Base station subsystem

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The hardware of GSM base station displayed in Deutsches Museum The base station subsystem (BSS) is the section of a traditional cellular telephone network which is responsible for handling traffic and signaling between a mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. The BSS carries out transcoding of speech channels, allocation of radio channels to mobile phones, paging, transmission and reception over the air interface and many other tasks related to the radio network.

Contents
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1 Base transceiver station o 1.1 Sectorisation 2 Base station controller o 2.1 Transcoder 3 Packet control unit 4 BSS interfaces 5 See also 6 References 7 External links

[edit] Base transceiver station

Two GSM base station antennas disguised as trees in Dublin, Ireland.

A solar-powered GSM base station on top of a mountain in the wilderness of Lapland Main article: Base transceiver station The base transceiver station, or BTS, contains the equipment for transmitting and receiving radio signals (transceivers), antennas, and equipment for encrypting and decrypting communications with the base station controller (BSC). Typically a BTS for anything other than a picocell will have several transceivers (TRXs) which allow it to serve several different frequencies and different sectors of the cell (in the case of sectorised base stations). A BTS is controlled by a parent BSC via the "base station control function" (BCF). The BCF is implemented as a discrete unit or even incorporated in a TRX in compact base stations. The BCF provides an operations and maintenance (O&M) connection to the network management system (NMS), and manages operational states of each TRX, as well as software handling and alarm collection. The functions of a BTS vary depending on the cellular technology used and the cellular telephone provider. There are vendors in which the BTS is a plain transceiver which receives information from the MS (mobile station) through the Um (air interface) and then converts it to a TDM (PCM) based interface, the Abis interface, and sends it towards the BSC. There are vendors which build their BTSs so the information is preprocessed, target cell lists are generated and even intracell handover (HO) can be fully handled. The advantage in this case is less load on the expensive Abis interface.

The BTSs are equipped with radios that are able to modulate layer 1 of interface Um; for GSM 2G+ the modulation type is GMSK, while for EDGE-enabled networks it is GMSK and 8-PSK. Antenna combiners are implemented to use the same antenna for several TRXs (carriers), the more TRXs are combined the greater the combiner loss will be. Up to 8:1 combiners are found in micro and pico cells only. Frequency hopping is often used to increase overall BTS performance; this involves the rapid switching of voice traffic between TRXs in a sector. A hopping sequence is followed by the TRXs and handsets using the sector. Several hopping sequences are available, and the sequence in use for a particular cell is continually broadcast by that cell so that it is known to the handsets. A TRX transmits and receives according to the GSM standards, which specify eight TDMA timeslots per radio frequency. A TRX may lose some of this capacity as some information is required to be broadcast to handsets in the area that the BTS serves. This information allows the handsets to identify the network and gain access to it. This signalling makes use of a channel known as the Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH).

Sectorisation
Further information: Sector antenna By using directional antennae on a base station, each pointing in different directions, it is possible to sectorise the base station so that several different cells are served from the same location. Typically these directional antennas have a beamwidth of 65 to 85 degrees. This increases the traffic capacity of the base station (each frequency can carry eight voice channels) whilst not greatly increasing the interference caused to neighboring cells (in any given direction, only a small number of frequencies are being broadcast). Typically two antennas are used per sector, at spacing of ten or more wavelengths apart. This allows the operator to overcome the effects of fading due to physical phenomena such as multipath reception. Some amplification of the received signal as it leaves the antenna is often used to preserve the balance between uplink and downlink signal

Base station controller

GSM transmitter The base station controller (BSC) provides, classically, the intelligence behind the BTSs. Typically a BSC has tens or even hundreds of BTSs under its control. The BSC handles allocation of radio channels, receives measurements from the mobile phones, and controls handovers from BTS to BTS (except in the case of an inter-BSC handover in which case control is in part the responsibility of the anchor MSC). A key function of the BSC is to act as a concentrator where many different low capacity connections to BTSs (with relatively low utilisation) become reduced to a smaller number of connections towards the mobile switching center (MSC) (with a high level of utilisation). Overall, this means that networks are often structured to have many BSCs distributed into regions near their BTSs which are then connected to large centralised MSC sites. The BSC is undoubtedly the most robust element in the BSS as it is not only a BTS controller but, for some vendors, a full switching center, as well as an SS7 node with connections to the MSC and serving GPRS support node (SGSN) (when using GPRS). It also provides all the required data to the operation support subsystem (OSS) as well as to the performance measuring centers. A BSC is often based on a distributed computing architecture, with redundancy applied to critical functional units to ensure availability in the event of fault conditions. Redundancy often extends beyond the BSC equipment itself and is commonly used in the power supplies and in the transmission equipment providing the A-ter interface to PCU.

The databases for all the sites, including information such as carrier frequencies, frequency hopping lists, power reduction levels, receiving levels for cell border calculation, are stored in the BSC. This data is obtained directly from radio planning engineering which involves modelling of the signal propagation as well as traffic projections.

Transcoder
The transcoder is responsible for transcoding the voice channel coding between the coding used in the mobile network, and the coding used by the world's terrestrial circuit-switched network, the Public Switched Telephone Network. Specifically, GSM uses a regular pulse excited-long term prediction (RPE-LTP) coder for voice data between the mobile device and the BSS, but pulse code modulation (A-law or -law standardized in ITU G.711) upstream of the BSS. RPE-LPC coding results in a data rate for voice of 13 kbit/s where standard PCM coding results in 64 kbit/s. Because of this change in data rate for the same voice call, the transcoder also has a buffering function so that PCM 8-bit words can be recoded to construct GSM 20 ms traffic blocks. Although transcoding (compressing/decompressing) functionality is defined as a base station function by the relevant standards, there are several vendors which have implemented the solution outside of the BSC. Some vendors have implemented it in a stand-alone rack using a proprietary interface. In Siemens' and Nokia's architecture, the transcoder is an identifiable separate sub-system which will normally be co-located with the MSC. In some of Ericsson's systems it is integrated to the MSC rather than the BSC. The reason for these designs is that if the compression of voice channels is done at the site of the MSC, the number of fixed transmission links between the BSS and MSC can be reduced, decreasing network infrastructure costs. This subsystem is also referred to as the transcoder and rate adaptation unit (TRAU). Some networks use 32 kbit/s ADPCM on the terrestrial side of the network instead of 64 kbit/s PCM and the TRAU converts accordingly. When the traffic is not voice but data such as fax or email, the TRAU enables its rate adaptation unit function to give compatibility between the BSS and MSC data rates.

Packet control unit

The PACKET CONTROL UNIT (PCU) is a late addition to the GSM standard. It performs some of the processing tasks of the BSC, but for packet data. The allocation of channels between voice and data is controlled by the base station, but once a channel is allocated to the PCU, the PCU takes full control over that channel. The PCU can be built into the base station, built into the BSC or even, in some proposed architectures, it can be at the SGSN site. In most of the cases, the PCU is a separate node communicating extensively with the BSC on the radio side and the SGSN on the Gb side.

BSS interfaces

Image of the GSM network, showing the BSS interfaces to the MS, NSS and GPRS Core Network Um The air interface between the mobile station (MS) and the BTS. This interface uses LAPDm protocol for signaling, to conduct call control, measurement reporting, handover, power control, authentication, authorization, location update and so on. Traffic and signaling are sent in bursts of 0.577 ms at intervals of 4.615 ms, to form data blocks each 20 ms. Abis The interface between the BTS and BSC. Generally carried by a DS-1, ES-1, or E1 TDM circuit. Uses TDM subchannels for traffic (TCH), LAPD protocol for BTS supervision and telecom signaling, and carries synchronization from the BSC to the BTS and MS. A The interface between the BSC and MSC. It is used for carrying traffic channels and the BSSAP user part of the SS7 stack. Although there are usually transcoding units between BSC and MSC, the signaling communication takes place between these two ending points and the transcoder unit doesn't touch the SS7 information, only the voice or CS data are transcoded or rate adapted. Ater The interface between the BSC and transcoder. It is a proprietary interface whose name depends on the vendor (for example Ater by Nokia), it carries the A interface information from the BSC leaving it untouched. Gb Connects the BSS to the SGSN in the GPRS core network.

Network switching subsystem

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(March 2009)

Network switching subsystem (NSS) (or GSM core network) is the component of a GSM system that carries out call switching and mobility management functions for mobile phones roaming on the network of base stations. It is owned and deployed by mobile phone operators and allows mobile devices to communicate with each other and telephones in the wider Public Switched Telephone Network or (PSTN). The architecture contains specific features and functions which are needed because the phones are not fixed in one location. The NSS originally consisted of the circuit-switched core network, used for traditional GSM services such as voice calls, SMS, and circuit switched data calls. It was extended with an overlay architecture to provide packet-switched data services known as the GPRS core network. This allows mobile phones to have access to services such as WAP, MMS, and the Internet. All mobile phones manufactured today have both circuit and packet based services, so most operators have a GPRS network in addition to the standard GSM core network.

Contents
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1 Mobile switching center (MSC) o 1.1 Description o 1.2 Mobile switching centre server (MSCS) o 1.3 Other GSM core network elements connected to the MSC o 1.4 Procedures implemented 2 Home location register (HLR) o 2.1 Other GSM core network elements connected to the HLR o 2.2 Procedures implemented 3 Authentication centre (AUC) o 3.1 Description o 3.2 Other GSM core network elements connected to the AUC o 3.3 Procedures implemented 4 Visitor location register (VLR) o 4.1 Description

4.2 Other GSM core network elements connected to the VLR 4.3 Procedures implemented 5 Equipment identity register (EIR) 6 Other support functions o 6.1 Billing centre (BC) o 6.2 Short message service centre (SMSC) o 6.3 Multimedia messaging service centre (MMSC) o 6.4 Voicemail system (VMS) o 6.5 Lawful interception functions 7 See also 8 External links

o o

[edit] Mobile switching center (MSC)

[edit] Description
The mobile switching center (MSC) is the primary service delivery node for GSM/CDMA, responsible for routing voice calls and SMS as well as other services (such as conference calls, FAX and circuit switched data). The MSC sets up and releases the end-to-end connection, handles mobility and hand-over requirements during the call and takes care of charging and real time pre-paid account monitoring. In the GSM mobile phone system, in contrast with earlier analogue services, fax and data information is sent directly digitally encoded to the MSC. Only at the MSC is this re-coded into an "analogue" signal (although actually this will almost certainly mean sound encoded digitally as PCM signal in a 64-kbit/s timeslot, known as a DS0 in America). There are various different names for MSCs in different contexts which reflects their complex role in the network, all of these terms though could refer to the same MSC, but doing different things at different times. The Gateway MSC (G-MSC) is the MSC that determines which visited MSC the subscriber who is being called is currently located at. It also interfaces with the PSTN. All mobile to mobile calls and PSTN to mobile calls are routed through a G-MSC. The term is only valid in the context of one call since any MSC may provide both the gateway function and the Visited MSC function, however, some manufacturers design dedicated high capacity MSCs which do not have any BSSs connected to them. These MSCs will then be the Gateway MSC for many of the calls they handle. The visited MSC (V-MSC) is the MSC where a customer is currently located. The VLR associated with this MSC will have the subscriber's data in it.

The anchor MSC is the MSC from which a handover has been initiated. The target MSC is the MSC toward which a Handover should take place. A mobile switching centre server is a part of the redesigned MSC concept starting from 3GPP Release 4.

[edit] Mobile switching centre server (MSCS)

Main article: Mobile switching centre server The mobile switching centre server is a soft-switch variant of the mobile switching centre, which provides circuit-switched calling, mobility management, and GSM services to the mobile phones roaming within the area that it serves. MSS functionality enables split between control (signalling) and user plane (bearer in network element called as media gateway/MG), which guarantees better placement of network elements within the network. MSS and MGW media gateway makes it possible to cross-connect circuit switched calls switched by using IP, ATM AAL2 as well as TDM. More information is available in 3GPP TS 23.205.

[edit] Other GSM core network elements connected to the MSC

The MSC connects to the following elements:

The home location register (HLR) for obtaining data about the SIM and mobile services ISDN number (MSISDN; i.e., the telephone number). The base station subsystem which handles the radio communication with 2G and 2.5G mobile phones. The UMTS terrestrial radio access network (UTRAN) which handles the radio communication with 3G mobile phones. The visitor location register (VLR) for determining where other mobile subscribers are located. Other MSCs for procedures such as handover.

[edit] Procedures implemented

Tasks of the MSC include:

Delivering calls to subscribers as they arrive based on information from the VLR. Connecting outgoing calls to other mobile subscribers or the PSTN. Delivering SMSs from subscribers to the short message service centre (SMSC) and vice versa. Arranging handovers from BSC to BSC. Carrying out handovers from this MSC to another. Supporting supplementary services such as conference calls or call hold. Generating billing information.

[edit] Home location register (HLR)

The home location register (HLR) is a central database that contains details of each mobile phone subscriber that is authorized to use the GSM core network. There can be several logical, and physical, HLRs per public land mobile network (PLMN), though one international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI)/MSISDN pair can be associated with only one logical HLR (which can span several physical nodes) at a time. The HLRs store details of every SIM card issued by the mobile phone operator. Each SIM has a unique identifier called an IMSI which is the primary key to each HLR record. The next important items of data associated with the SIM are the MSISDNs, which are the telephone numbers used by mobile phones to make and receive calls. The primary MSISDN is the number used for making and receiving voice calls and SMS, but it is possible for a SIM to have other secondary MSISDNs associated with it for fax and data calls. Each MSISDN is also a primary key to the HLR record. The HLR data is stored for as long as a subscriber remains with the mobile phone operator. Examples of other data stored in the HLR against an IMSI record is:

GSM services that the subscriber has requested or been given. GPRS settings to allow the subscriber to access packet services. Current location of subscriber (VLR and serving GPRS support node/SGSN). Call divert settings applicable for each associated MSISDN.

The HLR is a system which directly receives and processes MAP transactions and messages from elements in the GSM network, for example, the location update messages received as mobile phones roam around.

[edit] Other GSM core network elements connected to the HLR

The HLR connects to the following elements:

The G-MSC for handling incoming calls The VLR for handling requests from mobile phones to attach to the network The SMSC for handling incoming SMs The voice mail system for delivering notifications to the mobile phone that a message is waiting The AUC for authentication and ciphering and exchange of data (triplets)

[edit] Procedures implemented

The main function of the HLR is to manage the fact that SIMs and phones move around a lot. The following procedures are implemented to deal with this:

Manage the mobility of subscribers by means of updating their position in administrative areas called 'location areas', which are identified with a LAC. The action of a user of moving from one LA to another is followed by the HLR with a Location area update procedure. Send the subscriber data to a VLR or SGSN when a subscriber first roams there. Broker between the G-MSC or SMSC and the subscriber's current VLR in order to allow incoming calls or text messages to be delivered. Remove subscriber data from the previous VLR when a subscriber has roamed away from it.

[edit] Authentication centre (AUC)

[edit] Description
The authentication centre (AUC) is a function to authenticate each SIM card that attempts to connect to the GSM core network (typically when the phone is powered on). Once the authentication is successful, the HLR is allowed to manage the SIM and services described above. An encryption key is also generated that is subsequently used to encrypt all wireless communications (voice, SMS, etc.) between the mobile phone and the GSM core network. If the authentication fails, then no services are possible from that particular combination of SIM card and mobile phone operator attempted. There is an additional form of identification check performed on the serial number of the mobile phone described in the EIR section below, but this is not relevant to the AUC processing. Proper implementation of security in and around the AUC is a key part of an operator's strategy to avoid SIM cloning. The AUC does not engage directly in the authentication process, but instead generates data known as triplets for the MSC to use during the procedure. The security of the process depends upon a shared secret between the AUC and the SIM called the Ki. The Ki is securely burned into the SIM during manufacture and is also securely replicated onto the AUC. This Ki is never transmitted between the AUC and SIM, but is combined with the IMSI to produce a challenge/response for identification purposes and an encryption key called Kc for use in over the air communications.

[edit] Other GSM core network elements connected to the AUC

The AUC connects to the following elements:

the MSC which requests a new batch of triplet data for an IMSI after the previous data have been used. This ensures that same keys and challenge responses are not used twice for a particular mobile.

[edit] Procedures implemented

The AUC stores the following data for each IMSI:

the Ki Algorithm id. (the standard algorithms are called A3 or A8, but an operator may choose a proprietary one).

When the MSC asks the AUC for a new set of triplets for a particular IMSI, the AUC first generates a random number known as RAND. This RAND is then combined with the Ki to produce two numbers as follows:

The Ki and RAND are fed into the A3 algorithm and the signed response (SRES) is calculated. The Ki and RAND are fed into the A8 algorithm and a session key called Kc is calculated.

The numbers (RAND, SRES, Kc) form the triplet sent back to the MSC. When a particular IMSI requests access to the GSM core network, the MSC sends the RAND part of the triplet to the SIM. The SIM then feeds this number and the Ki (which is burned onto the SIM) into the A3 algorithm as appropriate and an SRES is calculated and sent back to the MSC. If this SRES matches with the SRES in the triplet (which it should if it is a valid SIM), then the mobile is allowed to attach and proceed with GSM services. After successful authentication, the MSC sends the encryption key Kc to the base station controller (BSC) so that all communications can be encrypted and decrypted. Of course, the mobile phone can generate the Kc itself by feeding the same RAND supplied during authentication and the Ki into the A8 algorithm. The AUC is usually collocated with the HLR, although this is not necessary. Whilst the procedure is secure for most everyday use, it is by no means crack proof. Therefore a new set of security methods was designed for 3G phones. A3 Algorithm is used to encrypt Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) cellular communications. In practice, A3 and A8 algorithms are generally implemented together (known as A3/A8). An A3/A8 algorithm is implemented in Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) cards and in GSM network Authentication Centres. It is used to authenticate the customer and generate a key for encrypting voice and data traffic, as defined in 3GPP TS 43.020 (03.20 before Rel-4). Development of A3 and A8 algorithms is considered a matter for individual GSM network operators, although example implementations are available.

[edit] Visitor location register (VLR)

[edit] Description
The visitor location register is a database of the subscribers who have roamed into the jurisdiction of the MSC (Mobile Switching Center) which it serves. Each base station in the network is served by exactly one VLR, hence a subscriber cannot be present in more than one VLR at a time.

The data stored in the VLR has either been received from the HLR, or collected from the MS (Mobile station). In practice, for performance reasons, most vendors integrate the VLR directly to the V-MSC and, where this is not done, the VLR is very tightly linked with the MSC via a proprietary interface. Whenever an MSC detects a new MS in its network, in addition to creating a new record in the VLR, it also updates the HLR of the mobile subscriber, apprising it of the new location of that MS. If VLR data is corrupted it can lead to serious issues with text messaging and call services. Data stored include:

IMSI (the subscriber's identity number). Authentication data. MSISDN (the subscriber's phone number). GSM services that the subscriber is allowed to access. access point (GPRS) subscribed. The HLR address of the subscriber.

[edit] Other GSM core network elements connected to the VLR

The VLR connects to the following elements:

The V-MSC to pass required data for its procedures; e.g., authentication or call setup. The HLR to request data for mobile phones attached to its serving area. Other VLRs to transfer temporary data concerning the mobile when they roam into new VLR areas. For example, the temporal mobile subscriber identity (TMSI).

[edit] Procedures implemented

The primary functions of the VLR are:

To inform the HLR that a subscriber has arrived in the particular area covered by the VLR. To track where the subscriber is within the VLR area (location area) when no call is ongoing. To allow or disallow which services the subscriber may use. To allocate roaming numbers during the processing of incoming calls. To purge the subscriber record if a subscriber becomes inactive whilst in the area of a VLR. The VLR deletes the subscriber's data after a fixed time period of inactivity and informs the HLR (e.g., when the phone has been switched off and left off or when the subscriber has moved to an area with no coverage for a long time). To delete the subscriber record when a subscriber explicitly moves to another, as instructed by the HLR.

[edit] Equipment identity register (EIR)

The equipment identity register is often integrated to the HLR. The EIR keeps a list of mobile phones (identified by their IMEI) which are to be banned from the network or monitored. This is designed to allow tracking of stolen mobile phones. In theory all data about all stolen mobile phones should be distributed to all EIRs in the world through a Central EIR. It is clear, however, that there are some countries where this is not in operation. The EIR data does not have to change in real time, which means that this function can be less distributed than the function of the HLR. The EIR is a database that contains information about the identity of the mobile equipment that prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized or defective mobile stations. Some EIR also have the capability to log Handset attempts and store it in a log file.

[edit] Other support functions

Connected more or less directly to the GSM core network are many other functions.

[edit] Billing centre (BC)

The billing centre is responsible for processing the toll tickets generated by the VLRs and HLRs and generating a bill for each subscriber. It is also responsible for generating billing data of roaming subscriber.

[edit] Short message service centre (SMSC)

The short message service centre supports the sending and reception of text messages.

[edit] Multimedia messaging service centre (MMSC)

The multimedia messaging service centre supports the sending of multimedia messages (e.g., images, audio, video and their combinations) to (or from) MMS-enabled Handsets.

[edit] Voicemail system (VMS)

The voicemail system records and stores voicemails.

[edit] Lawful interception functions

Main article: Lawful interception According to U.S. law, which has also been copied into many other countries, especially in Europe, all telecommunications equipment must provide facilities for monitoring the calls of selected users. There must be some level of support for this built into any of the different elements. The concept of lawful interception is also known, following the relevant U.S. law, as CALEA. Generally Lawful Interception implementation is similar to the implementation of conference call. While A and B are talking with each other, C can join the call and listen silently.

GPRS Core Network

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from GPRS core network)

The GPRS core network is the central part of the General Packet Radio Service which allows 2G, 3G and WCDMA mobile networks to transmit IP packets to external networks such as the Internet. The GPRS system is an integrated part of the GSM network switching subsystem.

Contents
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1 General support functions 2 GPRS tunnelling protocol (GTP) 3 GPRS support nodes (GSN) o 3.1 Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) o 3.2 Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) 3.2.1 Common SGSN Functions 3.2.2 GSM/EDGE specific SGSN functions 3.2.3 WCDMA specific SGSN functions 4 Access point 5 PDP Context 6 Reference Points and Interfaces o 6.1 Interfaces in the GPRS network 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

[edit] General support functions

GPRS core structure

The GPRS core network provides mobility management, session management and transport for Internet Protocol packet services in GSM and WCDMA networks. The core network also provides support for other additional functions such as billing and lawful interception. It was also proposed, at one stage, to support packet radio services in the US D-AMPS TDMA system, however, in practice, all of these networks have been converted to GSM so this option has become irrelevant. Like GSM in general, GPRS module is an open standards driven system. The standardization body is the 3GPP.

[edit] GPRS tunnelling protocol (GTP)

Main article: GPRS tunnelling protocol

GPRS tunnelling protocol is the defining IP protocol of the GPRS core network. Primarily it is the protocol which allows end users of a GSM or WCDMA network to move from place to place while continuing to connect to the Internet as if from one location at the Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN). It does this by carrying the subscriber's data from the subscriber's current Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) to the GGSN which is handling the subscriber's session. Three forms of GTP are used by the GPRS core network.
GTP-U for transfer of user data in separated tunnels for each Packet Data Protocol (PDP) context GTP-C for control reasons including:

setup and deletion of PDP contexts verification of GSN reachability updates; e.g., as subscribers move from one SGSN to another.

GTP' for transfer of charging data from GSNs to the charging function.

GGSNs and SGSNs (collectively known as GSNs) listen for GTP-C messages on UDP port 2123 and for GTP-U messages on port 2152. This communication happens within a single network or may, in the case of international roaming, happen internationally, typically across a GPRS roaming exchange (GRX).

The Charging Gateway Function (CGF) listens to GTP' messages sent from the GSNs on TCP or UDP port 3386. The core network sends charging information to the CGF, typically including PDP context activation times and the quantity of data which the end user has transferred. However, this communication which occurs within one network is less standardized and may, depending on the vendor and configuration options, use proprietary encoding or even an entirely proprietary system. GTP version zero supports both signalling and user data under one generic header. It can be used with UDP (User Datagram Protocol) or TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) on the registered port 3386. GTP version one is used only on UDP. The control plane protocol GTP-C (Control) using registered port 2123 and the user plane protocol GTP-U (User) using registered port 2152.

[edit] GPRS support nodes (GSN)

A GSN is a network node which supports the use of GPRS in the GSM core network. All GSNs should have a Gn interface and support the GPRS tunneling protocol. There are two key variants of the GSN, namely Gateway and Serving GPRS Support Node.

[edit] Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)

The Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) is a main component of the GPRS network. The GGSN is responsible for the interworking between the GPRS network and external packet switched networks, like the Internet and X.25 networks. From an external network's point of view, the GGSN is a router to a sub-network, because the GGSN hides the GPRS infrastructure from the external network. When the GGSN receives data addressed to a specific user, it checks if the user is active. If it is, the GGSN forwards the data to the SGSN serving the mobile user, but if the mobile user is inactive, the data is discarded. On the other hand, mobile-originated packets are routed to the right network by the GGSN. The GGSN is the anchor point that enables the mobility of the user terminal in the GPRS/UMTS networks. In essence, it carries out the role in GPRS equivalent to the Home Agent in Mobile IP. It maintains routing necessary to tunnel the Protocol Data Units (PDUs) to the SGSN that service a particular MS (Mobile Station). The GGSN converts the GPRS packets coming from the SGSN into the appropriate packet data protocol (PDP) format (e.g., IP or X.25) and sends them out on the corresponding packet data network. In the other direction, PDP addresses of incoming data packets are converted to the GSM address of the destination user. The readdressed packets are sent to the responsible SGSN. For this purpose, the GGSN stores the current SGSN address of the user and his or her profile in its location register. The GGSN is responsible for IP address assignment and is the default router for the connected user equipment (UE). The GGSN also performs authentication and charging functions. Other functions include subscriber screening, IP Pool management and address mapping, QoS and PDP context enforcement.

With LTE scenario the GGSN functionality moves to SAE gateway (with SGSN functionality working in MME).

[edit] Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

A Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) is responsible for the delivery of data packets from and to the mobile stations within its geographical service area. Its tasks include packet routing and transfer, mobility management (attach/detach and location management), logical link management, and authentication and charging functions. The location register of the SGSN stores location information (e.g., current cell, current VLR) and user profiles (e.g., IMSI, address(es) used in the packet data network) of all GPRS users registered with this SGSN....
[edit] Common SGSN Functions

Detunnel GTP packets from the GGSN (downlink) Tunnel IP packets toward the GGSN (uplink) Carry out mobility management as Standby mode mobile moves from one Routing Area to another Routing Area Billing user data

[edit] GSM/EDGE specific SGSN functions

Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) specific SGSN functions and characteristics are:

Maximum data rate of approx. 60 kbit/s (150 kbit/s for EDGE) per subscriber Connect via frame relay or IP to the Packet Control Unit using the Gb protocol stack Accept uplink data to form IP packets Encrypt down-link data, decrypt up-link data Carry out mobility management to the level of a cell for connected mode mobiles

[edit] WCDMA specific SGSN functions

Carry up to about 42 Mbit/s traffic downlink and 5.8 Mbit/s traffic uplink (HSPA+) Tunnel/detunnel downlink/uplink packets toward the radio network controller (RNC) Carry out mobility management to the level of an RNC for connected mode mobiles

These differences in functionality have led some manufacturers to create specialist SGSNs for each of WCDMA and GSM which do not support the other networks, whilst other manufacturers have succeeded in creating both together, but with a performance cost due to the compromises required.

[edit] Access point

Main article: Access point name

An access point is:

An IP network to which a mobile can be connected A set of settings which are used for that connection A particular option in a set of settings in a mobile phone

When a GPRS mobile phone sets up a PDP context, the access point is selected. At this point an access point name (APN) is determined
Example: aricenttechnologies.mnc012.mcc345.gprs Example: Internet Example: mywap Example: hcl.cisco.ggsn

This access point is then used in a DNS query to a private DNS network. This process (called APN resolution) finally gives the IP address of the GGSN which should serve the access point. At this point a PDP context can be activated.

[edit] PDP Context

The packet data protocol (PDP; e.g., IP, X.25, FrameRelay) context is a data structure present on both the Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) and the Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) which contains the subscriber's session information when the subscriber has an active session. When a mobile wants to use GPRS, it must first attach and then activate a PDP context. This allocates a PDP context data structure in the SGSN that the subscriber is currently visiting and the GGSN serving the subscriber's access point. The data recorded includes

Subscriber's IP address Subscriber's IMSI Subscriber's o Tunnel Endpoint ID (TEID) at the GGSN o Tunnel Endpoint ID (TEID) at the SGSN

The Tunnel Endpoint ID (TEID) is a number allocated by the GSN which identifies the tunnelled data related to a particular PDP context. Several PDP contexts may use the same IP address. The Secondary PDP Context Activation procedure may be used to activate a PDP context while reusing the PDP address and other PDP context information from an already active PDP context, but with a different QoS profile.[1] Note that the procedure is called secondary, not the resulting PDP contexts that have no such relationship with the one the PDP address of which they reused.

A total of 11 PDP contexts (with any combination of primary and secondary) can co-exist. NSAPI are used to differentiate the different PDP context.

[edit] Reference Points and Interfaces

Within the GPRS core network standards there are a number of interfaces and reference points (logical points of connection which probably share a common physical connection with other reference points). Some of these names can be seen in the network structure diagram on this page.

[edit] Interfaces in the GPRS network

Ga The interface serves the CDRs (accounting records) which are written in the GSN and sent to the charging gateway (CG). This interface uses a GTP-based protocol, with modifications that supports CDRs (Called GTP' or GTP prime). Gb Interface between the base station subsystem and the SGSN the transmission protocol could be Frame Relay or IP. Gd Interface between the SGSN and the SMS Gateway. Can use MAP1, MAP2 or MAP3. Ge The interface between the SGSN and the service control point (SCP); uses the CAP protocol. Gf The interface between the SGSN and the Equipment Identity Register (EIR), used for checking the mobile's equipment identity number (IMEI) against a list of reported stolen mobile phones. Gi IP based interface between the GGSN and a public data network (PDN) either directly to the Internet or through a WAP gateway. Gmb The interface between the GGSN and the Broadcast-Multicast Service Center (BM-SC), used for controlling MBMS bearers. Gn

IP Based interface between SGSN and other SGSNs and (internal) GGSNs. DNS also shares this interface. Uses the GTP Protocol. Gp IP based interface between internal SGSN and external GGSNs. Between the SGSN and the external GGSN, there is the border gateway (which is essentially a firewall). Also uses the GTP Protocol. Gr Interface between the SGSN and the HLR. Messages going through this interface uses the MAP3 protocol. Gs Interface between the SGSN and the MSC (VLR). Uses the BSSAP+ protocol. This interface allows paging and station availability when it performs data transfer. When the station is attached to the GPRS network, the SGSN keeps track of which routing area (RA) the station is attached to. An RA is a part of a larger location area (LA). When a station is paged this information is used to conserve network resources. When the station performs a PDP context, the SGSN has the exact BTS the station is using. Gx The on-line policy interface between the GGSN and the charging rules function (CRF). It is used for provisioning service data flow based on charging rules. Uses the diameter protocol. Gy The on-line charging interface between the GGSN and the online charging system (OCS). Uses the diameter protocol (DCCA application). Gz The off-line (CDR-based) charging interface between the GSN and the CG. Uses GTP'. Lg The interface between the SGSN and the Gateway Mobile Location Center (GMLC), used for location based services.

Cell site
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Cell phone tower in Palatine, Illinois, USA.

A short-mast cell site on top of a mountain in Wyoming, USA

Cell on wheels (COW)

An antenna array on top of an electricity pylon

A painted mobile phone tower in Kangaroo Point, Queensland, painted for aircraft visibility.

This 100 feet tall cross at Epiphany Lutheran Church, in Lake Worth, Florida, conceals equipment for T-Mobile.

Cell site placed atop an existing building A cell site is a term used to describe a site where antennas and electronic communications equipment are placed, usually on a radio mast, tower or other high place, to create a cell in a cellular network. The elevated structure typically supports antennas, and one or more sets of transmitter/receivers transceivers, digital signal processors, control electronics, a GPS receiver for timing (for CDMA2000/IS-95 or GSM systems), primary and backup electrical power sources, and sheltering.[1] A cell site is sometimes called a "cell tower", even if the cell site antennas are mounted on a building rather than a tower. In GSM networks, the technically correct term is Base Transceiver Station (BTS), and colloquial British English synonyms are "mobile phone mast" or "base station". The term "base station site" might better reflect the increasing co-location of multiple mobile operators, and therefore multiple base stations, at a single site. Depending on an operator's technology, even a site hosting just a single mobile operator may house multiple base stations, each to serve a different air interface technology (CDMA2000 or GSM, for example).

Some cities require that cell sites be inconspicuous, for example blended with the surrounding area. Preserved treescapes can often hide cell towers inside an artificial tree or preserved tree. These installations are generally referred to as concealed cell sites or stealth cell sites.

Contents
[hide]

1 Operation o 1.1 Range o 1.2 Channel reuse o 1.3 Geolocation o 1.4 Radio power and health o 1.5 Temporary set-up o 1.6 Emergency power 2 Camouflage 3 See also 4 References 5 External links

[edit] Operation
[edit] Range
The working range of a cell site - the range within which mobile devices can connect to it reliably - is not a fixed figure. It will depend on a number of factors, including

The frequency of signal in use (i.e. the underlying technology). The transmitter's rated power. The required uplink/downlink data rate of the subscriber's device [2] The transmitter's size. The array setup of panels may cause the transmitter to be directional or omni-directional. It may also be limited by local geographical or regulatory factors and weather conditions.

Generally, in areas where there are enough cell sites to cover a wide area, the range of each one will be set to:

Ensure there is enough overlap for "handover" to/from other sites (moving the signal for a mobile device from one cell site to another, for those technologies that can handle it e.g. making a GSM phone call while in a car or train). Ensure that the overlap area is not too large, to minimize interference problems with other sites.

In practice, cell sites are grouped in areas of high population density, with the most potential users. Cell phone traffic through a single cell mast is limited by the mast's capacity; there is a finite number of calls or data traffic that a mast can handle at once. This limitation is another factor affecting the spacing of cell mast sites. In suburban areas, masts are commonly spaced 12 miles (2-3 km) apart and in dense urban areas, masts may be as close as - mile (400-800 m) apart. Cell masts always reserve part of their available bandwidth for emergency calls. The maximum range of a mast (where it is not limited by interference with other masts nearby) depends on the same circumstances. Some technologies, such as GSM, normally have a fixed maximum range of 35 kilometres (22 mi), which is imposed by technical limitations. CDMA and IDEN have no built-in limit, but the limiting factor is the ability of a low-powered personal cell phone to transmit back to the mast. As a rough guide, based on a tall mast and flat terrain, it is possible to get between 50 to 70 km (3045 miles). When the terrain is hilly, the maximum distance can vary from as little as 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) to 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) due to encroachment of intermediate objects into the wide center fresnel zone of the signal.[3] Depending on terrain and other circumstances, a GSM Tower can replace between 2 and 50 miles (80 km) of cabling for fixed wireless networks.[4]

[edit] Channel reuse

The concept of "maximum" range is misleading, however, in a cellular network. Cellular networks are designed to create a mass communication solution from a limited amount of channels (slices of radio frequency spectrum necessary to make one conversation) that are licensed to an operator of a cellular service. To overcome this limitation, it is necessary to repeat and reuse the same channels at different locations. Just as a car radio changes from one local station to a completely different local station with the same frequency when you travel to another city, the same radio channel gets reused on a cell mast only a few miles away. To do this, the signal of a cell mast is intentionally kept at low power and many cases tilting downward to limit its area. The area sometimes needs to be limited when a large number of users are near a particular mast; the range of this mast has to be limited so that it covers an area small enough not to have to support more conversations than the available channels can carry. Due to the sectorized arrangement of antennas on a tower, it is possible to vary the strength and angle of each sector depending on the coverage of other towers in view of the sector. A cellphone may not work at times, because it is too far from a mast, or because the phone is in a location where there is cell phone signals are attenuated by thick building walls, hills or other structures. The signals do not need a clear line of sight but the more interference will degrade or eliminate reception. Too many people may be trying to use the cell mast at the same time, e.g. a traffic jam or a sports event, then there will be a signal on the phone display but it is blocked from starting a new connection. The other limiting factor for cell phones is the ability of the cell phone to send a signal from its low powered battery to the mast. Some cellphones perform better than others under low power or low battery, typically due to the ability to send a good signal from the phone to the mast. The base station controller (a central computer that specializes in making phone connections) and the intelligence of the cellphone keeps track of and allows the phone to switch from one

mast to the next during conversation. As the user moves towards a mast it picks the strongest signal and releases the mast from which the signal has become weaker; that channel on that mast becomes available to another user. Further information: Frequency reuse

[edit] Geolocation
Cellular geolocation is less precise than by GPS, but it is available to devices that do not have GPS receivers and where the GPS is not available. The precision of this system varies widely. Precision is highest where advanced forward link methods are possible (where a device is within range of at least three cell sites and where the carrier has implemented timing system use) and lowest where only a single cell site can be reached, in which case the location is only known to be within the coverage of that site. Another method using angle of arrival (AoA), possible when in range of at least two cell sites, produces intermediate precision. In the United States, for emergency calling service using location data (locally called "Enhanced 911"), it was required that at least 95% of cellular phones in use on 31 December 2005 support such service. Many carriers missed this deadline and were fined by the Federal Communications Commission.[5]

[edit] Radio power and health

The U.S. government agency, the FCC, says: "For example, measurement data obtained from various sources have consistently indicated that "worst-case" ground-level power densities near typical cellular towers are on the order of 1 W/cm2 or less (usually significantly less)."[citation needed] Further information: Mobile phone radiation and health#Health hazards of base stations

[edit] Temporary set-up

Camouflaged monopole, called "monopalm", in Tucson, Arizona

Colored to blend in with host building in Sopot, Poland Although cell antennas are normally attached to permanent structures, carriers also maintain fleets of vehicles, called cells-on-wheels (COWs), that serve as temporary cell sites. A generator may be included for use where network electrical power isn't available, and the system may have a wireless backhaul link allowing use where a wired link is not available. COWs are also used at permanent cell sitesas temporary replacements for damaged equipment, during planned outages, and to augment capacity such as during conventions.

[edit] Emergency power

Fuel cell backup power systems are added to critical cell sites to provide emergency power. More sites use internal-combustion-engine-driven generator sets.[6][7]

[edit] Camouflage
There is often local opposition to new masts for reasons of safety and appearance. The latter is sometimes tackled by disguising the mast as something else, such as a flag pole, street lamp, or a tree. Nicknames exist for some of these disguises, e.g. "monopalm" for a monopole disguised as a palm tree or "Pseudpinus telephoneyensis" for a mast disguised as a pine tree.[8] In monopoles, the directional antennas are sometimes hidden inside of a plastic housing near the top of the pole so that the crossbars can be eliminated.

Federal Communications Commission

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Ministry of Communications. "FCC" redirects here. For other uses, see FCC (disambiguation).

Federal Communications Commission

FCC

official seal

logo Agency overview Formed June 19, 1934

Preceding agency Federal Radio Commission Headquarters Annual budget Agency executive Washington, D.C., United States US$335.8 million (FY 2011)[1] Julius Genachowski, Chairman Website www.fcc.gov

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an independent agency of the United States government, created, Congressional statute (see 47 U.S.C. 151 and 47 U.S.C. 154), and with the majority of its commissioners appointed by the current President. The FCC works towards six goals in the areas of broadband, competition, the spectrum, the media, public safety and homeland security, and modernizing the FCC.[2] The FCC was established by the Communications Act of 1934 as the successor to the Federal Radio Commission and is charged with regulating all non-federal government use of the radio spectrum (including radio and television broadcasting), and all interstate telecommunications (wire, satellite and cable) as well as all international communications that originate or terminate in the United States of America. It is an important factor in U.S. telecommunication policy. The FCC took over wire communication regulation from the Interstate Commerce Commission. The FCC's mandated jurisdiction covers the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and U.S. possessions. However, the FCC also provides varied degrees of cooperation, oversight, and leadership for similar communications bodies in other countries of North America. The FCC has an estimated 2011 budget of US$335.8 million which is entirely funded by regulatory fees, and has a proposed budget of US$354.2 million for 2012, which will also be fully derived from regulatory fees. It has 1,898 "full-time equivalent" federal employees.[3]

Contents
[hide]

1 Mission and strategy 2 Organization o 2.1 FCC Commissioners o 2.2 Bureaus o 2.3 Offices 3 History o 3.1 Communications Act of 1934 o 3.2 Report on Chain Broadcasting o 3.3 The "Freeze" of 1948 o 3.4 Telephone monopoly to competition o 3.5 Telecommunications Act of 1996 o 3.6 Connection permissivity, indecency crackdowns o 3.7 Past Chairs and Notable Commissioners 4 Broadcast licensing o 4.1 Regulatory Powers and Enforcement o 4.2 FCC broadcasting tower database 5 The FCC and the Internet 6 Controversies o 6.1 Unreleased reports 6.1.1 2003 study of commercial radio concentration 6.1.2 2004 study of television media concentration 6.1.3 Action by FCC Chairman o 6.2 Diversity o 6.3 Use of white space o 6.4 Network neutrality o 6.5 Proprietary standards o 6.6 DTV Controversy o 6.7 Local broadcasting 7 The FCC and Public Consultation o 7.1 A Brief History of the Issue 7.1.1 The 1927 Radio Act 7.1.2 Public Hearings 7.1.2.1 Media Ownership Review 2003 8 Headquarters 9 Influence 10 See also 11 References 12 External links

[edit] Mission and strategy

As specified in section one of the Communications Act and as amended by the Telecommunications Act of 1996 (amendment to 47 U.S.C. 151) it is the FCC's mission to "make available so far as possible, to all the people of the United States, without discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, or sex, rapid, efficient, Nation-wide, and world-wide wire and radio communication services with adequate facilities at reasonable charges."[sic] The Act furthermore provides that the FCC was created "for the purpose of the national defense" and "for the purpose of promoting safety of life and property through the use of wire and radio communications."[2] Consistent with the objectives of the Act as well as the 1993 Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA), the FCC has identified six goals in its 2006-2011 Strategic Plan. These are:

Broadband: "All Americans should have affordable access to robust and reliable broadband products and services. Regulatory policies must promote technological neutrality, competition, investment, and innovation to ensure that broadband service providers have sufficient incentives to develop and offer such products and services." Competition: "Competition in the provision of communication services, both domestically and overseas, supports the Nation's economy. The competitive framework for communications services should foster innovation and offer consumers reliable, meaningful choice in affordable services." Spectrum: "Efficient and effective use of non-federal spectrum domestically and internationally promotes the growth and rapid development of innovative and efficient communication technologies and services." Media: "The Nation's media regulations must promote competition and diversity and facilitate the transition to digital modes of delivery." Public Safety and Homeland Security: "Communications during emergencies and crisis must be available for public safety, health, defense, and emergency personnel, as well as all consumers in need. The Nation's critical communications infrastructure must be reliable, interoperable, redundant, and rapidly restorable." Modernize the FCC: "The Commission shall strive to be highly productive, adaptive, and innovative organization that maximizes the benefits to stakeholders, staff, and management from effective systems, processes, resources, and organizational culture."[2]

[edit] Organization
The FCC is directed by five commissioners appointed by the U.S. president and confirmed by the U.S. Senate for five-year terms, except when filling an unexpired term. The president designates one of the commissioners to serve as chairman. Only three commissioners may be members of the same political party. None of them may have a financial interest in any FCCrelated business.[4]

[edit] FCC Commissioners

The FCC is organized into seven Bureaus and eleven Staff Offices, described in the following sections.[citation needed]

[edit] Bureaus
'The Bureaus' include processing applications for licenses and other filings, analyzing complaints, conducting investigations, developing and implementing regulations, and participating in hearings.

The Consumer & Governmental Affairs (CGB) develops and implements the FCC's consumer policies, including disability access. CGB serves as the public face of the FCC through outreach and education, as well as through their Consumer Center, which is responsible for responding to consumer inquiries and complaints. CGB also maintains collaborative partnerships with state, local, and tribal governments in such areas as emergency preparedness and implementation of new technologies. The Enforcement Bureau (EB) is responsible for enforcement of provisions of the Communications Act 1934, FCC rules, FCC orders, and terms and conditions of station authorizations. Major areas of enforcement that are handled by the Enforcement Bureau are consumer protection, local competition, public safety, and homeland security. The International Bureau (IB) develops international policies in telecommunications, such as coordination of frequency allocation and orbital assignments so as to minimize cases of international electromagnetic interference involving U.S. licensees. The International Bureau also oversees FCC compliance with the international Radio Regulations and other international agreements. The Media Bureau (MB) develops, recommends and administers the policy and licensing programs relating to electronic media, including cable television, broadcast television, and radio in the United States and its territories. The Media Bureau also handles post-licensing matters regarding direct broadcast satellite service. The Wireless Telecommunications Services (WCS) such as Advanced Wireless Services (AWS) and fixed, mobile, and broadcast services on the 700 MHz Band. The Wireline Competition Bureau (WCB) develops policy concerning wireline telecommunications. The Wireline Competition Bureau's main objective is to promote growth and economical investments in wireline technology infrastructure, development, markets, and services. The Public Safety and Homeland Security Bureau was launched in 2006.[citation needed]

[edit] Offices
The FCC's Offices provide support services to the Bureaus. Though the Bureaus and Offices have their individual functions, they regularly work together on FCC issues.

The Office of Administrative Law Judges (OALJ) is responsible for conducting hearings ordered by the Commission. The hearing function includes acting on interlocutory requests filed in the proceedings such as petitions to intervene, petitions to enlarge issues, and contested discovery requests. An Administrative Law Judge, appointed under the Administrative Procedure Act, presides at the hearing during which documents and sworn testimony are received in evidence, and witnesses are crossexamined. At the conclusion of the evidentiary phase of a proceeding, the presiding

Administrative Law Judge writes and issues an Initial Decision which may be appealed to the Commission. The Office of Communications Business Opportunities (OCBO) promotes telecommunications business opportunities for small, minority-owned, and womenowned businesses. OCBO works with entrepreneurs, industry, public interest organizations, individuals, and others to provide information about FCC policies, increase ownership and employment opportunities, foster a diversity of voices and viewpoints over the airwaves, and encourage participation in FCC proceedings. The Office of Engineering and Technology (OET) advises the Commission concerning engineering matters. o Its chief role is to manage the electromagnetic spectrum, specifically frequency allocation and spectrum usage. OET conducts technical studies of advanced phases of terrestrial and space communications and administers FCC rules regarding radio devices, experimental radio services, and industrial, scientific, and medical equipment. o OET organizes the Technical Advisory Council, a committee of FCC advisors from major telecommunication and media corporations. o OET operates the Equipment Authorization Branch, which has the task of overseeing equipment authorization for all devices using the electromagnetic energy from 9 kHz to 300 GHz. OET maintains an electronic database of all Certified equipment which can be easily accessed by the public. The Office of General Counsel serves as the chief legal advisor to the Commission. The General Counsel also represents the Commission in litigation in United States federal courts, recommends decisions in adjudicatory matters before the Commission, assists the Commission in its decision making capacity and performs a variety of legal functions regarding internal and other administrative matters. The Office of the Inspector General (OIG) recommends policies to prevent fraud in agency operations. The Inspector General recommends corrective action where appropriate, referring criminal matters to the United States Department of Justice for potential prosecution. The Office of Legislative Affairs (OLA) is the FCC's liaison to the United States Congress, providing lawmakers with information about FCC regulations. OLA also prepares FCC witnesses for Congressional hearings, and helps create FCC responses to legislative proposals and Congressional inquiries. In addition, OLA is a liaison to other Federal agencies, as well as state and local governments. The Office of the Managing Director (OMD) is responsible for the administration and management of the FCC, including the agency's budget, personnel, security, contracts, and publications. The Office of Media Relations (OMR) is responsible for the dissemination of Commission announcements, orders, proceedings, and other information per media requests. OMR manages the FCC Daily Digest, website, and Audio Visual Center. The Office of the Secretary (OSEC) oversees the receipt and distribution of documents filed by the public through electronic and paper filing systems and the FCC Library collection. In addition, OSEC publishes legal notices of Commission decisions in the Federal Register and the FCC Record.

The Office of Strategic Planning & Policy Analysis (OSP), essentially a think tank within the FCC, identifies policy objectives for the agency. OSP works closely with the FCC Chairman and is responsible for monitoring the state of the communications industry to identify trends, issues and overall industry health. OSP acts as expert consultants to the Commission in areas of economic, business, and market analysis. The Office also reviews legal trends and developments not necessarily related to current FCC proceedings, such as intellectual property law, the Internet, and electronic commerce. Previously OSP was called the Office of Plans and Policy (OPP). Catherine Bohigian has been the chief of the OSP since 2005.[7] The Office of Workplace Diversity (OWD) develops policy to provide a full and fair opportunity for all employees, regardless of non-merit factors such as race, religion, gender, color, age, disability, sexual orientation or national origin, to carry out their duties in the workplace free from unlawful discriminatory treatment, including sexual harassment and retaliation for engaging in legally protected activities.

[edit] History

FCC logo used today in addition to the official seal.

[edit] Communications Act of 1934

In 1934 Congress passed the Communications Act, which abolished the Federal Radio Commission and transferred jurisdiction over radio licensing to a new Federal Communications Commission, including in it also the telecommunications jurisdiction previously handled by the Interstate Commerce Commission. Title II of the Communications Act focused on telecommunications using many concepts borrowed from railroad legislation and Title III contained provisions very similar to the Radio Act of 1927.

[edit] Report on Chain Broadcasting

In 1940 the Federal Communications Commission issued the "Report on Chain Broadcasting" which was led by new FCC Chairman James Lawrence Fly. The major point in the report was the breakup of NBC (National Broadcasting Company), which ultimately led to the creation of ABC (American Broadcasting Company), but there were two other important points. One was network option time, the culprit here being CBS. The report limited the amount of time during the day, and what times the networks may broadcast. Previously a network could demand any time it wanted from an affiliate. The second concerned artist bureaus. The networks served as

both agents and employees of artists, which was a conflict of interest the report rectified.[citation
needed]

[edit] The "Freeze" of 1948

In assigning television stations to various cities after World War II, the FCC found that it placed many stations too close to each other, resulting in interference. At the same time, it became clear that the designated VHF channels, 2 through 13, were inadequate for nationwide television service. As a result, the FCC stopped giving out construction permits for new licenses in October 1948. Most expected this "Freeze" to last six months, but as the allocation of channels to the emerging UHF technology and the eagerly-awaited possibilities of color television were debated, the FCC's re-allocation map of stations did not come until April 1952, with July 1, 1952 as the official beginning of licensing new stations. Other FCC actions hurt the fledgling DuMont and ABC networks. AT&T forced television coaxial cable users to rent additional radio long lines, discriminating against DuMont, which had no radio network operation. DuMont and ABC protested AT&T's television policies to the FCC, which regulated AT&T's long-line charges, but the commission took no action. The results was that financially marginal DuMont was spending as much in long-line charge as CBS or NBC while using only about 10 to 15 percent of the time and mileage of either larger network. [8] The FCC's "Sixth Report & Order" ended the Freeze. It would take five years for the U.S. to grow from 108 stations to more than 550. New stations came on line slowly, only five by the end of November 1952. The Sixth Report and Order required some existing TV stations to change channels, but only a few existing VHF stations were required to move to UHF, and a handful of VHF channels were deleted altogether in smaller media markets like Peoria, Fresno, and Bakersfield to create markets which were UHF "islands." The report also set aside a number of channels for the newly emerging field of educational television, which hindered struggling ABC and DuMont's quest for affiliates in the more desirable markets where VHF channels were reserved for non-commercial use. The Sixth Report and Order also provided for the "intermixture" of VHF and UHF channels in most markets; UHF transmitters in the 1950s were not yet powerful enough, nor receivers sensitive enough (if they included UHF tuners at all - they were not formally required until the 1960s All-Channel Receiver Act), to make UHF viable against entrenched VHF stations. In markets where there were no VHF stations and UHF was the only TV service available, UHF survived. In other markets, which were too small to financially support a television station, too close to VHF outlets in nearby cities, or where UHF was forced to compete with more than one well-established VHF station, UHF had little chance for success. Denver had been the largest U.S. city without a TV station by 1952. Senator Edwin Johnson (DColorado), chair of the Senate's Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee, had made getting Denver the first post-Freeze station his personal mission. He had pressured the FCC, and proved ultimately successful as the first new station (a VHF station) came on-line a remarkable ten days after the Commission formally announced the first post-Freeze construction permits. KFEL (now KWGN-TV)'s first regular telecast was on July 21, 1952.[9][10]

[edit] Telephone monopoly to competition

The important relationship of the FCC and the American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) Company has evolved over several years. For many years, the FCC and state officials agreed to regulate the telephone systems as a natural monopoly.[citation needed] The FCC controlled telephone rates to limit the profits of AT&T and ensure nondiscriminatory pricing. In the 1960s, the FCC began allowing other long-distance companies, namely MCI, to offer specialized services. In the 1970s, the FCC allowed other companies to expand offerings to the public. A lawsuit in 1982 led by the Justice Department after AT&T underpriced other companies, resulted in the split of the Bells from AT&T. Beginning in 1984, the FCC implemented a new goal that all long-distance companies had equal access to the local phone companies' customers.[citation needed]

[edit] Telecommunications Act of 1996

In 1996 Congress enacted the Telecommunications Act of 1996, in the wake of the break-up of AT&T resulting from the U.S. Justice Department's antitrust suit against AT&T. In part, the 1996 legislation attempted to create more competition in local telephone service by requiring Incumbent Local Exchange Carriers to provide access to their facilities for Competitive Local Exchange Carriers. This policy has thus far had limited success and much criticism. See. e.g. Robert Crandall The development of the Internet, cable services and wireless services has raised questions whether new legislative initiates are needed as to competition in what has come to be called 'broadband' services. Congress has monitored developments but as of 2009 has not undertaken a major revision of applicable regulation. The Local Community Radio Act in the 111th Congress has gotten out of committee and will go before the house floor with bi-partisan support,[11] and unanimous support of the FCC.[12]

[edit] Connection permissivity, indecency crackdowns

The inauguration of Ronald Reagan as President of the United States in 1981 accelerated an already ongoing shift in the FCC towards a decidedly more market-oriented stance. A number of regulations felt to be outdated were removed, most controversially the Fairness Doctrine in 1987. The FCC also took steps to increase competition to broadcasters, fostering broadcast alternatives such as cable television. It's worth also noting that in terms of indecency fines, there was not action taken by the FCC from FCC v. Pacifica until 1987, about ten years later. In the early 2000s, the FCC began stepping up censorship and enforcement of indecency regulations again, most notably following the Janet Jackson "wardrobe malfunction" that occurred during the halftime show of Super Bowl XXXVIII. However, the FCC's regulatory domain with respect to indecency remains restricted to the public airwaves, notably VHF and UHF television and AM/FM radio. On June 15, 2006, President George W. Bush signed into law the Broadcast Decency Enforcement Act of 2005 sponsored by Senator Sam Brownback, a former broadcaster himself, and endorsed by Congressman Fred Upton of Michigan who authored a similar bill in the United

States House of Representatives. The new law stiffens the penalties for each violation of the Act. The Federal Communications Commission will be able to impose fines in the amount of $325,000 for each violation by each station that violates decency standards. The legislation raised the fine tenfold over the previous maximum of $32,500 per violation.[13][14]

[edit] Past Chairs and Notable Commissioners

The following is a complete list of past chairs:

Kevin J. Martin (R-NC) (March 18, 2005 - January 19, 2009) Michael K. Powell (R-VA) (January 22, 2001 - March 17, 2005) William E. Kennard (D-CA) (November 3, 1997 - January 19, 2001) - Managing director of the Global Telecommunications Group for The Carlyle Group Reed E. Hundt (D-MD) (November 29, 1993 - November 3, 1997) - Senior advisor on information industries at McKinsey & Company James H. Quello (D-MI) (February 5, 1993 - November 28, 1993; served on the Commission from 19741997) - Consultant for Wiley Rein, LLP Alfred C. Sikes (R-MO) (August 8, 1989 - January 19, 1993) - Chair of the Trinity Foundation and a business consultant for the Hearst Corporation Dennis R. Patrick (R-CA) (April 18, 1987 - August 7, 1989) - Chair of National Geographic Ventures Mark S. Fowler (R-CA) (May 18, 1981 - April 17, 1987) Robert E. Lee (R-IL) (Chairman, April 13, 1981 - May 18, 1981; Interim Chairman, February 5, 1981 - April 12, 1981) - Served as on the Commission from 19531981 Charles D. Ferris (D-MA) (October 17, 1977 - February 4, 1981) - Chairman of the Federal Law Section and member of the Policy Committee at Mintz, Levin, Ferris, Glovsky and Popeo, P.C. Richard E. Wiley (R-IL) (March 8, 1974 - October 13, 1977) - Partner at Wiley Rein, LLP Dean Burch (R-AZ) (October 13, 1969 - March 8, 1974) Rosel H. Hyde (R-ID) (Chairman, June 27, 1966 - October 31, 1969; Acting Chairman, May 1, 1966 - June 26, 1966; Acting Chairman, April 19, 1954 - October 3, 1954; Chairman, April 18, 1953 - April 18, 1954) E. William Henry (D-TN) (June 2, 1963 - May 1, 1966) Newton N. Minow (D-IL) (March 2, 1961 - June 1, 1963) - Senior Counsel at Sidley Austin LLP Frederick W. Ford (R-WV) (March 15, 1960 - March 1, 1961) John C. Doerfer (R-WI) (July 1, 1957 - March 10, 1960) George McConnaughey (R-OH) (October 4, 1951 - June 30, 1957) Paul A. Walker (D-OK) (Chairman, February 28, 1952 - April 17, 1953; Acting Chairman, November 3, 1947 - December 28, 1947) Wayne Coy (D-IN) (December 29, 1947 - February 21, 1952) Charles R. Denny (D-DC) (Chairman, December 4, 1946 - October 31, 1947; Acting Chairman, February 26, 1946 - December 3, 1946) Paul A. Porter (D-KY) (December 21, 1944 - February 25, 1946) Ewell K. Jett (I-MD) (Interim Chairman, November 16, 1944 - December 20, 1944)

James Lawrence Fly (D-TX) (September 1, 1939 - November 13, 1944) Frank McNinch (D-NC) (October 1, 1937 - August 31, 1939) Anning S. Prall (D-NY) (March 9, 1935 - July 23, 1937) Eugene O. Sykes (D-MS) (July 11, 1934 - March 8, 1935)

A complete list of commissioners is available on the FCC website.[15] Notable commissioners include:

Frieda B. Hennock (D-NY) Eugene O. Sykes (R-MS) Paul A. Walker (D-OK) Anning S. Prall (D-NY) Frank McNinch (D-NC) James Lawrence Fly (D-TX) Paul A. Porter (D-KY) Charles R. Denny (D-DC) Rosel H. Hyde (R-ID) Wayne Coy (D-IN) John C. Doerfer (R-WI) Robert E. Lee (R-IL) George McConnaughey (R-OH) Frederick W. Ford (R-WV) Newton N. Minow (D-IL) 1961Dean Burch (R-AZ) 1969-1974 Richard E. Wiley (R-IL) 1974-1977 Charles Ferris (D-MA) 1977-1981 Mark Fowler (R-CA) 1981-1989 Eliminated the Fairness Doctrine Alfred Sikes (R-MO) 1989-1993 James H. Quello(D-MI) 1993-1993 Reed E. Hundt (D-CA) 1993-1997 William E. Kennard (D-CA) 1997-2001 Michael Powell (R-VA) 2001-2005

[edit] Broadcast licensing

An additional logo

[edit] Regulatory Powers and Enforcement

The FCC regulates broadcast stations[disambiguation needed], amateur radio operators, and repeater stations as well as commercial broadcasting operators who operate and repair certain radiotelephone, television, radar, and Morse code radio stations. In recent years it has also

licensed people who maintain or operate GMDSS stations. Broadcast licenses are to be renewed if the station meets the "public interest, convenience, or necessity"[citation needed]. The FCC's enforcement powers include fines and broadcast license revocation (see FCC MB Docket 04-232). Burden of proof would be on the complainant in a petition to deny. Fewer than 1% of station renewals are not immediately granted, and only a small fraction of those are ultimately denied[citation needed]. While the FCC maintains control of the written and Morse testing standards, it no longer administers the exams, having delegated that function to private organizations.[citation needed]

[edit] FCC broadcasting tower database

The FCC database of broadcasting towers[16] provides information about the height and year built of broadcasting towers in the USA. It does not contain information about the structural types of towers or about the height of towers used for non-broadcasting purposes like NDBs, LORAN-C transmission towers or VLF transmission facilities of the US Navy, or about towers not used for transmission like the BREN Tower. These are instead tracked by the Federal Aviation Administration as obstructions to air navigation.

[edit] The FCC and the Internet

In North America the FCC made its original Internet policy statement containing four principles subject to reasonable network management in 2005, the Commission established the following principles: To encourage broadband deployment and preserve and promote the open and interconnected nature of the public Internet, Consumers are entitled to access the lawful Internet content of their choice; Consumers are entitled to run applications and use services of their choice, subject to the needs of law enforcement; Consumers are entitled to connect their choice of legal devices that do not harm the network; Consumers are entitled to competition among network providers, application and service providers, and content providers.[citation needed]

[edit] Controversies
Name Genachowski, Julius Copps, Michael J. McDowell, Robert M. Clyburn, Mignon Position Chairman Commissioner Commissioner Commissioner Residence Party Nomination[5] District of Columbia Virginia Virginia South Carolina D D R D PN220-111 PN1051-109 PN550-111 PN670-111 Term[6] Expires 2013 2010 2014 2012

This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. (Consider using more specific clean up instructions.) Please improve this section if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. (March 2010) Some of these issues are examined in the 2003 film Orwell Rolls in His Grave.

[edit] Unreleased reports

[edit] 2003 study of commercial radio concentration In 2003, the FCC Media Bureau produced a draft report analyzing the impact of deregulation in the radio industry.[17] The report stated that from March 1996 through March 2003, the number of commercial radio stations on the air rose 5.9 percent while the number of station owners fell 35 percent. The concentration of ownership followed a 1996 rewrite of telecommunications law that eliminated a 40-station national ownership cap. The report was never made public, nor have any similar analyses followed, despite the fact that radio industry reports were released in 1998, 2001 and 2002. In September 2006, Senator Barbara Boxer, who had received a copy of the report, released it.[18] [edit] 2004 study of television media concentration In 2004, the FCC ordered its staff to destroy all copies of a draft study by Keith Brown and Peter Alexander, two economists in the FCC's Media Bureau. The two had analyzed a database of 4,078 individual news stories broadcast in 1998, showed local ownership of television stations adds almost five and one-half minutes of total news to broadcasts and more than three minutes of "on-location" news. The conclusion of the study was at odds with FCC arguments made when it voted in 2003 to increase the number of television stations a company could own in a single market. (In June 2004, a federal appeals court rejected the agency's reasoning on most of the rules and ordered it to try again.) In September 2006, Senator Barbara Boxer, who had received a copy of the report "indirectly from someone within the FCC who believed the information should be made public," wrote a letter to FCC Chairman Kevin Martin, asked whether any other commissioners "past or present" knew of the report's existence and why it was never made public. She also asked whether it was "shelved because the outcome was not to the liking of some of the commissioners and/or any outside powerful interests?" Boxer's office said if she does not receive adequate answers to her questions, she will push for an investigation by the FCC inspector general.[19] [edit] Action by FCC Chairman

In a letter in response to Senator Boxer, FCC Chairman Martin said "I want to assure you that I too am concerned about what happened to these two draft reports." The letter also said "I have asked the inspector general of the FCC to conduct an investigation into what happened to these draft documents and will cooperate fully with him." Martin added that he was not chairman at the time the reports were drafted, and that neither he nor his staff had seen them.[18] When it emerged in 2006 that AT&T, BellSouth and Verizon may have broken U.S. laws by aiding the National Security Agency in possible illegal wiretapping of its customers, Congressional representatives called for an FCC investigation into whether or not those companies broke the law. The FCC declined to investigate, however, claiming that it could not investigate due to the classified nature of the program a move that provoked the criticism of members of Congress. "Today the watchdog agency that oversees the country's telecommunications industry refused to investigate the nation's largest phone companies' reported disclosure of phone records to the NSA," said Rep. Edward Markey (D-Mass.) in response to the decision. "The FCC, which oversees the protection of consumer privacy under the Communications Act of 1934, has taken a pass at investigating what is estimated to be the nation's largest violation of consumer privacy ever to occur. If the oversight body that monitors our nation's communications is stepping aside then Congress must step in."[14

[edit] Diversity
With the major demographic shifts occurring in the country in terms of the racial-ethnic composition of the population, the FCC has also been criticized for ignoring the issue of decreasing racial-ethnic diversity of the media. This includes charges that the FCC has been watering down the limited affirmative action regulations it had on the books, including no longer requiring stations to make public their data on their minority staffing and hiring. In the second half of 2006, groups such as the National Hispanic Media Coalition, the National Latino Media Council, the National Association of Hispanic Journalists, the National Institute for Latino Policy, the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) and others held town hall meetings in California, New York and Texas on media diversity as its affects Latinos and minority communities. They documented widespread and deeply-felt community concerns about the negative effects of media concentration and consolidation on racial-ethnic diversity in staffing and programming. See El Diario La Prensa's editorial on media diversity. At these Latino town hall meetings, the issue of the FCC's lax monitoring of obscene and pornographic material in Spanish-language radio and the lack of racial and national-origin diversity among Latino staff in Spanish-language television were other major themes. President Obama appointed Mark Lloyd to the FCC in the newly created post of Associate General Counsel/Chief Diversity Officer.[20][21]

[edit] Use of white space

On October 15, 2008, FCC Chairman Kevin Martin announced his support for the unlicensed use of white spaces within the radio frequency spectrum. White spaces are airwaves that will go unused after the federally mandated transformation of analog TV signal to digital. He said he is

"hoping to take advantage of utilizing these airwaves for broadband services to allow for unlicensed technologies and new innovations in that space."[22] While technology innovators such as Google and Microsoft are vying for the use of this white-space to support innovation in Wi-Fi technology, broadcasters and wireless microphone manufacturers fear that the use of white-space would "disrupt their broadcasts and the signals used in sports events and concerts."[23] Cell phone providers such as T-Mobile USA have mounted pressure on the FCC to instead offer up the white-space for sale to boost competition and market leverage. On November 4, 2008, the FCC unanimously agreed to open up unused broadcast TV spectrum for unlicensed use.[24][25]

[edit] Network neutrality

Main article: Network neutrality in the United States The FCC has claimed some jurisdiction over the issue of network neutrality (see Network neutrality in the United States) and has laid down guideline rules that it expects the telecommunications industry to follow. On February 11, 2008 Rep. Ed Markey and Rep. Chip Pickering introduced HR5353 "To establish broadband policy and direct the Federal Communications Commission to conduct a proceeding and public broadband summit to assess competition, consumer protection, and consumer choice issues relating to broadband Internet access services, and for other purposes."[26] On 1 August 2008 the FCC formally voted 3-to-2 to upholding a complaint against Comcast, the largest cable company in the US, ruling that it had illegally inhibited users of its high-speed Internet service from using file-sharing software. The FCC imposed no fine, but required Comcast to end such blocking in 2008. FCC chairman Kevin J. Martin said the order was meant to set a precedent that Internet providers, and indeed all communications companies, could not prevent customers from using their networks the way they see fit unless there is a good reason. In an interview Martin stated that "We are preserving the open character of the Internet" and "We are saying that network operators can't block people from getting access to any content and any applications." Martin's successor, Julius Genachowski has maintained that the FCC has no plans to regulate the internet, saying: "I've been clear repeatedly that we're not going to regulate the Internet."[27] The Comcast case highlighted broader issues of whether new legislation is needed to force Internet providers to maintain network neutrality, i.e. treat all uses of their networks equally. The legal complaint against Comcast related to BitTorrent, software that is commonly used for downloading larger files.[28]

[edit] Proprietary standards

The FCC has also been criticized for ignoring international open standards, and instead choosing proprietary closed standards, or allowing communications companies to do so and implement the anticompetitive practice of vendor lock-in, thereby preventing a free market.[citation needed] In the case of digital TV, it chose the ATSC standard, even though DVB was already in use around the world, including DVB-S satellite TV in the U.S. Unlike competing standards, the ATSC system is encumbered by numerous patents, and therefore royalties that make TV sets and DTV converters much more expensive than in the rest of the world. Additionally, the claimed

benefit of better reception in rural areas is more than negated in urban areas by multipath interference, which other systems are nearly immune to. It also cannot be received while in motion for this reason, while all other systems can, even without dedicated mobile TV signals or receivers.[citation needed] For digital radio, the FCC chose proprietary HD Radio, which crowds the existing FM broadcast band and even AM broadcast band with in-band adjacent-channel sidebands, which create noise in other stations. This is in contrast to worldwide DAB, which uses unused TV channels in the VHF band III range. This too has patent fees, while DAB does not. Enormous expense is involved in converting each station, largely from these fees, and so it is completely prohibitive for community radio and most other non-commercial educational stations.[citation needed] Satellite radio (also called SDARS by the FCC) uses two proprietary standards instead of DABS, which requires users to change equipment when switching from one provider to the other, and prevents other competitors from offering new choices as stations can do on terrestrial radio. Had the FCC picked DAB-T for terrestrial radio, no separate satellite receiver would have been needed at all, and the only difference from DAB receivers in the rest of the world would be in software, where it would need to tune S band instead of L band.[citation needed] In mobile telephony, the FCC abandoned the "any lawful device" principle decided against AT&T landlines, and has instead allowed each mobile phone company to dictate what its customers can use.[citation needed]

[edit] DTV Controversy

The FCC has been criticized for awarding a digital TV (DTV) channel to each holder of an analog TV station license without an auction, as well as trading auctionable spectrum to Nextel to resolve public safety RF interference problems. Conversely, it has also been criticized for forcing stations to buy and install all new equipment (transmitters, TV antennas, and even entirely new broadcast towers), and operate for years on both channels at once. This was at great expense to every TV station, and without government compensation for the regulatory taking, despite 20 billion dollars brought in by taking more than 25% of the TV broadcast band (and the part most valuable for mobile TV, the future of broadcasting) away and auctioning it. On June 12, 2009, all full-power analog terrestrial TV licenses in the U.S. were terminated, with terrestrial television subsequently available only from the digital channels and a few low-power LPTV stations, leaving stations and the viewing public with millions of dollars in useless analog equipment, and with a reduced audience that could not or would not get the necessary DTV converter boxes. See DTV transition in the United States.[citation needed]

[edit] Local broadcasting

After being successful in opening the FM band as a superior alternative to the AM band by allowing colleges and other schools to start ten-watt LPFM stations, the FCC banned new ones around 1980, at the behest of the powerful commercial radio stations of the National Association of Broadcasters, and the then-new National Public Radio.[citation needed] The exception to the ban is for NAB/NPR member stations (and now religious radio) to construct broadcast translators,

which raises issues about equal protection of free speech, because it bans technically-identical stations just for originating their own programming. Commercial station groups are now also using "translator" stations to circumvent caps on local media ownership, be feeding them a signal that is also broadcast on an AM station or "HD" channel that cannot otherwise be heard.[citation
needed]

The concept of the city of license has also become a nearly meaningless legal fiction over the years, as stations no longer have any requirement to air any local content.[citation needed] There have been many restrictions made by the FCC regarding licensed radio and TV stations, but they made less sense as more and more were licensed. As the market competition increases, the commission relaxed some ownership rules in 1985 (e.g. anti-trafficking; ascertainment; duopoly and syndication; financial interest rules; limits on commercials)[citation needed]

[edit] The FCC and Public Consultation

As the public interest standard has always been important to the FCC when determining and shaping policy, so too has the relevance of public involvement in U.S. communication policy making.[29]

[edit] A Brief History of the Issue

[edit] The 1927 Radio Act In the 1927 Radio Act, which was formulated by the predecessor of the FCC (the Federal Radio Commission), section 4(k) stipulated that the commission was authorized to hold hearings for the purpose of developing a greater understanding of the issues for which rules were being crafted. Section 4(k) stated that: Except as otherwise provided in this Act, the commission, from time to time, as public convenience, interest, or necessity requires, shall have the authority to hold hearings, summon witnesses, administer oaths, compel the production of books, documents, and papers and to make such investigations as may be necessary in the performance of its duties. Thus it is clear that public consultation, or at least consultation with outside bodies was regarded as central to the Commissions job from early on. Though it should not be surprising, the Act also stipulated that the Commission should verbally communicate with those being assigned licenses. Section 11 of the Act noted: If upon examination of any application for a station license or for the renewal or modification of a station license the licensing authority shall determine that public interest, convenience, or necessity would be served by the granting thereof, it shall authorize the issuance, renewal, or modification thereof in accordance with said finding. In the event the licensing authority upon examination of any such application does not reach such decision with respect thereto, it shall notify the applicant thereof, shall fix and

give notice of a time and place for hearing thereon, and shall afford such applicant an opportunity to be heard under such rules and regulations as it may prescribe. [edit] Public Hearings As early as 1927, there is evidence that public hearings were indeed held; among them, hearings to assess the expansion of the radio broadcast band.[30] At these early hearings, the goal of having a broad range of viewpoints presented was evident, as not only broadcasters, but also radio engineers and manufacturers were in attendance. Numerous groups representing the general public appeared at the hearings as well, including amateur radio operators and inventors as well as representatives of radio listeners organizations. Interestingly, While some speakers at the 1927 hearings referred to having received invitations, Herbert Hoovers assistant observed in a letter at the time that the Radio Commission has sent out a blanket invitation to all people in the country who desire either to appear in person or to submit their recommendations in writing. I do not understand that the Commission has sent for any particular individuals, however [Letter from George Akerson, assistant to Sec. Hoover, to Mrs. James T. Rourke, Box 497, Commerce Period Papers, Herbert Hoover Presidential Library (March 29, 1927)] (FN 14)[31] Including members of the general public in the discussion was regarded (or at least articulated) as very important to the Commissions deliberations. In fact, FCC Commissioner Bellows noted at the time that it is the radio listener we must consider above everyone else.[32] Though there were numerous representatives of the general public at the hearing, some expressing their opinions to the commission verbally, overall there was not a great turnout of everyday listeners at the hearings. Though not a constant fixture of the communications policy-making process, public hearings were occasionally organized as a part of various deliberatory processes as the years progressed. For example, seven years after the enactment of the Radio Act, the Communications Act of 1934 was passed, creating the FCC. That year the Federal Governments National Recovery Agency (associated with the New Deal period) held public hearings as a part of its deliberations over the creation of new broadcasting codes.[33] A few years later, the FCC held hearings to address early cross-ownership issues; specifically, whether newspaper companies owning radio stations was in the public interest.[34] These newspaper divorcement hearings were held between 1941 and 1944, though it appears that these hearings were geared mostly towards discussion by industry stakeholders. Around the same time, the Commission held hearings as a part of its evaluation of the national television standard,[35] and in 1958 held additional hearings on the television network broadcasting rules.[36] Though public hearings were organized somewhat infrequently, there was an obvious public appeal. In his now famous vast wasteland speech in 1961, FCC Chairman Newton Minow noted that the commission would hold a well advertised public hearing in each community to assure broadcasters were serving the public interest,[37] clearly a move to reconnect the Commission with the public interest (at least rhetorically).
[edit] Media Ownership Review 2003

In September 2002, the FCC issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking stating that the Commission would re-evaluate its media ownership rules pursuant to the obligation specified in the Telecommunications Act of 1996. As 2003 was approaching, a battle of words (and perhaps actions) developed between Chairman Powell and Democratic Commissioner Michael Copps. Commissioner Copps felt that the Republican FCC was too focused on the neo-liberal agenda, and not focused enough on hearing the publics voice regarding the issues at hand, noting, We need a much wider participation this is not an inside-the-Beltway issue.[38] Copps repeatedly called for the FCC to hold public hearings with time devoted to public input. Powell responded by noting that the public had already taken advantage of the online comment submission process and that no public hearings would be necessary. A spokesman for Powell noted, if Commissioner Copps thinks something more can be gained from having hearings, he should feel free to do so. [39] In the end, Commissioner Copps and Commissioner Jonathan Adelstein organized a number of unofficial FCC hearings. On January 16, 2003, the FCC held an unofficial public hearing on media ownership at Columbia University; surprisingly, Chairman Michael Powell was in attendance. His opening remarks however, certainly reflected the lack of interest the Commission had displayed towards public hearings in recent years: I would be the first to agree that this kind of public discourse is one of the most, uhh, critical things that the Commission can participate in, an opportunity to hear a wide ranging set of views. Umm, I want to apologize in advance, regrettably I also have to participate today in a, a Rainbow Push Wall Street project later in the day, so I wont be able to be here all day. It should be noted that the Chief of the Media Bureau and some other associates would be there all day to hear a full report on the event. Copps remained adamant that all Commissioners should attend an official FCC hearing before any decisions were made. An editorial in Broadcasting and Cable articulated the heated nature of the eventual decision regarding an official hearing (at least from the Republican standpoint). The article is quoted at length as it includes a variety of points that are relevant: FCC Commissioner Michael Copps got his way. Chairman Michael Powell gave in, saying he would schedule a hearing in Richmond, Va. Why Richmond? To save money, says Powell. With the Virginia capital just 100 miles down I-95, the FCC wont have to pay for a lot of hotel rooms and airline tickets. We understand what Copps is trying to do: Get some thoughts on media-ownership deregulation from the common folk outside of Washington on the theory that wisdom grows proportionately with the distance from Washington. But thats a romantic notion. Does Copps really think that people in the provinces think much about media consolidation? At best, what you will get in any given town are local fronts for the Washington lobbyists and groups that spend their lives grappling with the issues. In Richmond, you probably would be able to stir up a better discussion on McClellans Peninsula Campaign of 1862 than you will on the Telecommunications Act of 1996. As Powell hinted in grudgingly agreeing to the hearing, it wont add much of value to the record. That is in part because this FCC has

already taken extraordinary steps to analyze the media marketplace and build a record that will lead not only to reasonable action this spring but also to a new set of rules that may withstand judicial scrutiny. We understand that big media can be too big and that there may be a need for some restrictions. But the burden of proof is on those who would regulate, who would place hobbles on companies and entrepreneurs for fear of what might happen (there is already a Justice Department and antitrust laws to handle what does happen), who would deprive someone of the right to speak through any medium anywhere. That proof might be out there, but it doesnt require a road trip to Richmond.[40]

[edit] Headquarters
The FCC leases space in the Portals building in southwest Washington, DC. Construction of the Portals building was scheduled to begin on March 1, 1996. In January 1996 the General Services Administration signed a lease with the building's owners, agreeing to let the FCC lease 450,000 square feet (42,000 m2) of space in Portals for 20 years, at a cost of $17.3 million per year in 1996 dollars. Prior to its current arrangement, the FCC had space in six buildings by 19th Street NW and M Street NW. The FCC first solicited bids for a new headquarters complex in 1989. In 1991 the GSA selected the Portals site. The FCC had wanted to move into a more expensive area along Pennsylvania Avenue.[41]

[edit] Influence
The Korea Communications Commission of South Korea is based on the Federal Communications Commission[citation needed].

Base station
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article's lead section may not adequately summarize its contents. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of the article's key points. (November 2009)

A 1980s consumer-grade Citizens' band radio (CB) base station

The term base station can be used in the context of land surveying and wireless communications.

Contents
[hide]

1 Land surveying 2 Computer networking 3 Wireless communications o 3.1 Two-way radio 3.1.1 Professional 3.1.2 Amateur and hobbyist use o 3.2 Wireless telephone o 3.3 Emissions issues o 3.4 Emergency power 4 Media 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links

[edit] Land surveying

In the context of external land surveying, a base station is a GPS receiver at an accurately-known fixed location which is used to derive correction information for nearby portable GPS receivers. This correction data allows propagation and other effects to be corrected out of the position data obtained by the mobile stations, which gives greatly increased location precision and accuracy over the results obtained by uncorrected GPS receivers.

[edit] Computer networking

See also: Access point base station

In the area of wireless computer networking, a base station is a radio receiver/transmitter that serves as the hub of the local wireless network, and may also be the gateway between a wired network and the wireless network. It typically consists of a low-power transmitter and wireless router.

[edit] Wireless communications

In radio communications, a base station is a wireless communications station installed at a fixed location and used to communicate as part of either:

a push-to-talk two-way radio system, or; a wireless telephone system such as cellular CDMA or GSM cell site. Terrestrial Trunked Radio

[edit] Two-way radio

[edit] Professional

In professional two-way radio systems, a base station is used to maintain contact with a dispatch fleet of hand-held or mobile radios, and/or to activate one-way paging receivers. The base station is one end of a communications link. The other end is a movable vehicle-mounted radio or walkie-talkie.[1] Examples of base station uses in two-way radio include the dispatch of tow trucks and taxicabs.

Basic base station elements used in a remote-controlled installation. Selective calling options such as CTCSS are optional.

Professional base station radios are often one channel. In lightly used base stations, a multichannel unit may be employed.[2] In heavily used systems, the capability for additional channels, where needed, is accomplished by installing an additional base station for each channel. Each base station appears as a single channel on the dispatch center control console. In a properly designed dispatch center with several staff members, this allows each dispatcher to communicate simultaneously, independently of one another, on a different channel as necessary. For example, a taxi company dispatch center may have one base station on a high-rise building in Boston and another on a different channel in Providence. Each taxi dispatcher could communicate with taxis in either Boston or Providence by selecting the respective base station on his or her console.[3] In dispatching centers it is common for eight or more radio base stations to be connected to a single dispatching console. Dispatching personnel can tell which channel a message is being received on by a combination of local protocol, unit identifiers, volume settings, and busy

indicator lights. A typical console has two speakers identified as select and unselect. Audio from a primary selected channel is routed to the select speaker and to a headset. Each channel has a busy light which flashes when someone talks on the associated channel.[4] Base stations can be local controlled or remote controlled. Local controlled base stations are operated by front panel controls on the base station cabinet. Remote control base stations can be operated over tone- or DC-remote circuits. The dispatch point console and remote base station are connected by leased private line telephone circuits, (sometimes called RTO circuits), a DS-1, or radio links.[5] The consoles multiplex transmit commands onto remote control circuits. Some system configurations require duplex, or four wire, audio paths from the base station to the console. Others require only a two-wire or half duplex link.[6]

The diagram shows a band-pass filter used to reduce the base station receiver's exposure to unwanted signals. It also reduces the transmission of undesired signals. The isolator is a one-way device which reduces the ease of signals from nearby transmitters going up the antenna line and into the base station transmitter. This prevents the unwanted mixing of signals inside the base station transmitter which can generate interference.

Interference could be defined as receiving any signal other than from a radio in your own system. To avoid interference from users on the same channel, or interference from nearby strong signals on another channel, professional base stations use a combination of:[7][8]

minimum receiver specifications and filtering.[9][10][11] analysis of other frequencies in use nearby. in the US, coordination of shared frequencies by coordinating agencies.[12] locating equipment so that terrain blocks interfering signals. use of directional antennas to reduce unwanted signals.

Base stations are sometimes called control or fixed stations in US Federal Communications Commission licensing. These terms are defined in regulations inside Part 90 of the commissions regulations. In US licensing jargon, types of base stations include:

A fixed station is a base station used in a system intended only to communicate with other base stations. A fixed station can also be radio link used to operate a distant base station by remote control. (No mobile or hand-held radios are involved in the system.) A control station is a base station used in a system with a repeater where the base station is used to communicate through the repeater. A temporary base is a base station used in one location for less than a year. A repeater is a type of base station that extends the range of hand-held and mobile radios.

[edit] Amateur and hobbyist use

In amateur radio, a base station also communicates with mobile rigs but for hobby or family communications. Amateur systems sometimes serve as dispatch radio systems during disasters, search and rescue mobilizations, or other emergencies. An Australian UHF CB base station is another example of part of a system used for hobby or family communications.

[edit] Wireless telephone

Wireless telephone differ from two-way radios in that:

wireless telephones are circuit switched: the communications paths are set up by dialing at the start of a call and the path remains in place until one of the callers hangs up. wireless telephones communicate with other telephones usually over the public switched telephone network.

A wireless telephone base station communicates with a mobile or hand-held phone. For example, in a wireless telephone system, the signals from one or more mobile telephones in an area are received at a nearby base station, which then connects the call to the land-line network. Other equipment is involved depending on the system architecture. Mobile telephone provider networks, such as European GSM networks, may involve carrier, microwave radio, and switching facilities to connect the call. In the case of a portable phone such as a US cordless phone, the connection is directly connected to a wired land line.

[edit] Emissions issues

A cell tower near Thicketty, South Carolina.

While low levels of radio-frequency power are usually considered to have negligible effects on health, national and local regulations restrict the design of base stations to limit exposure to electromagnetic fields. Technical measures to limit exposure include restricting the radio frequency power emitted by the station, elevating the antenna above ground level, changes to the antenna pattern, and barriers to foot or road traffic. For typical base stations, significant electromagnetic energy is only emitted at the antenna, not along the length of the antenna tower.[13] Because mobile phones and their base stations are two-way radios, they produce radio-frequency (RF) radiation in order to communicate, exposing people near them to RF radiation giving concerns about mobile phone radiation and health. Hand-held mobile telephones are relatively low power so the RF radiation exposures from them are generally low. The World Health Organization has concluded that "there is no convincing scientific evidence that the weak RF signals from base stations and wireless networks cause adverse health effects."[14] The consensus of the scientific community is that the power from these mobile phone base station antennas is too low to produce health hazards as long as people are kept away from direct access to the antennas. However, current international exposure guidelines (ICNIRP) are based largely on the thermal effects of base station emissions. Some scientists have questioned whether there are non thermal effects from being exposed to low level RF such as are transmitted from mobile phone base stations. Such 'non-thermal' effects include how the actual frequencies interfere with the human brain and all other cells in the human body.

[edit] Emergency power

Fuel cell backup power systems are added to critical base stations or cell sites to provide emergency power.[15][16]

[edit] Media

A cell tower near Thicketty, South Carolina.

Two GSM mobile phone base station towers disguised as trees in Dublin, Ireland.

A base station disguised as a palm tree in Tucson, Arizona.

Close-up of a base station antenna in Mexico City, Mexico. There are three antennas: each serves a 120-degree segment of the horizon. The microwave dish links the site with the telephone network.

A professional rack-mount iDEN Base Radio at a Cell Site.

Trunked systems have groups of base stations configured as repeaters. The center blocks with frequencies in this trunked block diagram each represent a base station.

136-174 MHz US professional base station antenna examples.

WiMAX base station equipment with a sector antenna and wireless modem on top

Cellular repeater
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (May 2010) A cellular repeater, cell phone repeater, or wireless cellular signal booster, a type of bidirectional amplifier (BDA) as commonly named in the wireless telecommunications industry, is

a device used for boosting the cell phone reception to the local area by the usage of a reception antenna, a signal amplifier and an internal rebroadcast antenna. These are similar to the cellular broadcast towers used for broadcasting by the network providers, but are much smaller, usually intended for use in one building. Modern cellular repeater amplifiers rebroadcast cellular signals inside the building. The systems usually use an external, directional antenna to collect the best cellular signal, which is then transmitted to an amplifier unit which amplifies the signal, and retransmits it locally, providing significantly improved signal strength. The more advanced models often also allow multiple cell phones to use the same repeater at the same time, so are suitable for commercial as well as home use. The market for cellular repeaters is expected to grow rapidly over the coming years, particularly in the USA. This is due to the combination of the poor network coverage in some areas, and the large scale departure from the land-line system. The CTIA The Wireless Association (formerly the Cellular Telecommunications & Internet Association) had predicted that by 2007 30% of phone users in the US would be mobile only - more than 60 million lines. This combined with the low population density (compared with Europe and Japan) means that many people will have to use some method to improve their home signal. Other advantages of cellular repeaters include an increase in the cell phone's battery life and a lower level of radiation emitted by the handset - both caused by the lower power required to broadcast the signal to the local bi-directional amplifier, due to its proximity to the phone.

Contents
[hide]

1 Typical components o 1.1 External directional antenna o 1.2 Internal rebroadcast antenna o 1.3 Signal amplifier 2 Reasons for weak signal o 2.1 Rural areas o 2.2 Building construction material o 2.3 Building size o 2.4 Multipath interference o 2.5 Diffraction and general attenuation 3 Different operating frequencies 4 Approval in the USA by the FCC 5 Approval in the UK by Ofcom and the UK market 6 See also

[edit] Typical components

[edit] External directional antenna

Although some of the less expensive models do not include an external directional antenna they are crucial to providing significant signal strength gain. This is because the antenna can be oriented and located outside to provide the best possible signal, usually aligned with the nearest cell tower. Generally speaking the larger the external antenna the better the signal - although even a small, correctly oriented external antenna should provide better signal than the internal antenna on any cell phone. These can either be fitted by professionals or will include a signal strength monitor for easy alignment.

[edit] Internal rebroadcast antenna

The better systems will generally include an internal monopole antenna (although the type of antenna is far from standardised) for rebroadcasting the signal internally - the advantage of using a monopole antenna is that the signal will be equally distributed in all directions (subject, of course, to attenuation from obstacles). Because all radio antennas are intrinsically polarized, cell phones perform best when their antennas are oriented parallel to the booster's antenna - although within reasonable proximity the booster's signal will be strong enough that the orientation of the cell phone's antenna will not make a significant difference in usability.

[edit] Signal amplifier

All models will include a signal amplifier. Even the cheaper home-use models (typically band selective) now provide 20dB - 50dB gain and many of the more expensive models provide over 50dB. Excellent high-power models (not home usage - smart and expensive technology of the operators) offering gain around 100dBm (ICE function is welcomed as an improvement of the radio isolation between donor and service antenna). However, since the decibel scale is measured on a logarithmic scale a 30dB gain represents a one thousandfold signal power increase meaning the total amplification of a repeater with greater than around 50dB is likely to be useless without a good, well aligned antenna. This is due to the difficulty of filtering the correct signal out from the background noise, which will be amplified equally, and the limiting maximum signal power of the amplifier (for picorepeaters typically from around 5 dBm (3.2 mW)). Standard GSM channel selective repeater (operated by telecommunication operators for coverage of large areas and big buildings) has output power around 2W, high power repeaters (e.g., NodeG from Andrew) offering output power around 10W). The power gain is calculated by the following equation:

For repeater is needed to secure sufficient isolation between donor and service antenna. When the isolation is lower than actual gain + reserve (typically 5-15dB) then repeaters is in loop oscillation. Also cheap models are equipped by automatic gain reduction in case of poor or weak isolation. In case of poor isolation the device works but with low gain, and coverage is poor.

The isolation is possible to improve by antenna type selection, in macro environment by angle between donor and service antenna (ideally 180), space separation (typically vertical distance in case of the tower installation between donor and service antenna is several meters), inserting of the attenuating environment (smart placement of the donor and service antenna, e.g., between donor and service antenna is wall, placement of the metal mesh), reduction of reflections - in front of the donor antenna no near obstacle (like tree, metal-sheet building, glasshouse, or house)). Isolation can be also improved by integrated feature called ICE (interference cancellation equipment) offered in some products (e.g., NodeG, RFWindow). Activating of this feature has negative impact to internal delay (higher delay => prox. +5us up to standard rep. delay) and consequently to shorter radius from donor site, where could be repeater used. By amplification and filtration there is some delay (typically between 5us to 15us). It depends on the type of repeater and used features. Additional delay form point of view of propagation means additional distance. Because of the cellular network has form principle reduced cell size (depends on the technology and activated features typically X*10 km (for standard GSM 35 km), urban FDD/TDD network 20 km) usage of repeater virtually moving user to bigger distance: radio distance = real distance + (repeater delay) *3.3 km (delay of RF signal in air is 3.3us/km). It is reason why somewhere with sufficient levels repeater doesn't work. After repeating you have better (or excellent) coverage but you can't access to network. User is from network point of view too far. There is also problem with noise amplification (especially in UL) and desensitization of the donor site. Amateur installation of the pico/mini repeaters can be harmful for many reasons:

Poor choice of donor site may not improve signal Using the wrong antenna and improperly installing the repeater without paying attention to minimizing interference (e.g. installing the repeater in a higher place than necessary, being shaded by buildings (e.g., by wall installation or suppression of side/back lobes by chimney, etc.)) and without sense to donor site selection. Use of a poor device for signal generation, causing noise and inter-modulation products. Repeating only part of the band, such as in cases where the operator is using wider band (e.g., EGSM) or more bands and the repeater does not support EGSM or is only for 900GSM. Operators can operate also EGSM or GSM900+GSM1800 layers with single BCCH (Siemens(SAG) commonly supports the BCCH feature. In the case of improper repeater support, many calls may drop).

[edit] Reasons for weak signal

[edit] Rural areas

In many rural areas the housing density is too low to make construction of a new base station commercially viable. In these cases it is unlikely that the service provider will do anything to improve reception, due to the high cost of erecting a new tower. As a result, the only way to obtain strong cell phone signal in these areas is usually to install a home cellular repeater. In flat rural areas the signal is unlikely to suffer from multipath interference, so will just be heavily attenuated by the distance. In these cases the installation of a cellular repeater will generally massively increase signal strength just due to the amplifier, even a great distance from the broadcast towers.

[edit] Building construction material

Some construction materials very rapidly attenuate cell phone signal strength. Older buildings, such as churches, which use lead in their roofing material will very effectively block any signal. Any building which has a significant thickness of concrete or amount of metal used in its production will attenuate the signal. Concrete floors are often poured onto a metal pan which completely blocks most radio signals. Some solid foam insulation and some fiberglass insulation used in roofs or exterior walls has foil backing, which can reduce transmittance. Energy efficient windows and metal window screens are also very effective at blocking radio signals. Some materials have peaks in their absorption spectra which massively decrease signal strength.

[edit] Building size

Large buildings, such as warehouses, hospitals and factories, often have no cellular reception further than a few meters from the outside wall. Low signal strength is also often the case in underground areas such as basements and in shops and restaurants located towards the centre of shopping malls. This is caused by both the fact that the signal is attenuated heavily as it enters the building and the interference as the signal is reflected by the objects inside the building. For this reason in these cases an external antenna is usually desirable.

[edit] Multipath interference

Even in urban areas which usually have strong cellular signals throughout, there are often dead zones caused by destructive interference of waves which have taken different paths (caused by the signal bouncing off buildings etc.) These usually have an area of a few blocks and will usually only affect one of the two frequency ranges used by cell phones. This is because the different wavelengths of the different frequencies interfere destructively at different points. Directional antennas are very helpful at overcoming this since they can be placed at points of constructive interference and aligned so as not to receive the destructive signal. See Multipath interference for more.

[edit] Diffraction and general attenuation

The longer wavelengths have the advantage of being able to diffract to a greater degree so are less reliant on line of sight to obtain a good signal, but still attenuate significantly. Because the frequencies which cell phones use are too high to reflect off the ionosphere as shortwave radio waves do, cell phone waves cannot travel via the ionospohere.

See Diffraction and Attenuation for more.

[edit] Different operating frequencies

Repeaters are available for all the different GSM frequency bands, some repeaters will handle different types of network such as multi-mode GSM and UMTS repeaters however dual- and triband systems cost significantly more. Repeater systems are available for certain Satellite phone systems, allowing the satphones to be used indoors without a clear line of sight to the satellite.

[edit] Approval in the USA by the FCC

Although there are some products on the market in the USA which are still pending Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approval, they should have no problem gaining it.[dubious discuss] Although a license was originally required to broadcast at cell phone frequencies, it is legal to use the low power devices available today for home and small scale use in commercial areas (offices, shops, bars, etc.).[dubious discuss] Many models already have FCC approval.[citation needed]

[edit] Approval in the UK by Ofcom and the UK market

In the UK there is no third party licencing regime in place even for low powered devices for home use. The use of a mobile signal booster in the UK is only permitted by the mobile networks who hold the licences in the cellular bands. The UK regulator, Ofcom specifically states that; "Repeater devices transmit or re-transmit in the cellular frequency bands. Only the mobile network operators are licensed to use equipment that transmits in these bands. Installation or use of repeater devices by anyone without a licence is a criminal offence under Section 8 of the WT Act 2006." This has not detered the UK market for signal boosters with an explosion of web retailers offering a wide range of solutions from DIY installs to installations. This has largely been driven by the tightening of energy efficicency regulations in building construction. The use of materials that mitigate heat loss such as metallic foil laminated insulation board and energy efficient glazing with a metallic anodised coating also have high signal attenuation properties. The window for any such regulation of the UK market as in the US, is likely passed as the quantity of repeaters already shipped and in place in the UK is estimated at the tens of thousands. Repeaters operating in rural and less densely populated areas do not pose a quantifiable problem. However, in cities and areas where many cells exist from each operator, the use of devices ranging from small mobile signal boosters to high power repeaters can cause loss of coverage through interference and desensitisation of the cells. The lack of regulatory guidance has led to the situation where most installtions are simply 'plug and play' and have been installed by non technical persons who have no appreciation or understanding of even the most basic RF principles. There are well established vendors who have worked for some time in this area who work for, and with the networks to provide in building coverage solutions. Ofcom suggest that "Anyone

wishing to improve coverage in a particular area is advised to contact their network provider." At present, the willingness and capability of network operators to initiate the process to providing an in building solution varies greatly. Some network operators have dedicated teams that will visit a customers site to assess the cause of the problems experienced and offer to put in place a soltion provided by a third party vendor. However this is generally limited to large corporates and the public sector, with the expense being borne by the client. The disparity in approach and the lack of a cross network operator working group means that sites requiring a 'wideband' coverage solution for all networks is not currently possible.

Telecom infrastructure sharing

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Due to economy of scale property of telecommunication industry, sharing of telecom infrastructure among telecom service providers is becoming the requirement and process of business in the telecom industry where competitors are becoming partners in order to lower their increasing investments. The degree and method of infrastructure sharing can vary in each country depending on regulatory and competitive climate.

Contents
[hide]

1 Regulatory View 2 Advantages

3 Telecom Infrastructure 4 Infrastructure Sharing 5 See also 6 References 7 External Links

[edit] Regulatory View

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC), as an independent agency of the United States government, was established by the Communications Act of 1934. As the successor to the Federal Radio Commission, FCC is taking charge of regulating all non-federal government use of the radio spectrum(including radio and television broadcasting), and all interstate telecommunications (broadband, wireless and satellite) as well as all international communications that originate or terminate in the United States. In 1996, The U.S. Congress passed the Telecommunications Act of 1996, which was later recognised as a watershed of competitive environment of US telecommunication industry. It ultimately terminated the monopoly situation by introducing competition into the market, which was started by the deregulation of infrastructure. As specified in Telecommunications Act of 1996, all incumbent local exchange carriers have the following obligations:

Interconnection--the duty to provide, for the facilities or equipment of any requesting TCC, interconnection with the LEC network.(Section 251 (c)) Access to rights of way--the duty to afford access to the poles, ducts, conduits ... at nondiscriminatory rates consistent with (Section 224) Reciprocal compensation arrangements--the duty to establish reciprocal compensation arrangements for the transport and termination of telecommunications.(Section 251(b))[1]

For the benefit of sharing infrastructure, new entrants are able to enter the market by sharing (leasing) network without building their own ones.

[edit] Advantages
Infrastructure sharing limits duplication and gears investment toward underserved areas, product innovation, and improved customer service. Traditionally, telecommunication development shows economy of scale and telecom operator spending has been dominated by considerable investment of technology and infrastructure. Given that such investments are fixed, sunk and irreversible, they represent a high risk factor. Maintaining and upgrading infrastructure make this risk even higher. For example, fixed network operators are migrating to next-generation networks, after most mobile network operators have already deployed the third-generation(3G) infrastructures. Therefore, infrastructure sharing can significantly reduce entrance and development risk.

Infrastructure sharing also has great impact on competition. Market becomes more attractive to new players for decreased entrance barriers. Such players can enrich the competition while investing effectively. By alleviating pressure of network deployment, sharing allows operators to turn their attention to improved innovation, better customer service and eventually better commercial offerings and healthier competition.[2]

[edit] Telecom Infrastructure

Basically a cell site consists of electronic (active) and non-electronic infrastructure.

Electronic infrastructure includes base tower station, microwave radio equipment, switches, antennas, transceivers for signal processing and transmission. Non-electronic infrastructure includes tower, shelter, air-conditioning equipments, diesel electric generator, battery, electrical supply, technical premises and easements & pylons that account for nearly 60 percent of network rollout costs. See Base Station subsystem and Base Transceiver Station.[3]

[edit] Infrastructure Sharing

Utility pole shared by service providers Telecom service providers can share infrastructure in many ways, depending on telecom regulatory and legislation.

Passive Infrastructure sharing is sharing non-electronic infrastructure at cell site. Passive Infrastructure is becoming popular in telecom industry world wide. o Site sharing includes antennas and mast; this may also hold Base transceiver station (BTS), Node B in UMTS context and common equipments such as Antenna system, masts, cables, filters and shelter. o Sharing a mast is called mast sharing. o Antenna sharing shares an antenna and all related connections (coupler, feeder cable), in addition to passive radio site elements. Active sharing is sharing electronic infrastructure.

Spectrum-sharing concept is based on a lease model and is often termed spectrum trading. An operator can lease a part of its spectrum to another operator on commercial terms. Though this mechanism, along with that of MVNOs, exists in the US, Europe, Singapore and Australia. o Frequency Sharing. Base station sharing is prospective while each operator maintains control over logical Node B so that it will be able to operate the frequencies assigned to the carrier, fully independent from the partner operator and retains control over active base station equipment such as the TRXs that control reception/transmission over radio channels. Radio network controller and core network are not shared here. RNC (Radio Network Controller) sharing represents maintaining logical control over the RNC of each operator independently. MSC and Routers sharing or backbone sharing includes sharing switches (MSC) and routers (SGSN) on the operator's fixed network. Geographical Splitting

OpenBTS
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia OpenBTS

Stable release

2.6 / August 1, 2010; 11 months ago C++ GSM protocol stack AGPL (free software) openbts.sf.net

Operating system Unix-like Available in Type License Website

OpenBTS (Open Base Transceiver Station) is a software-based GSM access point, allowing standard GSM-compatible mobile phones to make telephone calls without using existing telecommunication providers' networks. OpenBTS is notable for being the first free software implementation of the industry-standard GSM protocol stack. It is written in C++ and released as free software under the terms of version 3 of the GNU Affero General Public License (AGPL).

Contents
[hide]

1 Open GSM infrastructure 2 History 3 Platforms 4 Field tests o 4.1 Burning Man o 4.2 Niue 5 See also o 5.1 Related projects 6 External links o 6.1 Media 7 References

[edit] Open GSM infrastructure

OpenBTS replaces the traditional GSM operator network switching subsystem infrastructure, from the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) upwards. Instead of forwarding call traffic through to an operator's mobile switching centre (MSC) the calls are terminated on the same box by forwarding the data onto the Asterisk PBX via SIP and Voice-over-IP (VoIP). The reference air interface (Um) uses a software-defined radio (SDR) on top of the Universal Software Radio Peripheral (USRP) USB board.

[edit] History
The project was started by Harvind Samra[1] and David A. Burgess.[2] An aim of the project is to reduce the cost of GSM service provision in rural areas and the developing world to below $1 per month per subscriber. The original developers working on the project have access to licensed test spectrum, but have previously faced legal disputes (now resolved) over earlier related work[3][4]meaning that some of the lower-level GSM code is being rewritten.

[edit] Platforms

A large number of experimental installations (presumably run without licenses) proved that OpenBTS ran on extremely low overhead platforms including even some CDMA handsets (making a GSM gateway to a CDMA network). Chris Paget reported [1] that an ARMEL device (a Droid) could "act as a base station to which handsets can connect; the Droid then connects calls using an on-board Asterisk server and routes them to the PSTN via SIP over Verizons 3G network." Paget has also shown (in an unrelated event at Defcon) that GSM calls can be intercepted easily - presumably this can be made much easier using OpenBTS. Paget claims that on an architecture with the clock issues taken care of "it should be as simple as dropping 2 files on the SD card and then running one of them as root."

[edit] Field tests

Live tests of OpenBTS have been conducted in the United States in Nevada and northern California. The necessary temporary radio licenses were applied for through Kestrel Signal Processing (KSP)the original authors' consulting organisation firmand granted for a short period of time.

[edit] Burning Man

During the Burning Man festival in August 2008, a week-long live field test was run under special temporary authorization (STA) license WD9XKN.[5][6] Although this test had not been intended to be open to Burning Man attendees in general, a number of individuals in the vicinity succeeded in making real out-going calls after a mis-configured Asterisk PBX installation allowed test calls prefixed with an international code through.[7] The Burning man test successfully connected about 120 phone calls to 95 different numbers in area codes over North America.[7] A second, larger test was run using a 3-sector system at the 2009 Burning Man festival under the STA license WD9XSP, and a 2-sector 3-carrier system was run in 2010.

[edit] Niue
During 2010, an OpenBTS system was permanently installed on the island of Niue and became the first installation to be connected and tested with by telecommunication company. Niue is a very small (in terms of population) country with a population of about 1,700, too small to attract mobile telecommunications providers. The cost structure of OpenBTS suited Niue, which urgently required a mobile phone service but did not have the volume of potential customers to justify buying and supporting a conventional GSM basestation system. In March 2011 the single BTS system was swapped out for a commercial solution from network integrator Challenge Networks based around a commercial system from vendor Lemko.