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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Nature and Significance

Mangroves are forest forming plants occurring along tidal mud flats and freshwater riverbanks in tropical and subtropical sheltered coastal areas (Tomlinson, 1986). They are a unique association of trees, palms, and bushes of unrelated families with common physiological characteristics and structural adaptations with similar habitat preferences. They are among the most productive natural systems found throughout the world. One hectare of mangrove produces at least 600 kilogram of fish and shrimps per year and an estimate of US$ 500 to US$ 1,550 is a healthy and biologically diverse mangrove ecosystem per hectare per year and its the minimum valuation for loss when mangroves are converted to other land uses. (Dixon, 1989) Natural habitats of mangroves are characterized by water logging, poor soil aeration, drastic change of salinity level, high humidity and strong winds. Mangrove species tolerate these adverse conditions because they have developed adaptive structures and mechanisms. Mangrove communities have a very important role ecologically. They act as spawning ground of many fishes and other economically important invertebrates. They as

well serve as permanent and temporary habitats for a large number and range of marine and terrestrial animals like birds, fishes, or even monkeys. They transfer organic matter and energy from land to the nearby marine ecosystem as well as trapping sediments, thus making coastlines and protect coral reefs and seaweed/seagrass beds from immense input of sediments. Mangroves serve as barrier to protecting the nearby community from physical disturbances like waves that may be caused by storm or typhoon. Loon, Bohol has a vast area of mangroves that has already become a tourist destination for having inhabited by the crab-eating monkeys (Macaca fascicularis philippinensis) which is one of the main tourist destinations developed by the Local government and part of the area was already converted into fish ponds. People living in the nearby the mangrove areas have a variety of uses for different species of mangroves. With unregulated utilization of mangrove species and the surrounding waters, the Loon mangrove ecosystem could eventually be exploited and be destroyed if mismanaged. The study intends to assess the community structure of the mangrove vegetation in Loon, Bohol with the purpose to maintaining and safeguarding its ecological functions and biodiversity that serve the balance to providing sustainable resources to local fishermen despite the emerging tourism in the area. At present, no studies have been carried out in this area.

The study is limited to investigating the ecological status of the mangrove vegetation which includes determining species composition and zonation, with associated flora and fauna to be identified.

Objectives of the Study

The study intends to assess mangrove vegetation; its ecological status and community structure of mangrove in Loon, Bohol. Specifically, the study aims to: 1. determine species composition, density, frequency, dominance and diversity of the mangrove community in the study site; 2. assess the reproductive condition of the mangrove vegetation in the site based on counts of seedling and sapling; 3. determine the zonation pattern of mangroves ; 4. determine the prevailing physico-chemical conditions of the area; and 5. identify associated flora and fauna.

Scope and Limitations of the Study.

The study will focus on the determination of mangrove community structure encompassing the quantitative characteristic analyses (density, frequency, and dominance), species characteristic like zonation, species diversity and species composition including the associated flora and fauna to be identified.

Time and Place of the Study

A field survey will be conducted in a mangrove site in Loon, Bohol on July - August, 2011. Collection of data will be done once for every plot established.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Description of Study Site

Loon is a second class coastal municipality in the province of Bohol, Philippines with land area of 116.2 km2 or 11,884.89 hectares and has a population of 42,441 people (2007 Census). Major industries include agriculture, fishery, and tourism. Loon is about 28 km north of Tagbilaran City, the capital of Bohol. About 8 kilometers from Loon proper is Brgy. Cantumucad known for its crabeating monkeys (Macaca fascicularis philippinensis) inhabited the barangays dense and pristine mangrove forest. Cabilao and Sandingan are islands under Loons jurisdiction. These islands also attract tourists for its excellent diving spot and beautiful view of mangroves.

History and Evolution of Mangroves

Mangroves are quite old, possibly arising just after the first angiosperms (Duke, 1992). However, mangrove plants do not exhibit very primitive plant characteristics. It is believed that the first appearance of mangroves as early as 80 million years ago. Avicennia and Rhizophora were probably the first genera to evolve, appearing near the end of the Cretaceous period (Chapman, 1976). Mangroves evolved from terrestrial or fresh water plant species rather than marine plants. In the distant past, these land plants

adapted to brackish water and became the core mangrove flora. It is not clear why only a few members of many plant groups adapted to saline water. It is believed that the breakup of continental land masses provided conditions, favorable for the development of mangroves in the fringe areas. Some 200 million years ago, there was only one continent known as Pangaea. This broke up initially into subcontinents like Gondwanaland that subsequently divided into South America, Africa, Antarctica, India and Australia, some 60 million years ago. About 50 million years ago, the island continent of India bore down upon Asia. When the two met, new mountains began to rise, and biological species started spreading into the new extensions, some 40 million years ago. Likewise, all other continents drift over the surface of the globe, resulted increased coastal habitats suitable for mangrove development. These geological changes and evolution of flowering plants happened simultaneously during the long period. Thus it is suggested the mangrove species evolved and diversified due to the breakup of Gondwanaland. (Kathiresan, 2001).

Mangrove Ecology

Mangroves are any of certain shrubs and trees of the families Rhizophoraceae, Verbenaceae, Sonneratiaceae, and Arecaceae (Palmae) that grow in dense thickets or forests along tidal estuaries, in salt marshes, and on muddy coasts and characteristically have prop roots exposed, supporting roots (Britannicca, 1995) and salt-excreting leaves that enable them to occupy the saline wetlands where other plant life cannot survive (Quarto, 1994).

Mangrove forests are some of the most productive and biologically rich ecosystems on Earth. They provide habitat for a wide variety of marine and terrestrial organisms. They also stabilize shorelines, protecting them from excessive erosion during storms, and protect reefs from land-based pollution and siltation (Sitealive.com). Mangroves are not a strong competitor species. Hogarth (2007) noted that mangrove trees themselves and the other inhabitants of the mangrove ecosystem, are adapted to their unpromising habitat, and can cope with periodic immersion and exposure by the tide, fluctuating salinity, low oxygen concentrations of the water, and being in the tropical region, have frequently high temperatures. Over time, they have developed several unique adaptations that allow them to thrive in harsh salt water or brackish environments where other plants cannot survive. There is typically little oxygen in the muddy soil that mangroves grow in. Therefore, mangroves have developed root structures that allow them to obtain oxygen directly from the air. These aerial roots, called pneumatophores, rise from the soil into the air above the low tide level. They have also small openings (lenticels) in their bark that allow oxygen to diffuse into the plant and down into its underground roots. To anchor themselves, many mangrove species have prop roots that arch out from the tree into the soil, helping the plant to withstand strong coastal waves. In addition, some species of mangroves have developed salt glands, saltfiltering roots, or salt-excreting leaves and branches in order to prevent the buildup of high salt concentrations inside the plant (sitesalive.com).

Reproductive Strategies

Mangroves developed a system of reproduction called viviparity. Seeds stay on the tree longer and store nutrients needed for rapid establishment and growth once they leave the parent tree. Fully developed seedlings either drop from the parent tree and can swiftly take root in the mud below or can be transported long distances by currents and establish new colonies elsewhere. Some species have seedlings that can survive after a year of floating in the sea. The down side of viviparity is that parent trees must invest a great deal more energy in producing fewer numbers of developed seedlings. (Birdsey, undated).

Mangrove Distribution and Zonation

Mangroves are distributed world-wide in all continents with tropical and subtropical coasts and occur in 124 countries and territories. FAO (2007) estimates a total area for mangroves of 15.6 to 19.8 million hectares. The northern extension limits of mangroves are in Japan (31N) and Bermuda (32N) and the southern extension limits are in South Australia (38.75S) and the east coast of South Africa (32.6S) (Tomlinson, 1986). In some countries mangroves are not native such as in the Hawaiian Islands, but since the early 1900's, at least six species have been introduced there (Kathiresan & Bingham, 2001). Also some countries have exotic mangrove species that have been introduced. For instance Nypa fruticans a mangrove species endemic to the Indo-WestPacific region only, was introduced in West-Africa (Spalding et al., 1997). Areas, which have a great variety of mangrove species, are found along coasts that receive high

rainfall, heavy runoff and seepage into the intertidal zone from the hinterland. Such areas are commonly subject to extensive sedimentation, which provides a diverse range of substrate types and nutrient levels, which in turn are favorable for mangrove growth. Zonation often characterizes mangrove forests. Certain tree species occupy particular niches within the ecosystem. Some mangrove species occurs close to shore, others in further inlands or in estuaries influenced by tidal action

(mangroveactionproject.org).

Mangrove Abundance

Mangroves include approximately 16-24 families and 54-75 species (Tomlinson, 1986 and Field, 1995). The greatest diversity of mangrove species is in Southeast Asia as stated by Quarto in 2006. There are 34 species belonging to 9 genera and 4 families as major components of the mangals worldwide, and 20 species from 11 genera and 10 families as minor components. Biogeographically, mangroves can be divided into two distinct groups: (1) The Indo-Pacific group, with approximately 40 species of true mangroves, includes East Africa, India, Southeast Asia, Australia, and the Western Pacific; (2) West Africa, the Caribbean, and the Americas with only 8 true mangrove species in the region. The greatest species diversity is found on the coasts of Malaysia, Indonesia, and New Guinea. Although extensive mangals are only found in tropical and subtropical regions, some mangroves occur as far north as Kyushu Island, Japan (35 N) and as far south as Auckland, New Zealand (37 S) (Tomlinson, 1986).

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The total mangrove area in the world is of the order of 18,000,000 ha. (Spalding et al., 1997). The current mangrove area worldwide has now fallen below 15 million hectares, down from 19.8 million ha in 1980. The world has thus lost 5 million ha of mangroves over the last twenty years, or 25 percent of the extent found in 1980 (FAO, 2000). Bohol has the biggest mangrove area in Central Visayas, accounting for about 69% of the total mangrove area of (29,692 ha) in the region. The mangrove areas are under three major land uses: natural stand; fishpond (both illegal and those under Fishpond Lease Agreement (FLA); and plantation. The province has also the richest biodiversity in Central Visayas and probably the whole country (Primavera, 2000). Loon to Maribojoc has an aggregate area of 889 hectares of fringe mangroves dominated by pagatpat and bungalon. The whole mangrove stretch has a few coves and narrow, short riverine areas where back mangrove species, such as Busain (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza), Tabigi (Xylocarpus granatum) and Tabaul (Lumnitzera sp.), are found (Oneocean.org, 2000).

Importance of Mangroves

Mangrove communities have a very important role ecologically. They serve as important nursery, feeding, and refuge areas for a wide variety of terrestrial and aquatic organisms including mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, and invertebrates. Some of these species are threatened or endangered (Odum et al., 1984) and others are highly valued by sports and commercial fisheries, inshore and offshore (Rey and Rutledge, 2002).

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They transfer organic matter and energy from land to the nearby marine ecosystem. In addition, mangroves trap and stabilize sediments, thus making coastlines and protect coral reefs and seaweed/seagrass beds from being smothered by sediments. In this process also, effects of storm surges and heavy surf are reduced. Mangroves are directly exploited for commercial purposes. They are used as lumber, firewood, charcoal, tannins, and many others. In some areas, mangrove fruits are consumed by humans, and mangrove leaves are used in a wide variety of natural teas, potions and as livestock feed (Morton, 1965). Because of their location, mangrove forests are often used as sites for commercial aquaculture operations, one of the most destructive uses of this habitat. People living within or adjacent to mangrove areas have a variety of uses for the different mangrove species and there are also many traditional (superstitious) beliefs in the province regarding mangroves which may have possibly helped maintain some of the areas (Green et al., 2002). Environmental effects on Mangrove growth

Mangrove species vary greatly regionally and with response to environmental factors. For example, in northeastern Queensland, the humid tropics with high rainfall produce taller (up to 40 meters), highly productive, closed canopy mangrove forests; areas that are drier have increased water and salinity stress and produce shorter (1-5 meters), lower productivity, open canopy mangroves (State of the Marine Environment Report for Australia 2000). Generally, high latitude mangroves and mangroves found on

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arid coastlines have fewer species than tropical mangroves (UNEP 1994). The limiting factor for mangroves in higher latitudes is sea surface and/or atmospheric temperature (Saenger et al.1977; Clsner and Breckle 1987).

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CHAPTER III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Establishing Sampling Sites and Collection of Data

Transect-line-plot method developed by English et al. (1997) was used to determine the community structure of mangroves. Three 100-meter transect line from seaward to landward was laid randomly. A total of three transect lines were established for the mangrove area. A 10x10m plot will be laid at every 10m interval along the 100m transect line. All species of flora within each plot will be identified using field guides of Melana (undated), Calumpong and Meez (1997) and Primavera (2009). Species not readily identified in the area were photographed for further definite identification. Diameter at breast height (DBH) of each tree approximately 1.3m above ground was measured using a measuring tape. Stems that divide below breast height, or sprouts from a single base close to the ground or just above it, each branch was measured as separate stems (main stem denoted 1, 2 for the next and so on). Stems that divide at breast height or slightly above, the girth was measured at breast height or just below the swelling. For those with pop roots, the girth was measured 20cm above the root collar and when branches have abnormalities or swellings, the girth was measured slightly above or below abnormalities. Saplings (girth less than 4cm and height greater than 1m)

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and seedlings (height less than 1m) were also be identified and counted. Associated flora per plot were also noted.

Assessment of Reproductive Potential

Seedlings and saplings encountered were counted and identified in every plot for frequency and importance value.

Physico-chemical Parameters

The following data were be collected in every established plot. a. Salinity determined using a handheld refractometer. b. Temperature determined using a thermometer. c. pH determined using pH paper. d. Light intensity will be determined using a light meter. Two intensity readings will be taken: under the canopy and in the open space. Three readings were taken for each parameter to represent three replicates. The
substrate type of each plot was also being observed and noted.

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Collection of Data for Associated Fauna

Benthic Fauna All benthic fauna such as fishes, invertebrates, etc. encountered within the plot were noted and counted. A trap or net was used to collect samples of each species. Samples were preserved in 10% formalin for identification in the laboratory. Meiofauna A hand corer was used to collect sediment samples. Collection was done in every plot. Formalin and Rose Bengal were added to the sediment samples to preserve the Meiofauna. The sediments were brought to the laboratory and decanted for identification and for taxonomic listing. Computation of the different Ecological Parameters were done using the following formulae: Flora Density of each species (no/ha) = no. of trees x 10,000 m2/ area of plot in m2 Total density of all species = sum of all species density DBH2 Basal area (m ) of each species = ------------ x 0.01 4
2

Sum of all species basal area Total basal area of all species (m2/ha) = ----------------------------------- x 10,000 m2 Area of plot in m2 No. of individual of each species Relative density = -------------------------------------------- x 100 Total no. of individuals of all species

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Total basal area of a species Relative dominance = ----------------------------------- x 100 Basal area of all species Frequency = probability of occurrence throughout the plot Frequency of a species Relative frequency = -------------------------------------------------------- x 100 Total frequency of all species in different plots Impotance value of a species = relative density + relative dominance + relative frequency

Species diversity is described according to the Shannon index (H) based on importance value of a species (Ni) and sum of importance value for all the species (N). H = -Ni/N log Ni/N or

s = number of species pi = Ni/N (proportion of total sample belonging to ith species)

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CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Study site

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LITERATURE CITED

Baird, I., and A. Quarto, 1994. The Environmental and Social Costs of Developing Coastal Shrimp Aquaculture in Asia. Earth Island Institute. Beste, C. 2005. Importance of Mangroves. www.flmnh.ufl.edu.com Birdsey, R. Mangroves. Field Notes for Paddlers. NSW Sea Kayak Club. http://www.nswseakayaker.asn.au/mag/47/mangroves.html Bohol coastal resources map. Oneocean.org. http://oneocean.org/download/ 20001123/chap3b.pdf Bohol Philippines.com. Attractions of Loon town. http://www.bohol-philippines. com/attractions-of-loon-town.html Cesar, S.A. 2007. Marine Ecosystems Laboratory Manual. Visayas State University. Calixto E. Yao. 2011 Saving the mangroves of Bohol. Overseas. The Online Magazine for Sustainable Seas November, 2000. Oneocean.org. Accessed: 16May2011. Dawes, C. J. 1981. Mangrove Communities. Marine Botany. pp. 516-535 FAO, 2007. The worlds mangroves 1980-2005. FAO Forestry Paper 153. Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome, Italy. 77 pp. Field, C.D. 1995. International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan, . Journey Amongst Mangroves Green, S.J., R.D. Alexander, A.M. Gulayan, C.C. Migrio, J.J, Paler and C.A. Courtney, 2002. Bohol Island: Its Coastal Environment Profile. Bohol Environment management Office, Bohol and Coastal Resource Management Project, Cebu City. pp.21-25

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Hogarth, P.J.1999. The Biology of Mangroves. Oxford University Press Inc. New York. Hogarth, P. 2007 The Biology of Mangroves and Seagrasses, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, New York. Kathiresan, K. Methods of studying Mangroves. Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology Annamalai University. Kathiresan, K. & B.L. Bingham, 2001. Biology of mangroves and mangrove ecosystems. Advances in Marine Biology 40: 81-251. Mangroveactionproject.org. Mangrove Ecology. http:// mangroveaction project. org/mangroves/mangrove-ecology. McLeod, Elizabeth and Salm, Rodney V. (2006). Managing Mangroves for Resilience to Climate Change. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 64pp. Monares, E.F. 2006. Composition and Abundance of Macrobenthic Fauna in the Mangrove Area of Punta, Baybay, Leyte. Unpublished Thesis. Visca Baybay, Leyte. Phil. Odum, W. E., C. C. McIvor, and T. J. Smith. 1982. The Ecology of the Mangroves of South Florida: a community profile. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, OBS Publication FWS/OBS 81/24, Washington, D.C. Ong, J.E.2005. Present Status and Future of the Worlds Mangrove Forest www.iirr.org.com Primavera, J.H., 2000. Philippines Mangroves: Status, Threats and Sustainable Development. Asia-Pacific Cooperation on Research and Conservation of Mangroves. Proceedings, International Workshop, 26-30 March, 2000, Okinawa, Japan. Quarto, A. The Mangrove Forest. MAP Working Paper. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in195. Rey, G.R., and Rutledge, C. R., 2002. Mangroves. Publication #ENY-660 Entomology and Nematology Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. 2009. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in195. Saenger P., M.M. Specht, R.L. Specht, and V.J. Chapman. 1977. Mangal and coastal salt-marsh communities in Australasia in Wet Coastal Ecosystems. In

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Ecosystems of the world 1. V.J. Chapman, Ed. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam. 1: 293345. Spalding, M., F. Blasco & C. Field, 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems,Okinawa, Japan . 178 pp. State of the Marine Environment Report for Australia: The Marine Environment Technical Annex: 1. 2000. Compiled by Leon P. Zann, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press, London. The Mangrove Ecosystem. Mangrove Management in the Northern Territory http://www.scribd.com/doc/51575250/2-mangrove-ecosystem. [UNEP] United Nations Environment Programme. 1994. Assessment and monitoring of climatic change impacts on mangrove ecosystems. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies. Report no.154.