NOTTINGHAM INTERNATIONAL MODEL UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE 2011

STUDY GUIDE
UNITED NATIONS HUMAN RIGHTS COUNCIL (UNHRC)

CONTENTS Committee Personnel & Contact Agenda Item 1: The creation of a coherent framework for human rights and environmental issues Introduction Background Key Issues Agenda Item 2: Human rights and the removal and resettlement of individuals Introduction Background Key Issues Bibliography

COMMITTEE PERSONNEL & CONTACT Committee President: Head Chair: Vice Chairs: Committee Contact: Maral Shafafy Bhaktimayar Nair Okyanus Akin and Ilkiz Orhon unhrc.nottsmun11@gmail.com

ABBREVIATIONS DRC ECHR ECOSOC EU UN UNEP Democratic Republic of Congo European Convention of Human Rights Economic and Social Council European Union United Nations United Nations Environment Programme

AGENDA ITEM 1: The creation of a coherent framework for human rights and environmental issues man has a fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being
Principle 1 of the Stockholm Declaration 1972

INTRODUCTION A significant element of human rights is the empowerment of individuals and the creation of minimum standards that all human beings should be given during their life. Whilst these are certainly two key elements it is important to review the context in which these rights exist. The exercise and maintenance of human rights are affected by not only individuals themselves in the way they interact with others but also under legal systems, employment and even the environment. This is not an exhaustive list however it is important to emphasise that all of these areas are interrelated. The issue of the environment and primarily climate change has dominated politics over the last twenty years or so. It is arguable that the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 resulted in a more forthright move to international regulation and monitoring of the environment. However it was not until 1995 and the creation of the Berlin Mandate, that the international community began discussing environmental issues extensively.1 Indeed, this Mandate led to the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and the continued emphasis on environmental issues subsequently. The implication of the environment on human rights then came to the fore of the agendas of the then United Nations Commission for Human Rights and UNEP when they joined together to discuss this issue between 2001 and 2002.2

BACKGROUND Slow beginnings (1940s-1980s): in 1949, the UN Scientific Conference on the conservation and utilisation of resources was the first UN body to address the depletion of those resources and their use. The focus, however, was mainly on how to manage them for economic and social development, and not from a conservation perspective. It was not until 1968 that environmental issues received serious attention by any major UN organs. ECOSOC was the first to include those issues in its agenda as a specific item and decided to hold the first United Nations Conference on the Human Environment.3 In 1972, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was convened in Stockholm. It delivered a simple, yet profound message, that the maintenance of the environment was critical to the enjoyment of basic human rights. It emphasised that even

1 2

http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/tp/tp0200.pdf http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/environment/environ/index.htm 3 http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/chronicle/cache/bypass/home/archive/issues2007/pid/4819?ctnscroll _articleContainerList=1_0&ctnlistpagination_articleContainerList=true

the right to life itself hinged on the maintenance of the environment.4 However whilst this conference presented a step towards recognising the impact of the environment on human rights some have argued it was more about the environment itself.5 Evidence to support this argument can be seen by the actions of the then European Community after the conference. In 1973, the first Environmental Action Program was created by the European Community and it has continued to discuss environmental issues.6 Over the next 20 years, as part of efforts to implement the 1972 decisions, concern for the atmosphere and global climate slowly gained international attention and action. In 1979, the UNEP Governing Council asked its Executive Director, under the Earth Watch programme, to monitor and evaluate the long-range transport of air pollutants.7 However progress was slow and it was not until 1987 that real impetus was given to environmental issues in the global agenda as the UN General Assembly adopted the Environmental Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond.8 This again was another statement of aims and objectives for the environment but there was still a limited view as to the impact of the environment on human rights. Paving the way to a new century (1990s): the principles highlighted in Stockholm appear to have been taken on board by countries but then forgotten about. This was certainly true until the early 1990s when the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 45/94. This Resolution called for a more concerted effort to create a better and healthier environment. 9 This was then taken forward, in procedural terms at any rate, into the discussions at the Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janiero in 1992 and Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration is the first clear evidence of a link being made between human rights and the environment.10 It is important to emphasise that between 1991 and 1998 there were eleven separate international conventions or conferences relating to the environment all with a differing emphasis on human rights. These instruments are: Protocol on Environmental Protection on the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora Framework Convention on Climate Change Protocol to amend the International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage

4 5

http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/environment/environ/index.htm Bjrn-Ola Linnr and Henrik Selin, The Thirty Year Quest for Sustainability: The Legacy of the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment, Paper presented at Annual Convention of International Studies Association, Portland, Oregon, USA, 25 February 1 March 2003, p. 3 6 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_the_Human_Environment 7 http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/chronicle/cache/bypass/home/archive/issues2007/pid/4819?ctnscroll _articleContainerList=1_0&ctnlistpagination_articleContainerList=true 8 http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/chronicle/cache/bypass/home/archive/issues2007/pid/4819?ctnscroll _articleContainerList=1_0&ctnlistpagination_articleContainerList=true 9 http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/environment/environ/bp1.htm 10 http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/environment/environ/bp1.htm

Protocol to amend the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage Convention on Biological Diversity International Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, particularly in Africa Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses Joint Protocol to amend the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and the Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade

However these international instruments, whilst covering a wide range of topics, do not truly appear to focus on the principles of Stockholm. The impact of the environment on human rights can be seen by the growth of litigation around the right to privacy and family life during the 1990s. This was no more prevalent than in Europe, where the ECHR has been successfully invoked to combat environmental impact. One such case was Arrondelle v. United Kingdom in which the claimant argued that the noise from a nearby airport and motorway breached their right to privacy. This case was eventually settled with a payment being made to the claimant of over 7,000.11 However the primary case in this area, which highlights the power of human rights to protect the environment is Lopez-Ostra v. Spain and this is for the primary reason that the claimant was not required to exhaust all administrative remedies under national law to bring their legal claim but only needed to do this in respect of the human rights element.12 Creating the better environment imagined in 1972 (2000s): in 2007, the United Kingdom led the way in bringing the issues of the environment and security to the fore during its presidency of the UN Security Council. This was the first recognition, at the top level of the UN, that environmental issues transcend mere talk of climate change but could affect the vary make up and fabric of the international community.13 This presents a problem for human rights and their maintenance as if the fabric of the international community breaks up, these rights may fall away and become an afterthought.

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http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/environment/environ/bp2.htm http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/environment/environ/bp2.htm 13 http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/chronicle/cache/bypass/home/archive/issues2007/pid/4825?ctnscroll _articleContainerList=1_0&ctnlistpagination_articleContainerList=true

In July 2011, the Secretary-General of the UN, Ban-Ki Moon stated in a speech to the fourth meeting of the Parties of the Aarhus Convention that its focus on human rights and enabling individuals to impact on their governments was important for ecological protection.14 However the Aarhus Convention merely facilitates a dialogue between people and their governments and does not necessarily prompt governments to consider human rights alongside environmental policies.

KEY ISSUES It is necessary, as a preamble to these key issues to stress that the environment is not merely climate change and global warming but rather a mixture of both natural and manmade ones that often collide. The issues highlighted below are not exhaustive however they should be considered, along with others in the context of the natural environment. Working environment Often the industries that people work in have an impact not only on their health but also the surrounding environment. This can certainly be seen in the aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster in 1986. Significant areas of land and plants were destroyed by radiation and livestock suffered either through the increase in the size of their thyroids leading to death or the stunting of their growth. Beyond this the effects of Chernobyl are still being felt across Europe, despite the passage of some twenty-five years. For example, of the over 440,000 wild boar killed in Germany in 2010 over 1,000 were found to have significantly high levels of radiation within them above and beyond the limits for radiation put in place after Chernobyl to reduce residual exposure.15 Industry itself can also pose problems both on an environmental level through pollution but also by affecting the people that work within the respective industries. Under Article 23 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights all people are guaranteed the right of just and favourable conditions at work. However, it is questionable how far this right has been or is being upheld. In June 2011 it was reported that a battery factory in the Zhejiang province of China had exposed its workers to high levels of lead poisoning. The factory also caused the surrounding environment to suffer, with children also succumbing to lead poisoning. There were reports of more than 300 people being diagnosed with lead poisoning. 16 Other industries, such as the mining of gold, have also led to increased problems for the environment and the people that work in them. The ideal right of a person under Article 23 is often seen in stark contrast to the actual reality. Gold mining in countries such as Nigeria and Papua New Guinea often uses the artisanal technique and through this process the miners are exposed to high levels of mercury. Mercury is a highly deadly metal however despite an international prohibition on children working with it, they continue to do so and e exposed to it through their parents.17 Residential environment living standards and resources
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http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=38919 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster 16 http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/15/world/asia/15lead.html?pagewanted=all 17 http://www.hrw.org/news/2011/10/27/global-mercury-reduction-treaty-protect-health-gold-miners

There is a great disparity between views on living standards across the world. In the more developed north there is a presumption that individuals will have a comfortable home with furniture, whilst in the developing south there is a presumption that individuals will be building makeshift houses with little in the way of luxury and security.

However, despite this presumption there will always be competition for resources and this is where much contention can arise between citizens and immigrants or even between citizens of the same country themselves. The competition for resources may mean increased resentment between the various populations in a particular area or country or even greater environmental impacts that impact on everyone within a state. One key area where there is often competition for resources is in basic materials such as wood, coal and water. For example, between 1994 and 1996, approximately 36,000 million trees were cut down within the Virunga National Park in the DRC. Much of this was removed for fuel to ensure life in the local area however a significant proportion was also removed to build shelters and housing. It is important to note however this deforestation was not as a result of the increased need by the local population but rather as a result of the introduction of refugees to the local area. At its peak, the rate of deforestation reached removal rates of 770 tons per day. This story can also be seen in the Kivu province of the DRC where within three weeks of the arrival of refugee populations, almost 38 square kilometres of forest were lost.18 One key problem that deforestation, for example, then poses is soil degradation. This comes in two forms. Firstly, as soil erosion by the sun, wind and water. The erosion of the soil prompts a degrading of the top soil in the local area which causes difficulties for growing crops and successfully grazing animals.19 Secondly, the erosion of soil gives rise to an increased risk of flooding. This risk does not become evident until the rainy season occurs. Where a camp is situated in an area of raised terrain, such as Bukavu in Zaire, then mud slides are an ever present danger and can be caused as a direct result from large levels of rainfall. These risks may not be remedied by the mere movement of refugees from the area in which the camp is located but rather through the rehabilitation of the area. 20 To further
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Prof. J.O. Oucho, Environmental Impact of Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons in Sub-Saharan Africa 2007 African Migration Alliance Biennial Workshop on Climate Change, Environment and Migration, p. 12 19 Prof. J.O. Oucho, Environmental Impact of Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons in Sub-Saharan Africa 2007 African Migration Alliance Biennial Workshop on Climate Change, Environment and Migration, p. 11, Table 3 20 A.K. Biswas & C. Tortajada Quiroz, Environmental Impacts of Refugees: A Case Study 1996 Vol. 14 Impact Assessment, p. 31

highlight this issue, in the mid-1990s a study was conducted into the changes in the ecosystem of the Senegal River Valley. It was found that due to changes in land cover and the alteration of the vegetation make-up of the region through various deforestation and clearance actions that there had been an alteration in all ecological zones along the river. 21 Changes to countries All countries are dependent upon the environment and their climate to maintain their local flora and fauna. This is critical to the survival of ecosystems as well as the survival of countries themselves. This is especially important in relation to island nations. An increase of just half a metre in sea level would put at risk the very survival of the human population of many Pacific Island nations.22 Countries that are already seeing the impacts of climate change include The Maldives and other potential targets for risk to the human population through climate change include Papua New Guinea. Above and beyond the mere threat of rising sea levels is the potential for increased competition for resources. The 2006 Stern Review predicted that there would be a greater competition for resources, should sea levels rise and there be environmental threats to populations, than at any time since the end of the Second World War.23 The consequences of climate change are far reaching and can strike at the very heart of the security agenda: flooding, disease and famine, resulting in migration on an unprecedented scale in areas of already high tension; drought and crop-failure, leading to intensified competition for food, water and energy in regions where resources are already stretched to the limit.24 To put this into some context it is appropriate to look at one country that is within the danger zone of the Pacific Island nations. Tuvalu is made up a series of narrow islands, with Funafuti, the capital, a mere 600 metres wide at its widest point and the land is less than 2 metres above sea level. The environment of Tuvalu is changing. It is already being noticed by the local population that beaches have disappeared, small islets have been washed away, coral reefs are starting to die and crops are dying from salt-water intrusion.25
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Black and Sessay, Refugees, Land Cover and Environmental Change in the Senegal River Valley 1996 41(1) GeoJournal 22 http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/chronicle/cache/bypass/home/archive/issues2007/pid/4825?ctnscroll _articleContainerList=1_0&ctnlistpagination_articleContainerList=true 23 http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/chronicle/cache/bypass/home/archive/issues2007/pid/4825?ctnscroll _articleContainerList=1_0&ctnlistpagination_articleContainerList=true 24 http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/chronicle/cache/bypass/home/archive/issues2007/pid/4825?ctnscroll _articleContainerList=1_0&ctnlistpagination_articleContainerList=true 25 http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/chronicle/cache/bypass/home/archive/issues2007/pid/4824?ctnscroll _articleContainerList=1_0&ctnlistpagination_articleContainerList=true

A recent report Oxfam has suggested that the costs of adaptation to changes in the environment and local climates will total around $50 billion per yeara figure far higher than previously considered and greater than those suggested by the World Bank. 26 The disappearance of nations, such as Tuvalu, does prompt a serious question: where will the citizens of these nations go when the nations themselves disappear? As there are numerous rights to citizenship and the right to residency in a state, should these rights be used to force other countries to become the foster homes of unintentionally stateless people? Legal environment The most recent example where human rights issues have clashed between a legal and residential environment was a case involving an asylum seeker in Greece. In 2011, the laws of the EU relating to asylum seekers were called into question by the European Court of Human Rights. As a result of the decision in MSS v. Belgium and Greece27 the application of the EU asylum laws by Belgium and Greece were deemed to contravene the ECHR. The Court stated that the return of an asylum seeker from Belgium to Greece contravened Article 3 of the ECHR namely the right to freedom from torture, inhuman or degrading treatment. This decision was based in part on the conditions that the applicant asylum seeker argued that they would be returned to if they were placed back into the custody of the Greek authorities.28

AGENDA ITEM 2: Human rights and the removal and resettlement of individuals INTRODUCTION For centuries there have been various instances of the removal of people from one area or one country to another, all for various reasons. There have also been either coupled with this removal or indeed as part of a different policy to resettle people. This is of no surprise as humans have continuously competed for supremacy over each other and have used these mechanisms as a means to exert such supremacy.

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http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/chronicle/cache/bypass/home/archive/issues2007/pid/4824?ctnscroll _articleContainerList=1_0&ctnlistpagination_articleContainerList=true 27 Application 30696/09 (http://www.statewatch.org/news/2011/jan/echr-judgment-mss-v-belgiumgreece.pdf) 28 Application 30696/09, p.56 (For These Reasons, The Court) (http://www.statewatch.org/news/2011/jan/echr-judgment-mss-v-belgium-greece.pdf)

In 2006, it was estimated that there were over 50 million people living outside their home country as a result of forced removal, resettlement or migration. Often forced migration is a result of internal struggle, especially war, or it is as a result of a humanitarian emergency.29 However, during a removal and/or resettlement of individuals are their human rights upheld, suspended or merely ignored to satisfy the purpose of the policy or as a matter of expediency.

BACKGROUND The historical context (pre-1945): it is historically proven that resettlements have occurred to remove races or religions which appear to threaten the established population or religion in a specific country. The removal of the Jewish population from England during the reign of Edward I to the removal and resettlement of Plains Indians to reservations in America are just two examples of forced removals and resettlements that were undertaken for different policies. There was often an element of demonization of the people to be removed and resettled, which can be seen in the Russian pogroms of the late nineteenth century. The start of the pogroms is often traced to the assassination of Czar Alexander III and the riots arising during this time continued to force people to resettle elsewhere. It is however hard to discuss the forced removal and resettlement of individuals without discussing the Holocaust and the use of concentration camps to remove the lesser races from the conquered lands of Nazi Germany especially the Jews, Gypsies and Slavs. The policy of looking to create an Aryan race and the inherent racism of the creation of a Greater Germany ideal led to the forced removal and resettlement of millions of people. Much of the context for the pre-1945 forced removal and resettlement of people was borne out of fear-mongering or using them as a scapegoat for wider social, political or economic problems. This can again be seen acutely in the propaganda of Nazi Germany throughout the 1930s and early 1940s. Post-war resettlement (1945-1999): as a result of the preceding history and especially as a result of actions of Nazi Germany, the international community looked to create a framework in which the rights of individuals were not just the concern of states but the concern of the entire international community. This is certainly a policy that can be seen behind the creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Whilst it is a statement of all of the basic rights that individuals have and should have upheld, there is an inherent tension within it. This tension is between the right to reside in a state and the right to obtain asylum. This tension can be found between Articles 13 and 14. The debate that surrounded these provisions saw the USSR wanting to qualify the rights to leave and the USA looking to remove any obligation on states in respect of asylum.30 Subsequent to this the international
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J Mertus & J W Helsing, Human Rights & Conflict: exploring the links between rights, law and peacebuilding (2006), p. 405 30 J Mertus & J W Helsing, Human Rights & Conflict: exploring the links between rights, law and peacebuilding (2006), pp. 408-409

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community revisited the issue of removed persons under the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees. The 1951 Convention is arguably more Euro-centric than the Universal Declaration of Human Rights but it does provide for the application of basic human rights to refugees who are within a new state.31 Resettlement in the new millennium: whilst there have been developments in the protection of removed and resettled persons, the most effective protection frameworks are those applicable to people who have crossed borders namely refugees. It has thus left those who have been forcibly removed or resettled in their home country with little protection. This situation has however altered over the last decade. The presence of the UN and its agencies during conflicts that have caused the forced removal or resettlement of people within their own country or another one has helped to ease the transition of movement. However, there is not necessarily a fully co-ordinated effort, nor is it always as easy to make this transition as could be suggested. Much of the emphasis has been on strengthening the position of internally displaced persons rather than continuing to bolster the position of refugees to provide cover for internally displaced persons.

KEY ISSUES Lack of protection for internally resettled persons The lack of protection for internal persons stems from the unwillingness of states to infringe national sovereignty and by virtue of that having governments tell other governments what to do. This affects wide range of countries, from Russia and China with their inherent veto power to Somalia and Liberia, with their lack of an accountable government of authority to provide security to citizens.32 This raises the question of how to combat this problem. Where states are unwilling to intervene when there is a mass internal displacement of people a vacuum is created whereby the international framework does not necessarily provide the protection of basic rights that these people need, nor does the national law want to provide protection to citizens. Competition for resources When introducing more people into an area, whether resources are scarce or not, will result in competition between the indigenous populous and the new residents. This can be acutely seen in the context of refugee camps. At Dadaab refugee camp in Kenya, there have been conflicts between refugee and local communities. These conflicts have focused on the
31

J Mertus & J W Helsing, Human Rights & Conflict: exploring the links between rights, law and peacebuilding (2006), p. 409 32 J Mertus & J W Helsing, Human Rights & Conflict: exploring the links between rights, law and peacebuilding (2006), p. 411

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depletion of forestry and forestry resources, giving rise to tensions between the refugee population and the pastoralist communities.33 In Tanzania this has been taken further where there has been competition to obtain access to the resources of the countrys infrastructure, such as transport links, as well as goods and the use of grazing land and water sources.34 One of the resources that is consistently competed for is water. As refugee camps often do not have their own water supply, refugees have to travel sometimes long distances to obtain water. There is a staunch range of water consumption among camps from 11.1 litres at Kibumba to 5.3 litres at Kituku. Bringing water into camps from outside sources could result in health problems by introducing diseases to the camp including dysentery and cholera.35 Criminal activity and political radicalism Many people who resettle in other countries are coming from war zones and when they enter host countries they are coming with weapons.36 These weapons are a remnant of this situation they are leaving rather than a direct attempt to cause unrest in their host country. However, these weapons are a real threat to others and could be used during unrest in a refugee camp or to commit criminal acts. Criminal activity ranges from the small and petty to serious crimes including murder, robbery and possession of arms. These crimes, if they spill over into the host community, can have dramatic effects on indigenous people. It is possible for internal displacement of families and communities or whole villages to occur as a result of criminal activity spilling out from resettlement communities. This situation is often exacerbated by the location of host countries namely close to the conflict.37 Most recently however, in the United Kingdom, a serious debate erupted around the traveller population of Dayle Farm. The land that comprised the farm belonged to the travellers however they had constructed a travellers site on it without expressed planning permission. This situation flared into protests and eventually led to a mass forced eviction of the site. It has been argued that both sides, the travellers or the police and local authorities, were breaking the law by undertaking this forced eviction. The travellers were seen as criminal by having breached planning regulations and not complied with a request to leave the land. The police and local authorities were seen to have contravened human rights by commissioning and carrying out this forced removal. Poaching is a prevalent issue in host communities. The issue of poaching however is not as widely appreciated. In some instances nearly thirty per cent of the game population in resettlement areas was poached. The actions of poachers are felt the worst in respect of rare wildlife. Some of the worst examples of poaching have included the decimation of the

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http://www.iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/esaro/_news/?2417/Eastern-Africa-Tacklingenvironmental-challenges-in-refugee-camps 34 P.A. Ongpin, Refugees: asset or burden? 35 A.K. Biswas & C. Tortajada Quiroz, Environmental Impacts of Refugees: A Case Study 1996 Vol. 14 Impact Assessment, p. 35 36 http://www.jha.ac/articles/a050.htm 37 Dr. B. Rutinwa, Dr. K. Kamanga and K.L.L. Washoma, Impact of Refugees in North Western Tanzania 2003 Center for Study of Forced Migration, University of Dar Es Salaam, pp. 3-4

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populations of the eastern plain gorilla, the roan antelope and the eland. With these species being rare, their decimation pushes them closer and closer to extinction.38 Political radicalisation often leads to civil unrest and conflict either between inhabitants of the refugee camp or between the camp and wider community. The best example of this can be seen in the experience of refugees. This was certainly seen in the Nahr-el-Bared camp in 2007 when fighting broke out in the vicinity of the camp itself with skirmishes occurring on the outskirts of the camp between Islamic militants and the Lebanese army in May that year. The Lebanese army placed the camp under siege and attacks were launched on the camp during June and August. It was not until September that the camp fell and the militants within the camp were brought under control of the authorities.39 Spread of conflict into country of resettlement There are numerous instances of conflict spreading as a result of the removal or resettlement of people. This is so even if this removal or resettlement is forced or voluntary. Throughout Africa there have been various instances of conflict spreading. For example, during the Rwandan genocide in the 1990s the countries at the borders of Rwanda saw influxes of Rwandan refugees and conversely some also provided shelter to militia attacking people in Rwanda.

38

Prof. J.O. Oucho, Environmental Impact of Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons in Sub-Saharan Africa 2007 African Migration Alliance Biennial Workshop on Climate Change, Environment and Migration, pp. 14-15 39 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_Lebanon_conflict

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Resources http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/tp/tp0200.pdf http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/environment/environ/index.htm http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/chronicle/cache/bypass/home/archive/issues2007/pi d/4819?ctnscroll_articleContainerList=1_0&ctnlistpagination_articleContainerList=true Bjrn-Ola Linnr and Henrik Selin, The Thirty Year Quest for Sustainability: The Legacy of the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment, Paper presented at Annual Convention of International Studies Association, Portland, Oregon, USA, 25 February 1 March 2003 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_the_Human_Environment http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=38919 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/15/world/asia/15lead.html?pagewanted=all http://www.hrw.org/news/2011/10/27/global-mercury-reduction-treaty-protect-healthgold-miners Prof. J.O. Oucho, Environmental Impact of Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons in Sub-Saharan Africa 2007 African Migration Alliance Biennial Workshop on Climate Change, Environment and Migration A.K. Biswas & C. Tortajada Quiroz, Environmental Impacts of Refugees: A Case Study 1996 Vol. 14 Impact Assessment Black and Sessay, Refugees, Land Cover and Environmental Change in the Senegal River Valley 1996 41(1) GeoJournal http://www.statewatch.org/news/2011/jan/echr-judgment-mss-v-belgium-greece.pdf J Mertus & J W Helsing, Human Rights & Conflict: exploring the links between rights, law and peacebuilding (2006) http://www.iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/esaro/_news/?2417/Eastern-AfricaTackling-environmental-challenges-in-refugee-camps P.A. Ongpin, Refugees: asset or burden? A.K. Biswas & C. Tortajada Quiroz, Environmental Impacts of Refugees: A Case Study 1996 Vol. 14 Impact Assessment, p. 35 http://www.jha.ac/articles/a050.htm Dr. B. Rutinwa, Dr. K. Kamanga and K.L.L. Washoma, Impact of Refugees in North Western Tanzania 2003 Center for Study of Forced Migration, University of Dar Es Salaam, Pictures Right to life, liberty and security of person: http://www.flickr.com/photos/jordanlewin/2534766402/sizes/s/in/photostream/ Houses: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-485821/Average-British-house-costs-timesbuyers-income.html Favela: http://www.hatw.org.uk/default.asp?section=2 Map of Tuvalu: http://www.lonelyplanet.com/maps/pacific/tuvalu/
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All are equal before the law: http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/chronicle/cache/bypass/home/archive/issues2007/t hesolidarityofpeoples/eliminatingracialdiscrimination?ctnscroll_articleContainerList=1_0&ct nlistpagination_articleContainerList=true Refugees: http://images.mirror.co.uk/upl/m4/mar2011/2/4/refugees-held-in-libya-pic-ap350407388.jpg

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