The origin of the Earth

The age of the Earth was once, and still is, a matter great debate. !n 16S0 Archbishop Ussher
used the Bible to calculate that the Earth was created in 4004BC. Later on in the mid
nineteenth century Charles Darwin believed that the Earth must be extremely old because he
recognised that natural selection and evolution required vast amounts of time.
!t wasn't until the discovery of radioactivity that scientists began to put a timescale on the
history of the Earth. Rocks often contain heavy radioactive elements which decay over long
periods of time, the decay is unaffected by the physical and chemical conditions and different
elements decay at different rates (These rates are slow and halflifes of several hundred million
years are not uncommon)
Throughout this century the race has been on to discover the oldest rocks in the world. The
oldest volcanic rock found so far has been dated at 3.7S billion years old, but this is not the
whole story. Neteorites created at the same time as the Earth hit us all the time, radioactive
dating shows that they are about 4.SS billion years old.
THE EARLY ATNOSPHERE
The present composition of the atmosphere is: 21 OXYCEN

78 N!TROCEN

0.04 CARBON D!OX!DE

~0.3 ARCON
The atmosphere wasn't like this when the Earth was created over 4 billion years ago.
THE F!RST B!LL!ON YEARS
The Earth's surface was originally molten, as it cooled the volcanoes belched out massive
amounts of CARBON D!OX!DE, STEAN, ANNON!A and NETHANE. There was NO OXYCEN.
The STEAN condensed to form water which then produced shallow seas.
Evidence points to bacteria flourishing 3.8 billion years ago so this means that life got under
way about 700 million years after the Earth was created. Such early forms of life existed in the
shallow oceans close to thermal vents, these vents were a source of heat and minerals.
THE NEXT B!LL!ON YEARS
These primitive life forms then took the next evolutionary step and started to
PHOTOSYNTHES!SE (using sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water to food energy and
oxygen). This was an important turning point in Earth history because the carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere was being converted to oxygen.
These green plants went on producing oxygen (and removing the CO
2
).
Nost of the carbon from the carbon dioxide in the air became locked up in sedimentary rocks as
carbonates and fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide also dissolved into the oceans.

The ammonia and methane in the atmosphere reacted with the oxygen.
Nitrogen gas was released, partly from the reaction between ammonia and oxygen, but mainly
from living organisms such as denitrifying bacteria. (remember that nitrogen is a very
unreactive gas and it has built up slowly).
THE LAST 2 B!LL!ON YEARS OR SO
As soon as the oxygen was produced by photosynthesis it was taken out again by reacting with
other elements (such as iron).This continued until about 2.1 billion years ago when the
concentration of oxygen increased markedly. As oxygen levels built up and then . . . . . .

!nner core: depth of S,1S06,370 kilometres
The inner core is made of solid iron and nickel and is unattached to the mantle, suspended in
the molten outer core. !t is believed to have solidified as a result of pressurefreezing which
occurs to most liquids under extreme pressure.
Outer core: depth of 2,830S,1S0 kilometres
The outer core is a hot, electrically conducting liquid (mainly !ron and Nickel). This conductive
layer combines with Earth's rotation to create a dynamo effect that maintains a system of
electrical currents creating the Earth's magnetic field. !t is also responsible for the subtle jerking
of Earth's rotation. This layer is not as dense as pure molten iron, which indicates the presence
of lighter elements. Scientists suspect that about 10 of the layer is composed of sulphur and
oxygen because these elements are abundant in the cosmos and dissolve readily in molten iron.
D" layer: depth of 2,7002,830 kilometres
This layer is 200 to 300 kilometres thick. Although it is often identified as part of the lower
mantle, seismic evidence suggests the D" layer might differ chemically from the lower mantle
lying above it. Scientists think that the material either dissolved in the core, or was able to sink
through the mantle but not into the core because of its density.
Lower mantle: depth of 6S02,830 kilometres
The lower mantle is probably composed mainly of silicon, magnesium, and oxygen. !t probably
also contains some iron, calcium, and aluminium. Scientists make these deductions by assuming
the Earth has a similar abundance and proportion of cosmic elements as found in the Sun and
primitive meteorites.
Transition region: depth of 4006S0 kilometres
The transition region or mesosphere (for middle mantle), sometimes called the fertile layer and
is the source of basaltic magmas. !t also contains calcium, aluminium, and garnet, which is a
complex aluminiumbearing silicate mineral. This layer is dense when cold because of the
garnet. !t is buoyant when hot because these minerals melt easily to form basalt which can
then rise through the upper layers as magma.
Upper mantle: depth of 10400 kilometres
Solid fragments of the upper mantle have been found in eroded mountain belts and volcanic
eruptions. Olivine (Ng,Fe)
2
SiO
4
and pyroxene (Ng,Fe)SiO
3
have been found. These and other
minerals are crystalline at high temperatures. Part of the upper mantle called the asthenosphere
might be partially molten.
Oceanic crust: depth of 010 kilometres
The majority of the Earth's crust was made through volcanic activity. The oceanic ridge system,
a 40,000 kilometre network of volcanoes, generates new oceanic crust at the rate of 17 km
3
per
year, covering the ocean floor with an igneous rock called basalt. Hawaii and !celand are two
examples of the accumulation of basalt islands.
Continental crust: depth of 07S kilometres
This is the outer part of the Earth composed essentially of crystalline rocks. These are low
density buoyant minerals dominated mostly by quartz (SiO
2
) and feldspars (metalpoor
silicates). The crust is the surface of the Earth. Because cold rocks deform slowly, we refer to
this rigid outer shell as the lithosphere (the rocky or strong layer).

GIobaI warming is the unequivocal temperature rise now underway in Earth's
atmosphere and oceans.
[2]
With greater than 90% certainty,
[3]
scientists have
determined that global warming is caused mostly by human activities that increase
concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as deforestation and
burning of fossil fuels.
[4][5][6]
This finding is recognized by the national science
academies of all the major industrialized countries and is not disputed by any scientific
body of national or international standing.
[7][8][A]

The instrumental temperature record shows that the average global surface
temperature increased by 0.74 C (1.33 F) during the 20th century.
[9]
Climate
model projections are summarized in the 2007 Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) by
the ntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (PCC). They indicate that during the
21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 1.5 to 1.9 C (2.7 to
3.4 F) for their lowest emissions scenario and 3.4 to 6.1 C (6.1 to 11 F) for their
highest.
[10]
The ranges of these estimates arise from the use of models with
differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations.
[11][12]

An increase in global temperature will cause sea levels to rise and will change the
amount and pattern of precipitation, and a probable expansion
ofsubtropical deserts.
[13]
Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be
associated with continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely
effects of the warming include more frequent occurrence of extreme weather events
including heatwaves, droughts and heavy rainfall events,species extinctions due to
shifting temperature regimes, and changes in agricultural yields. Warming and related
changes will vary from region to region around the globe, though the nature of these
regional changes is uncertain.
[14]
n a 4 C world, the limits for human adaptation are
likely to be exceeded in many parts of the world, while the limits for adaptation for
natural systems would largely be exceeded throughout the world. Hence, the ecosystem
services upon which human livelihoods depend would not be preserved.
[15]

Proposed responses to global warming include mitigation to reduce
emissions, adaptation to the effects of global warming, and geoengineering to remove
greenhouse gases from the atmosphere or reflect incoming solar radiation back to
space. The main international mitigation effort is the Kyoto Protocol, which seeks to
stabilize greenhouse gas concentration to prevent a "dangerous anthropogenic
interference".
[16]
As of May 2010, 192 states had ratified the protocol.
[17]
The only
members of the UNFCCC that were asked to sign the treaty but have not yet ratified it
are the USA and Afghanistan.
The istory of t0 Eart describes the most important events and fundamental stages in the
development of the planet Earth from its formation 4.578 billion years ago to the present
day.
[1]
Nearly all branches of natural science have contributed to the understanding of the main
events of the Earth's past. The age of Earth is approximately one-third of the age of the
universe.
[2]
mmense geological and biological changes have occurred during that time
span. See the headings of the Table of Contents below for a summary of the eons of Earth's
history.
Tbe Urigin of tbe Eartb
Tbe Eartb
Characteristics of the Solar System.
O -lL ls a arL of a nebula
O -MosL of Lhe mass of Lhe Solar SysLem ls concenLraLed ln Lhe sun
O -98 percenL of Lhe angular momenLum ls found ln Lhe planeLs m*v*d
O -heavy noble gases (xenon neon krypLon) are rare on earLh as compared Lo
space and Lhe sun
O -1he LarLh ls layered wlLh a Lhln crusL overlylng a heavler manLle and
cenLered wlLh a nlckellron core Lhe ouLer parL of whlch ls molLen and Lhe
lnner parL of whlch ls solld
O -1he planeLs and sun each have a somewhaL dlfferenL denslLy suggesLlng
dlfferenL Llme and/or LemperaLures of orlgln
%heories of Earth's Origin
1he p|anets were spun off of the sun Lhls Lheory suggesLs LhaL Lhe planeLs were spun off of Lhe sun and
are Lhus essenLlally daughLers of Lhe sun 1hls requlres a near colllslon wlLh a large body

Does it Iit the Iacts? II this were the way that the solar system Iormed, then:
O -Lhe sun would have mosL of Lhe angular momenLum
O -1he sun would
be less masslve Lhan lL ls

%he nebular cloud hypothesis suggests that the solar system started out as a nebular
cloud an that the planets and sun were concentrated Irom the dust and gasses in the
cloud by gravitational attraction.
O -cloud would have been 3040 llghL years accross
O -mass of cloud would have been 2 10 Llmes Lhe presenL Solar SysLem mass
O -orlglnally exLremely Lhln
O -coalesced by gravlLy and magneLlc aLLracLlon
O -Colllslon heaLed sun unLll lL sLarLed sponLaneous fuslon
O -lnlLlal solar wlnd drove off LarLhs llghL elemenLs prlmlLlve LarLh
aLmospherewhaL ls lefL ls only 1/1200 of orlglnal mass
%he Heating, Cooling and Coalescing of the Earth

O -lnlLlal accreLlon of Lhe LarLh was cool
O -heaL orlglnaLed from colllslon radloacLlve decay
O -heavy elemenLs (nlckel and lron) mlgraLed Lo cenLer Lo form core by gravlLy
as maLerlal became molLen llghLer maLerlal floaLed Lo Lhe Lop Lo form crusL
and maLerlal of lnLermedlaLe denslLy formed Lhe manLle
O -LarLh began Lo cool buL Lhe lnslde conLlnues Lo be heaLed by radloacLlve
decay
Tbe Uceans
'olcanic Origin
1he |dea LhaL Lhe oceans and early second aLmosphere are derlved from waLer and gasses orlglnally
bound up ln earLhs rocks
Supporting evidence includes the Iollowing Iacts
O -meLeorlLes conLaln abouL 03 by welghL of waLer whlch exLrapolaLed Lo
Lhe earLh would flll Lhe ocean 20 Llmes
O -Lnough waLer comes ouL of volcanoes Lo have fllled Lhe ocean baslns 20 Llme
durlng Lhe hlsLory of Lhe LarLh
ater from Space
1he |dea ls LhaL Lhe oceans (and early second aLmosphere) are derlved from comeLs whlch are mosLly
waLer whlch have bombarded Lhe earLh especlally ln durlng Lhe early formaLlon of Lhe earLh
Supporting evidence includes some negative evidence:
O -mosL magma represenLs parL of Lhe recycllng of maLerlals LhaL have already
been on Lhe surface lncludlng waLer and aLmospherlc gases such as CC
2

O -Lhose magmas LhaL do seem Lo orlglnaLe dlrecLly from Lhe lnLerlor of Lhe
earLh are much lower ln waLer and gases Lhan are Lhe oLher magmas
O -ComeLs could accounL for Lhe orlglns of Lhe same gases
Tbe Atmospbere and Life
%he Composition of the Proto Atmosphere
O -rlnclple componenLs would have been P2C n2 CC2 wlLh small amounLs of
P2 and CC lL ls also probably LhaL Lhere were slmple counpounds such as CP4
and nP3
O -1hls aLmosphere lacked free oxygen whlch would have made any organlc
molecules very sLable
%heories of Abiotic Synthesis
O |eksandr Cpar|n (1938) ALmospherlc gases and ouLslde energy sources could
have formed Lhe earllesL organlc molecules
O 1he Stan|ey M|||er Lxper|ment (1933) made an aparaLus Lo dupllcaLe Lhe early
aLmosphere wlLh slmulaLed llghLenlng and a bolllng waLer ocean and Lhereby
creaLed organlc molecules lncludlng nuclelc aclds Such molecules mlghL have
accumulaLed wlLhouL belng elLher oxydlzed or eaLen ln Lhe early aLmosphere
Lhe nexL sLep was polymerlzaLlon of Lhe Lhe molecules
O the kN f|rst hypothes|s sLaLes LhaL only 8nA was needed Lo begln llfe and
order Lhe polymerlzaLlon of organlc compounds Some vlruses have only 8nA
for geneLlc maLerlal
O the rote|nf|rst hypothes|s was supporLed by Lhe work of Sldney lox who
demonsLraLed LhaL proLelns can polymerlze abloLlcally when exposed Lo dry
heaL When Lhe proLelns are reLurned Lo waLer Lhey formm|crospheres whlch
resemble cells ln many ways
O the C|aysubstrate hypothes|s was proposed by Craham CalrnsSmlLh 1hls
Lheory suggesLs LhaL boLh proLeln and 8nA are were formed slmulaLaneously
ln assoclaLlon wlLh clay parLlcles
rom Chemicals to Life -- the first Cells
lfe ls organlzed lnLo cells whereln Lhe processes of llfe occur separaLed from Lhe ouLslde world by a cell
membrane 1hus Lhe Lrlck ls geLLlng Lhe chemlcals organlzed
Cell Membrune
loxs mlcrospheres are slmllar Lo cell membranes 1hey show LhaL molecules can selforder lnLo cell
membrane llke sLrucLures 1he nexL sLep ls Lo comblne Lhe maLerlal Lo a self repllcaLlng unlL
Heterotrophx unJ Autotrophx
O -1he flrsL organlsms were probably heterotrophs consumlng maLerlals
around Lhem and Lhey were anaerob|c because Lhere was no free oxygen
avallable
O -lermenLaLlon may be Lhe earllesL way of obLalnlng energy by heLeroLrophs
O -hotoass|m||at|on was posslbly Lhe nexL sLep Lhls ls also an anaeroblc
process
O -hotosynthes|s developed nexL phoLosynLhesls produces free oxygen
%he ormation of the Modern Atmosphere
hoLosynLhesls ls a by producL of phoLosynLhesls 1he flrsL oxygen produced became bound ln Lhe
reduced maLerlals ln Lhe envlronmenLespeclally lron