moecue
sexual
Binary Iission
Budding
Bacteria
yanobacteria
thermacidophies
Protista OSinge eed
OTrue Nuceus
Oukaryotic
OUse diIIusion
sexually
A Protista can reproduce
this way
$exually
Many species can aso
reproduce Sexuay
Uniceuar
agae
Amoeba
Paramecium
Fungi OAbsorb Food
OUse specia
enzyme to break
down Iood
ONo horophy
OMuticeuar
$exual
Spores contained in
protective coating
sexual
Vegetative Growth such as
moud
Yeast
Death ap
Paraso
Pantae Oreate Iood Ior
themseves
Ohorophy
Oe membrane and
$exual
Poen and
sexual
Vegetative reproduction
Trees
Fowering
Pants
Ferns
9) 5 Kingdoms

10) Pant e



Anima e

wa

#unners
Animaia OMuticeuar
Oat Food
Sexuay reproduce Humans
Dogs
ows




11) Functions oI es
e Name e a e Membrane horopasts Nuceus
Function
OI
e
DeIence Irom
physica injury
Provides
Skeeta
Support
Bocks some
chemicas and
aows some to
pass. ontains
cytopasm
The pace
where
photosynthesis
is Iormed
ontros ce
Metaboism
Instructs e
using DNA
e Name Vacuoes ytopasm Mitochondria
Function
OI
e
Stores water
and chemicas
an store
wastes
A the organees
in a ce are
contained in this
iquid
onverts materias to energy
Produces heat

12) Pate Tectonics
250 miion years ago there was a giant and named Pangaea, which Austraia and a
and on earth is beieved to have originated Irom. 200 miion years ago the continent had
spit through the midde and two super continents were made. Laurasia was in the
northern hemisphere and Gondwana in the southern hemisphere, where Austraia was
connected. These spit into more and more diIIerent countries as there appear today.
According to the theory oI pate tectonics Pangaea spit into two continents because oI
the earths 30 pates moving away Irom each other. Over many years the pates sowy
driIted towards, away and past each other to Iorm a the current day and masses.

13) vidence Ior Tectonics
1) The Iact that most oI the continents ook ike a arge puzze and coud Iit together.
2) Aong the coasts oI continents that were thought to have been inked Fossis
Iound were very simiar.
3) There are a ot oI vocanos and earthquakes aong the pate boundaries.
4) There are mountain ranges being Iormed where two boundaries are being pushed
together, such as the Himaayas
5) Underwater ridges are Iormed where boundaries separate
6) Using current technoogy scientists can use GPS to monitor exacty how Iast the
pates are moving. And in which direction that each pate moves, which can hep
predict earthquakes and other natura disasters.

15) Absoute/#eative Dating
bsolute Dating Process
There are two different types of absolute dating:
#adiocarbon Dating This gives the ages oI organic materias, it does this by measuring
the radioactive decay. arbon-14 has a haI ive oI 5730 years and by cacuating how
much carbon is eIt the age oI the sampe can be determined.

Potassium-Argon Dating For Oder specimens this technique is used because the haI
ive oI Potassium-40 is much onger than carbon. Aso #adiocarbon dating can ony be
done on organic materias, so rocks and mineras coud not be dated. The Potassium-40 in
the rock sowy decays into Argon-40 which gets trapped in the rock, when the rock is
heated the argon escapes and the amount oI gas that escapes is measured to Iind out the
age.

Relative Dating
#eative dating was used beIore the technoogy oI absoute dating was deveoped. It
invoved estimating the age oI a rock oI Iossi by its position in bands oI rocks. This type
oI dating is used to determine the order in which events happened, not the date when they
occurred.

14) How Fossis are Iormed
For a Iossi to Irom the Ioowing steps must have happened:
1. Fossi Formation The Deceased anima woud have to Ia into water or be
buried quicky aIter death.
2.






2. Sedimentation AIter time more rocks and sand woud cover the corpse. This
coud be cause by mudsides. Sediments in water can aso deposit on the body.

3. Premineraisation as more and more sediment setted on top oI the Iossi the
weight causes the ower ayers to become sedimentary rocks. The bones and teeth
woud be encased in the Iorming sediment. AIter many years pass the bone woud
decay and be repaced by rocks and mineras



4. UpiIt The Fossi wi be moved around when the tectonic pates move and
coide. The Iossi that was Iormery on the sea bed wi be raised nearer to the
surIace and the deepy buried Iossi coud be brought centimetres Irom the
surIace.























17) voution oI Living Things


































16) Fauting and Foding
Fauting and Foding change the position oI the Iossi because the rocks that contain the
Iossi move. hen a the rocks move the position oI the Iossi aso moves.

200 Seed Pants
600 - orms
Now - 2006
3500 Bacteria
2250 Seaweed
850 Singe-ceed animas
550 - rustaceans
4500 million years ago

350 Land Pants
75 Primates
1cm 250 miion years

200 Birds
350 Land Vertebrates & Insects
Proterozoic
Paaeozoic
Mesozoic
ainozoic
Archaeozoic
400 Fungi
400 Marine Vertebrates
350 Land Pants and Animas
200 Birds and Seed
panes
Foding in rocks can change the position oI a Iossi because the rock ayers can bend and
curve. Foding happens because oI the pressure appied on the rocks by the earth.


Fauting and change the position oI a Iossi because the earth`s crusts move where there
are Iauts. This resuts in one oI the pates oI the earth to move up or down or Irom side to
side.


18) Archaeopteryx



19) Denis rawIord
Denis rawIord was scientist, a photographer and an exporer. At the start oI his career in
1977 be began to research with the Department oI Agricuture and continued to do so Ior
10 years. He studied caterpiars to great detai and had coonies oI them in his ab. AIter
he competed a his schooing he was given a job to Iind new coours and give them
names. He started to become more invoved in photography oI nature and the
environment, he began to take photos and they were sod to magazines and peope. In
ird Characteristics Reptile Characteristics
Feathers No Bi
ishbone Teeth
Opposabe Toe Fexibe rist
Longer Pubic ShaIt Long Bony Tai

Pneumatic Bones

One Vertebra not Iused

Sku attaches to neck Irom behind
1991 he took a Photography degree course, one oI his projects invoved taking pictures oI
dead insects with an eectron microscope and making them appear aive. He received the
hris Haes Imaging Award Ior his project. AIter receiving the award he took 100 images
Ior a book Iied with everyday insects. In 1994 he adventured to Antarctica to take
photographs oI Iossis. The most oI the Iossis were shes but some were more
extraordinary incuding ancient dophins and whaes. At the end oI his trip he cimbed a
mountain and saw an amazing site. The sky was red and the ice was purpe, he wanted to
take a photo immediatey. Denis`s photographic work has made him very Iamous.
Denis`s works can easiy be Iound on the internet.

20) Descriptions
Hapoid e is a ce which contains haI the norma amount oI chromosomes Ior the
species.
'rossing Over during Meiosis is the act oI swapping parts oI chromosomes whie
meiosis is occurring.
'#andom Assortment oI chromosomes is the word to describe the random
combination oI chromosomes whie meiosis is occurring.

21) #emember
2) Variation can be added to a popuation in the Ioowing ways:
O Mutation
O rossing Over
O Natura Seection
O #andom Genetic DriIt
O Gamete ombinations
O #andom Assortment oI chromosomes
O Isoation and restriction oI gene poo

3) Genetic ngineering using recombinant DNA techniques.
4) Both mutations happen during meiotic ce division and change the DNA in the ce. A
chromosome mutation changes the amount oI DNA in a ce. Gene Mutation changes the
inIormation which is in the DNA
22) haracteristics
haracteristics Dad Mum Brother Me
arobes B B B B
Darwin`s point No Yes No Yes
indows Peak Yes No Yes Yes
Tongue #oing Yes Yes Yes Yes
Tooth Gap Yes No No Yes
Foding Hands B A A A
Second Toe B B B B
Freckes No No No No

23) Genetic ngineering
Genetic engineering is usuay used to produce useIu medicines by manipuating micro-
organisms. This is done by cutting up the DNA into sma pieces using 'genetic scissors,
next these pieces are inserted into a micro-organism. Then the recombinant genes
produce the substances in the micro-organism and the substance is taken out and reIined.
An exampe is oonic Bacii which are used to make insuin and growth hormones and
bacius subtiis which is used to make interIeron. ith more research into these genes
the treatment Ior genetic disorders may aso be deveoped. This technoogy can aso be
used to geneticay modiIy pants. Pants can be cross bred but this is a tricky and costy
process, using recombinant DNA pants can be changed to produce higher quaity crops
much more easiy. #ecombinant technoogy can aso improve anima heath, resistance,
productivity and produce.
The ethica issue is that these pants may not be saIe to peope or the environment. But iI
the popuation oI the earth continues to rise then recombinant DNA technoogy may have
to be used to get the most out oI the crops by making the disease resistant. Some peope
aso beieve that mixing genes is tampering with nature, and the anima may be under too
much stress.


24) Natura Seection
The theory oI natura seection suggests that the individuas with more Iavourabe traits
and more ikey to ive and reproduce. hen that individua reproduces the oIIspring wi
have the heritabe characteristics and they wi become more common. AIter a ong time
passes the whoe species coud have that adaptation. An exampe oI this is in bacteria,
peope have used antibiotics to Iight bacteria inIections Irom when peniciin was
invented. But some bacteria have Iormed a resistance to the antibiotics, when coonies oI
bacteria come in contact with antibiotics the most die. II some ive they wi reproduce
and cause more bacteria which are more resistant. AIter repeated encounters with the
antibiotics the bacteria wi be more and more resistant unti the antibiotics have amost
no eIIect.
25) New Species
One oI the new species on the earth due to
natura seection is Darwin`s Finches or the
Gaapagos Iinches. These Iinches were a
around the same size, at around 10-20
centimetres. But on every isand these birds
were quite diIIerent, they were so diIIerent that
instead oI just being caed varieties they were
a abeed as diIIerent species. The birds with
onger beaks ived on isands with many insects,
and the birds needed the ong beaks to catch the
insects and survive. AIter a whie the birds with
the shorter beaks did not survive because they coudn`t eat enough Iood. On other isands
which had more seeds the birds iving there had short beaks, this made it easy Ior them to
open the seeds and eat them. This proved that the short beaked birds were better suited
Ior the environment so they evoved to have shorter beaks.

26) Bacteria Don`t Sunbake
1) They were researching how bacteria ived in Precambrian times, 62 miion years ago,
when there was no ozone ayer.
2) They put the mats oI some bacteria into a pastic bag which was transparent to UV
ight. And added radio-active phosphate, which is used by the ces the produce DNA.
very Iew hours they checked the amount oI phosphate in the DNA.
3) They Iound that at sunrise the amount oI phosphate in the DNA was high and that
when the sun was at its brightest the production oI DNA had ceased.
4) They concuded that ces ceased DNA production when the sun was at its brightest to
stop the harmIu eIIects oI UV ight.
5) This shows that iI the ozone ayer starts to break down the uniceuar organisms are at
an advantage because oI their cease oI DNA production at noon.

27) Darwin and aace`s Theory oI voution
hares Darwin`s Theory oI voution was inspired by aace`s theory oI evoution,
which was sent to him by aace. AIter aace had his theory he sent it to Darwin Ior
a review, it was neary the same as Darwin`s Theory oI voution which he had been
working on Ior 20 years. Darwin and aace`s theory incuded that a species reproduce
in more numbers then can survive, but adut popuations sti remain pretty much constant
and he made an inIerence that there was a strugge Ior surviva. In species there are many
variations, some are an advantage and some are disadvantages in their strugge. The
organisms that have the Iavourabe characteristic have a better chance to ive and
reproduce and pass on their characteristics, the organisms with ess Iavourabe
characteristics wi sowy disappear.

28) voution vidence
In Darwin`s traves to the Gaapagos Isands he had Iound that on diIIerent isands the
same species oI tortious, Iinches and izards had arge variations Irom the mainands and
even diIIered Irom isand to isand. He Iigured out that you coud te which isand a Iinch
and tortoise had originated Irom by its beak or she. He Iound that the Iinches were the
same in a ways except Ior their beaks. On one isand the Iinches had sma short beaks
to open and eat seeds. On another isand the same Iinches had ong beaks to catch insects,
this shows that the birds on the isands rich with seeds had sowy evoved over many
years to take advantage oI their surroundings and the birds on the isands with many
insects had ong beaks.

29) Biodiversity
Ecological iodiversity is the diIIerences in the ecosystems around an area. cosystems
can vary Irom #ainIorests, deserts, #ivers and Seas to a pudde.
$pecies iodiversity can reIer to a iving diIIerent species on the earth. It can aso reIer
a the species in a speciIic area.
Genetic iodiversity is the diIIerence in genes within a species. This is incudes
diIIerent coours in cats and dogs and diIIerent hair and eye coour in humans.

30) Gene Poo #eduction
A the organisms in a species are part oI its gene poo. The gene poo contains a the
genetic inIormation oI the species. II one oI the members oI the gene poo were to die
beIore mating then its genetic inIormation woud be ost. Aso there are more dominant
characteristics that one parent may have which causes the oIIspring to have that Ieature
and aIter some time certain characteristics coud be gone. hen a predator kis an
organism beIore it mates then the gene poo is Iurther reduced.


31) Save ndangered Species
Austraia is a country with more than a miion endemic species, but because oI the
humans moving in and destroying habitats more than 100 species oI animas have
aready become extinct. To prevent this, the government has Iormed recovery pans
Ior the endangered species and ecoogica communities. First they Iigure out what is
threatening the species and where they can, they reduce or prevent this iI possibe.
They aso make nationa parks to observe the anima and protect them. They can aso
be kept and bred in zoos