CHEE2940: Particle Processing

Lecture 7: Particle Fluid Interactions

This Lecture Covers

Fluid flows
Fluid resistance on particles
Terminal settling velocity of particles

Chee 2940: Particle Fluid Interactions

IMPORTANCE OF PARTICLE-FLUID INTERACTIONS

Are an integral part of many operations in

particle processing.

Examples: - Particle fluidisation

- Particle settling by gravity
- Counter-current flow of fluid
- Balancing of particle settling by fluid flow
causes the fluidisation of particles
- Applications: drying
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7.1 FLUID FLOW

What is a fluid?

A continuous substance
- whose molecules move freely past one
another, and
- that has the tendency to assume the shape
of its container.

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Gas is a fluid having
- neither independent shape nor volume, and
- being able to expand indefinitely
(Gases have low density and viscosity, and
high expansion/compression)
Liquid is a fluid having
- no fixed shape but
- a fixed volume
(Liquids have low compressibility)
Order of inter-atomic/molecular forces:
Solid > liquid > gas.
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Types of fluid flows

1) Laminar flows: smooth motion in layers

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 Laminar flow
in a pipe:
- parallel fluid layers
- Profiling of velocity
from the wall surface.
Laminar flow
around a particle:
- Fluid layers are
compressed at the
surface but
- stil slide over one
another.

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2) Turbulent flow: velocity fluctuates with time
and position

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 Turbulent flow Turbulent flow
in a pipe around a particle

Fluid molecules move freely and chaotically.

Turbulence is decribed by statistical theories.

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Reynolds number: Re

Fluid flow can be either laminar or turbulent.

Laminar flow is governed by viscous force.

Turbulent flow is dominated by inertia.

The ratio of inertial to viscous forces determines

the flow type, and is called the Reynolds
number

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 Inertial force ρ DW
Re = =
Viscous force µ

ρ … fluid density
µ … fluid viscosity
W … fluid characteristic velocity
D … characteristic length
(e.g. diameter of a pipe or a particle).

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 Typical values of Reynolds number
−2
Colloids ~ 1×10 (laminar flow)
2
Blood flow in brain ~ 1×10 (laminar flow)
3
Blood flow in vein ~ 1×10 (turbulent flow)
6
Swimmers ~ 4×10
7
Aircraft ~ 1×10
8
Blue whale ~ 3×10
9
A large ship ~ 5×10 .

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Chee 2940: Particle Fluid Interactions 11
 Flows high Re are turbulent.

Flows with low Re are laminar.

Onset of turbulent flows

3
Pipe flow: Re ~ 2×10
Flow around a particle: Re ~ 500

Special Re flows:
Low Re flows = creeping flows
Non-viscous flows = potential flows
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 Governing Equations for Fluid Flows

- Continuity equation: describes the mass

balance. G
div ρW = 0 ( )
- Navier-Stokes equations: describes the
momentum balances.
G G
∂W G G P µ G
∂t   
ρ ρ
( )
+ W ⋅ grad W = − grad   + div  grad W  +
  ( ) ρ
g
 
  

 N
inertial force
pressure gradient viscous force gravity

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The Bernoulli equation can be used to describe
the inviscid flow.

ρV 2
+ ρ gh + p = constant
2
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 When the flow velocity is zero (i.e. statics), the
fluid is governed by the laws of fluid statics.
- Static pressure is isotropic
- Hydrostatic pressure: P = ρ gh
- Atmospheric pressure (Maxwell-Boltzman
law):
ρ ( h ) = ρ ( 0 ) exp  − gh / ( k BT ) 
where h … distance from the Earth surface.
kBT… thermal energy.
- Buoyancy
- Liquid-fluid free surface: surface tension &
capillary effect (Young-Laplace equation).
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7.2 RESISTANCE ON SPHERES

Stokes Law
- Applied for low Re # (low particle-fluid relative
approach velocity, small size, or high viscosity)
- Re < 0.3
- Drag force
Fd = 3πµ DW

Drag Coefficient, Cd
Experiments show that drag force is
proportional to
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 2
- Square of particle velocity, W
- Density of fluid, ρ
- Particle area, Ap, projected to its path

Scaling law gives the definition of the drag

coefficient
Fd
Cd =
Ap ρW / 2
2

Factor 2 is used for convenience.

For spheres: Ap = π R = π D / 4
2 2

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Drag Coefficient and Stokes Law

Fd 3πµ DW 24 µ
Cd = = =
Ap ρW / 2 π D
2 2
D ρW
ρW / 2
2

24
Cd =
Re

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Newton Law (for high Re #)
- Big particles move very fast in fluid
- Flow is turbulent => independent of viscosity
- Drag force is independent of viscosity
2
- Drag force is proportional to W , ρ, and Ap.
- Drag coefficient is constant and ~ 0.44.

Cd = 0.44

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Drag Coefficient for Intermediate Re #
( 0.3 < Re < 500)

Both viscosity and inertia are important.

Experimental data are shown below.

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 24
Empirical correlation: Cd =
Re
(1 + 0.15Re )
0.687

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7.3 SETTLING OF SINGLE SPHERES
Fd
- The force of gravity (particle
Fb
weight), Fg, pulls the particle
down.
- The drag force and buoyancy
Particle resist gravity.
- The particle initially
accelerates, then reaches a
steady velocity when a force
Fg
balance is reached.
Steady velocity = terminal settling velocity.
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 Force balance at the steady settling:

Gravity = Buoyancy + Drag

Fg = Fb + Fd

ρ f Cd Ap ρ f (VT )
2

mg = mg +
ρs 2

VT…terminal settling velocity of particle

m…particle mass; g…acceleration due to gravity
ρf …fluid density; ρs …solid density
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 FOR SPHERES

πD 2

π D ρs π D ρs
3
ρ C d 3 ρ f V 2

g= g f
+ 4
6 6 ρs 2

2
4 Dg ( ρ s − ρ f )
CdVT =
3ρ f

We need Cd to calculate the settling velocity!

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Stokes Law for Fine Spheres

24 24 µ
Cd = =
Re ρ f DVT
24 µ2 2
4 Dg ( ρ s − ρ f )
CdVT = VT =
ρ f DVT 3ρ f

D g ( ρs − ρ f )
2

VT = for Re < 0.3

18µ

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Newton Law for Big Spheres

Cd = 0.44

2 2
4 Dg ( ρ s − ρ f )
CdVT = 0.44VT =
3ρ f

ρs − ρ f
VT = 1.74 Dg for Re > 500
ρf

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Spheres with Intermediate Re #

24 ρ f DVT
Cd =
Re
(1 + 0.15Re ); Re =
0.687

µ
24 µ 4 Dg ( ρ s − ρ f )
2
CdVT =
ρ f DVT
(1 + 0.15Re )VT =
0.687 2

3ρ f
D g ( ρs − ρ f )
2

VT =
18µ (1 + 0.15Re ) 0.687

Iteration is needed to find VT!

(Iteration can be done in Excel with VBA)
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 NON-SPHERICAL PARTICLES

ρ f Cd Ap ρ f (VT )
2

mg = mg +
ρs 2

We can measure m, densities, volume, and

surface area. Cd is given as a function of Re #
and (volume) sphericity.

Trial-and-error approach is used to calculate VT

since Cd and Re are dependent on VT.

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 Cubes
Spheres

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One method of avoiding trial and error is to
use a modified form of the drag chart.
Using volume-equivalent diameter, Dv, we obtain

ρ f DvVT 4 Dv g ( ρ s − ρ f )
and Cd (VT ) =
2
Re =
µ 3ρ f

Eliminating velocity gives

4 g ( ρs − ρ f ) ρ f
( Dv )
3
Cd Re = 2

3µ 2

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The modified drag chart gives correlation for
2
CdRe as a function of Re.

Knowing the physical parameters of the particle

2
we can calculate CdRe and then determine Re
from the modified chart and the velocity from the
Re #.

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 Cd/Re

CdRe2 Cd/Re

Re

CdRe2
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The principal can be applied for determining the
particle size if terminal velocity is known.
- Eliminating the diameter gives
 gµ 4  ρs − ρ f
 2 Cd / Re = 
V 
3 ρf 2
 T
- The modified drag chart gives correlation for
Cd/Re as a function of Re.
- Knowing the particle velocity and other
parameters we can calculate Cd/Re and then
determine Re from the modified chart and the
diameter from the Re #.
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 WALL EFFECT

Settling velocity in confined space, such as a

small pipe, is smaller than the velocity in infinite
fluid, due to the wall effect.

The wall effect is accounted for by the correction

factor, fw.

VT ,confined = f wVT

fw depends on Re and distance from the wall.

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 D
Faxen: f w = 1 − 2.1  for Re ≤ 0.3 and D/x ≤ 0.1
x
2
D 3 4
Munroe: f w = 1 −   for 10 ≤ Re ≤ 10 and
x
0.1 ≤ D/x ≤ 0.8.

x … distance between the particle and the pipe

surface.

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 ACCELERATION OF PARTICLES

At the beginning, particles do not reach the

steady settling.

The inertial effect arises due to the unbalance of

gravity, buoyancy, and drag force.

Simple equation for unsteady settling of spheres:

Inertia = Gravity − Buoyancy − Drag

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 dV ρ f Cd Ap ρ f V 2

m = mg − mg −
dt ρs 2

For fine spheres:

3
3
π D ρ s dV 3
π D ρs g πD ρf g
= − − 3πµ DV
6 dt 6 6

Scaling and re-arranging gives

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 dV
τ + V = VStokes
dt
VStokes… terminal settling velocity by Stokes law
2
D ρ
τ= … particle relaxation time
18µ

Particle transient velocity

  t 
V (t ) = VStokes 1 − exp  − 
  τ 
Particle acceleration decays exponentially.
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τ is a measure for the tendency of particles reach
equilibrium.
- At t = τ, 2τ and 3τ the transient velocity is
within 63, 87, and 95% of the settling velocity,
respectively.
3
- For D = 1mm, ρ = 2500 kg/m , we obtain τ =
0.14s in water (µ = 0.001) and τ = 13.9s in air (µ
= 0.00001).
Terminal velocity in water will be attained almost
instantaneously. Terminal velocity in air requires
a longer time, depending on the particle size and
density.
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 SOME APPLICATIONS OF PARTICLE
HYDRODYNAMICS

1) Particle settling:
- Coal and mineral processing industry
(gravity separation)
- Dewatering industry (hindered settling)
- Water treatment (particle separation)

2) Viscosity of suspension:

Drag around spheres increases viscosity of a

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fluid. The more spheres, the more drag and
higher suspension viscosity.

Einstein prediction (1906):

µ suspension = µ fluid (1 + 2.5ε )

ε … volume fraction of particles

Volume of particles
ε=
Total volume of particles & fluid

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