SUBMITTAL TO MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

5/11/05 W. A. KEELY, VP SALES NDT TECHNOLOGIES, 7170 Big Sky Drive, Holly, MI 48442

INFORMATION RELATED TO EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION OF MACHINED PARTS

BRIEF GENERAL OVERVIEW
Eddy current testing was pioneered in the 1800s by David Edward Hughes (18301900), an American inventor who discovered that a coil of wire carrying an alternating current was affected by any conductive material coming near it. This effect related directly to the eddy currents created in the conductive material by the transformer effect of the alternating electromagnetic field in the wire. This technology was later put to use inspecting virtually every type of conductive material for physical defects, and became quite prominent in the early aircraft industry, where it searched out cracks in flight-critical control surfaces. Eddy current inspection of threads in tapped holes, however, presents unique challenges that must be overcome for the test results to be reliable.

1) What is Eddy Current Testing and How Does it Work?

HOW DOES EDDY CURRENT TESTING WORK?
Eddy current testing is a comparative means of part evaluation. In its most basic form, eddy current testing compares the eddy current characteristics of a known good part sample to the eddy current characteristics of the general part population. During a "learn" process, the eddy current signature of a "known good" or "master" part is learned by support electronics and stored in memory. Thereafter, as subsequent samples are inspected, the eddy current signature of the part under test is compared to that learned signature. If the signatures match within user set limits, (that can be set on either side of the learned signature value), the part is judged good and passed, otherwise it is judged bad and rejected.

HOW DOES EDDY CURRENT TESTING EVALUATE PARTS?

Eddy current testing provides an analog means of evaluating mechanical parts. It is not a go/no-go gauge, but a proportional means of reviewing the characteristics of machined components. Although a go/no-go capability can be added to this inspection technique through the addition of a user settable 1

acceptance window, it is fundamentally analog in nature and therefore offers a wide variety of inspection applications and potentials. In addition to distinguishing between properly and improperly threaded holes, eddy current testing techniques can also be used to: distinguish complex features using profiling techniques, find seams in welded tubing, find cracks in machined surfaces, detect features like groves and chamfers in machined rods, inspect for hardness, chemistry and porosity differences between parts, and measure materials thickness. The principal means of evaluating samples in all non-contact eddy current systems is based on statistics. Since the eddy current probe simultaneously extracts four materials characteristics (chemistry, geometry, hardness and temperature) from every sample, the review of any sample population with respect to the eddy current signature of that population, will begin to ascribe a bell curve with a defined average (or x bar) and plus and minus three sigma limits. This bell curve is created by variations in these four parameters between subsequent samples. The NDT Technologies system allows the user to place an acceptance window around the bell curve established by a sample population just outside its three sigma limits, so that parts that fall within this window can be accepted while those that fall outside the window will be rejected. NOTE: It should be noted that variations in materials chemistry, geometry, hardness and temperature are lumped together in other eddy current literature and referred to as changes in materials "conductivity". Although this is true, NDT Technologies has selected to separate these so that a more comprehensive statistical understanding of the eddy current testing process can be achieved.

HOW DO STATISTICS COME INTO PLAY IN THE EVALUATION OF THREADED HOLES?

With reference to figure #1, when a threaded hole is inspected with a single element eddy current probe, the bell curve associated with each part population can be thought of as four individual bell curves that are overlaid, one upon the other. The inner most bell curve, associated with part geometry differences, is usually the one of interest. This population distribution relates to the following differences between parts: Number of threads present Pilot hole diameter Thread major diameter Thread minor diameter Hole out of round condition Thread pitch diameter Thread concentricity with hole centerline Thread roughness Thread tear out at top of hole Tap wear condition

The second "layer" of the bell curve relates to differences in the hardness of the part immediately around the hole. Materials hardness is typically sensed up to about 0.01" into the wall around the hole, depending on the frequency of the drive signal. The third "layer" relates to materials chemistry and includes materials porosity, also about 0.01" into the material. The fourth "layer" is associated with the difference in temperature between subsequent samples. It also represents the temperature difference between the sample population and the temperature of the master part that was initially used to establish the "learned" eddy current characteristic held in system memory. As the general population of the parts begins to deviate with respect to the four sensed parameters, from the average, (or x bar), established with the master part, the width of the good part and bad part bell curves begin to increase. This increase in turn, causes the tails of these two bell curves, at their three-sigma limits, to approach each other. . The absolute separation between the x bar values of the good part and bad part bell curves related directly to the size of the defect that is to be sensed. When the number of threads in a given hole is the parameter in question, the x bars are separated in direct relation to the number of threads that are missing in a bad hole. With reference to figure #1, it becomes apparent that as each of the sensed parameters (namely chemistry, geometry, hardness, and temperature) begin to deviate from that of the learned master part, the capability of the system to discern differences in just a few missing threads, between the master and the sample under test, becomes compromised. Further, in sample populations with wide variations in chemistry, hardness and temperature, only relatively large numbers of missing threads can be detected.

IS THERE A WAY TO SEPARATE THE EDDY CURRENT SIGNATURES ASSOCIATED WITH CHEMISTRY, HARDNESS AND TEMPERATURE, FROM THAT OF GEOMETRY IN THREADED HOLES?
With reference to figure #1, when a single element eddy current probe is used it becomes obvious that as the deviations in part population chemistry, hardness begin to increase (as in cast materials such as iron and aluminum) the capability to sort out one or two missing threads from a population of fully threaded holes becomes more difficult. In fact, to accomplish this, large numbers of good parts would have to be rejected to insure all bad parts are also rejected. In one hundred percent sorting applications, this is obviously only marginally acceptable. This situation, however, can be substantially improved with the use of a dual element probe. As the name implies, a dual element eddy current probe utilizes two distinct and separate eddy current sensor elements in each probe. These dual element probes are used as follows:

A.

B.

C.

The probe is initially positioned in a properly threaded hole so that the element near the probe tip is adjacent to the last fully formed thread and the element farthest away from the tip is located nearer the top of the hole also containing properly formed threads. The support electronics is then caused to "learn" the eddy current signature difference between the two elements. Ideally, the differences between these two signatures should be zero. In fact, if the chemistry, geometry, hardness and temperature within any given hole, at the two locations adjacent to the two probe elements, is the same, the difference will be zero. As changes occur, however, in the geometry related characteristics of the last fully formed thread that is adjacent to the lower probe element, the eddy current difference signal begins to become significant. Is should be noted that since the difference between the eddy current signatures of the two probe elements is used (as opposed to their absolute value) the eddy current system, in effect, "masters" itself in each hole. As long as no differences in chemistry, hardness and temperature occur in the same hole between the locations of the two probe elements, their signatures are rejected form the information that is utilized by the system to evaluate the condition of each threaded hole.

With reference to Figure #2, the bell curves associated with the eddy current differences between the two probe elements, contains only geometry-related information. Since the width of these bell curves no longer contains deviations in population chemistry, hardness and temperature, the tails of the good part and bad part bell curves are substantially farther apart.

WHAT ARE SOME OF THE ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF THE SINGLE COIL SYSTEM?
ADVANTAGES: This is typically the least expensive system available. This system can be used to discern differences in chemistry and hardness as well as thread presence and condition, within a part population. The system is capable of sorting unthreaded holes, or up to half threaded holes, from a population of fully threaded holes. DISADVANTAGES: This system detects all four eddy current parameters from each sample and consequently the associated part population bell curves are unduly wide. As the size of the defect to be detected decreases, therefore, more and more good parts must be rejected from the inspected sample population to insure that all bad parts are also rejected. The single coil eddy current system requires that a master part be used to establish the position of the x bar part. Ideally this part should also exhibit the mean, or x bar of the chemistry, geometry, hardness and temperature populations. If it does not, the resulting sort will be based on a skewed distribution and therefore not properly represent the good and bad part populations. For parts with more than one hole that are to be inspected simultaneously, the capability to locate the master part that actually represents the x bar for all four parameters for all the holes, geometrically increased in complexity. In fact, in parts with more than five holes,

the likelihood of locating a master part with all holes actually at their x bar position is near impossible. This problem results in statistically skewed sorts for at least some of the holes. The system requires that a master part be periodically cycled through the test fixture, initially to calibrate it to its "learned" parameters, and then periodically to verify that the system has maintained its initial calibration. Periodically also, a "bad" master part should also be cycled through the system to verify it is, in fact, rejected.

WHAT ARE SOME OF THE ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF THE DUAL COIL SYSTEM?
ADVANTAGES: Since part chemistry, hardness and temperature are effectively rejected from the eddy current signature of the "difference" between the two eddy current sensors, only the geometry differences are sensed. This allows one or two missing threads to be discerned from fully threaded holes. In parts that include multiple holes to be inspected, the capability to find a master part that has all its holes at the ideal x bar location, is considerably easier because the bell curves themselves are considerably narrower than with the single coil system. Lot to lot variations in base material chemistry, hardness and temperature are effectively rejected by the system and do not effect the sort. DISADVANTAGES: The dual coil eddy current systems still requires a mastering process where a known good part must initially be used to calibrate the system. Periodically thereafter that same master should be recycled through the system so that system calibration can be verified. A known bad part should also be cycled through the system to insure that it is, in fact, rejected.

IS THERE A WAY TO ELIMINATE THE PERIODICAL MASTERING PROCESS?

The computer based thread detection systems, now available in the market, effectively eliminate all but one (the first) mastering process. These systems provide the following capabilities: During initial system set up and programming at the factory, the eddy current characteristics of a base line or average part are loaded into computer memory. This is done for each hole that is to be inspected. Once the system is put in service, as each hole is inspected the actual x bar and three sigma limits are calculated from the data acquired by the eddy current sensors. This is done for each inspected hole. The result is a system that needs no initial or periodic calibration as it utilizes an x bar baseline that actually represents the population that is being inspected. This system also continually calculates the accept and reject limits between the two bell curves and positions them so that the system sorts with optimal efficiency.

This computer-based electronics can be used with either a single coil or dual coil system and represents the absolute state of the art as far as thread detection systems are concerned.

SINGLE ELEMENT PROBE STATISTICAL BELL CURVES FOR IN-SPEC & OUT-OF-SPEC PARTS SHOWING CONTENT OF BELL CURVES AND TYPICAL SEPARATION FOR A FEW MISSING THREADS, BELL CURVE SEPARATION WILL SUBSTANTIALLY INCREASE FOR A THREAD VS. NO THREAD INSPECTION.

BELL CURVE SEPARATION BELL CURVE SEPARATION

TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS CHEMISTRY VARIATIONS HARDNESS VARIATIONS GEOMETRY VARIATIONS

FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE

FOR SINGLE ELEMENT PROBE, BELL CURVE WIDTH DEPENDS ON FIVE FACTORS: 1. CHEMISTRY VARIATIONS BETWEEN SAMPLES. 2. HARDNESS VARIATIONS BETWEEN SAMPLES. 3. TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS BETWEEN SAMPLES. 4. GEOMETRY VARIATIONS BETWEEN SAMPLES. 5. REPEATABILITY OF PROBE POSITION IN HOLE.

THIS PORTION OF BELL CURVE CAN BE THOUGHT OF AS SIGNAL

FREQUENCY OF OCCURENCE

DUE TO THREAD DIFFERENCES

LIMIT TO REJECT ALL OUT-OF-SPEC PARTS

THIS PORTION OF CURVE CONSTITUTES NOISE

-3 LIMIT

OUT-OF-SPEC BELL CURVE

IN-SPEC PART BELL CURVE

+3 LIMIT

EDDY CURRENT SIGNATUR OF PARTS

OVERLAP OF BELL CURVES CAUSES SOME GOOD PARTS TO BE REJECTED TO ENSURE ALL BAD PARTS ARE REJECTED STATISTICAL BELL CURVE OF GOOD & BAD PART POPULATION FOR SINGLE ELEMENT EDDY CURRENT PROBE

Figure 1 7

DUAL ELEMENT PROBE STATISTICAL BELL CURVES FOR IN-SPEC & OUT-OF SPEC PARTS SHOWING TYPICAL SEPARATION FOR A FEW MISSING THREADS. BELL CURVE SEPARATION WILL DECREASE AS LESS MISSING THREADS ARE DETECTED.

BELL CURVE SEPARATION

FREQUENCY OF OCCURANCE

GEOMETRY VARIATION ONLY

LIMIT TO REJECT ALL OUT OF SPEC PARTS

+3 LIMIT -3 LIMIT

FREQUENCY OF ACCURANCE

-3LIMIT OUT-OF-SPEC BELL CURVE

+3 LIMIT IN-SPEC PART BELL CURVE

EDDY CURRENT SIGNATURE OF PARTS

STATISTICAL BELL CURVE OF GOOD AND BAD PART POPULATION FOR A DUAL ELEMENT EDDY CURRENT PROBE

Figure 2 8

2) What is the Primary Application for Eddy Current Testing in a Production Environment?
The applications for eddy current testing in a production environment are virtually endless. Because of its extreme versatility, inherent accuracy and ease of implementation, it can be readily adapted to a myriad of uses. A few of these are listed below: A) The Detection of Threads in Holes or on Studs. Thread detection is a very natural application for eddy current inspection as it offers a non-contact means to evaluate the presence and condition of threads in holes or on studs. In fact, this area of eddy current inspection has been sophisticated to the point where not only the presence of threads can be sensed, but also the number of threads in the hole can be accurately determined and, with properly engineered systems, the portion of the last thread helix that is present in the hole can be determined. B) The Detection of Cracks. Crack detection is another very fertile area for eddy current inspection. In fact, in finished surfaces, dual element probes (that evaluate the differences in the eddy current signatures at two adjacent locations on the surface of a part) can reliably find cracks that are less then 0.001 wide and not visible to the human eye. In holes also, very small cracks can be reliably discerned. An ideal application for this inspection is in sintered metal parts where pre-cure cracks can be formed that are not easily discernable but will severely compromise the integrity of the part after curing. These cracks can be detected either before or after part curing with non-contact techniques that sense in real time by simply bringing a probe into the suspect area on the part. C) The Detection of Displacement or Run-out. Eddy current inspection has a characteristic that, in some cases can cause problems in the noncontact readings taken from a part, but in other cases, represent exactly the parameter that is to be sensed. That parameter is called stand-off which is defined as the separation between the sensor and the part. In most types of eddy current inspection, this parameter is considered as noise that must be dealt with in the sensed reading, but when very accurate distance measurements are to be made, this parameter provides the information that is the signal. By precisely sensing this parameter, displacements in the micron range can be easily measured. Further, these measurements are non-contact (therefore not subject to wear) and provided in real time by a measurement system that contains no moving parts. D) The Detection of Hardness. As previously mentioned, eddy current inspection inherently detects materials hardness along with chemistry, temperature and geometry. If the other three parameters are held constant, or relatively so, differences in materials hardness can be quite accurately discerned. In fact, hardness differences of one Rockwell point can be very readily detected.

E) The Detection of Porosity. Materials porosity is also well within the capabilities of eddy current detection. In fact, since the eddy currents themselves penetrate the materials surface, typically to 0.01 or so (depending on frequency) sub-surface porosity can also be detected. This inspection technique works especially well in holes where the eddy currents can inspect the entire 360 degrees of the circumference, but can also be quite effectively used in applications where porosity is to be detected on flat or even irregular surfaces. F) The Detection of Part Chemistry. Here also, eddy current inspection can be a winner. In parts where individual subcomponents are made of materials of a certain chemistry, this non-contact inspection technique can be very effective, inexpensive, and extremely reliable. For instance, in compression fittings, where the internal ferrules need to be of a specific material, eddy current inspection can be used to inspect the finished assembly for the presence of the correct internal component without disassembling the part. G) The Presence and Condition of Seams in Welded Tubing. Since eddy current inspection detects hardness and chemistry changes, the detection of a weld seam is relatively straightforward. Welding operations, whether they are filler or non filler, equally affect the hardness and chemistry of the base material to the point where seams can be readily discerned with either single element or dual element probes. In addition, weld porosity and other defects can also be detected in many applications.

3) What is the Present State of Eddy Current Technology?

Eddy Current inspection equipment, made by all reputable manufacturers of that equipment, have evolved to the point where they provide the user with many of the benefits of this test technology without requiring the due diligence related to understanding the technology that was required only a few year ago. Virtually all the current systems are computer based and offer the user the capability to not only perform the required inspection, but also perform statistical analysis on the acquired data and then make that data available for SPC or other trend analysis reviews by other systems. Many of the current eddy current systems are also Ethernet compatible and provide easy data transfer to other systems via external serial connectors. The periodic mastering of the systems that was once required is now necessary only when a probe is replaced or an amplifier card changes. Further, modern systems can store the eddy current signatures of many parts in their databases for immediate retrieval or can archive them to provide a historical record that carries much information related to both the materials characteristics of the part and the machining operation used to create that part. Perhaps the most significant advance however, is the concept of using eddy current inspection techniques to profile parts. With this technique the eddy current profile of a group of known good parts is stored in computer memory along with the location of the probe with respect to the surface of the part. The computer then calculates the x bar and +/- three sigma profiles for that group of

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profiles and displays the results of those calculations on the computer screen. Subsequent profiles that fall within those calculated limits are then judged good and passed while any portion of the part profile that falls outside those limits causes the part to fail. Most up-to-date systems also allow the user to modify the accept/reject limits so that areas of the part profile that are not of primary interest can be, in effect, de-emphasized during the sort. Typically, eddy current profiling can be accomplished at rates in excess of two inches a second with good results possible up to several feet a second in well designed systems. In summation, eddy current inspection can be extremely useful in many applications, the limit of which is only bounded by the imagination of the user. As this technology is moved more aggressively into the realm of the computer based data acquisition system, it can only become even more useable and capable then it is today. For additional information on eddy current inspection systems, contact us at: NDT Technologies, 248-634-0326 or visit us on the web at www.ndttechinc.com

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