MATH2310 SEMESTER 1, 2006 (ODE’S STRAND): WORKED

EXAMPLES

AIDAN SIMS

1. First order DEs

1.1. First order separable.

dy
Example 1.1. Solve dx
= 3x2 ey .
1
Answer: Separable: ey
dy = 3x2 dx, and so
Z Z
−y
e dy = 3x2 dx ⇐⇒ −e−y = x3 + C

⇐⇒ −y = ln(−x3 − C)
⇐⇒ y = − ln(−x3 − C).
 Example 1.1
dy
Example 1.2. Solve dx
= 2xy + 12y.
dy
Answer: Separable: dx = 2y(x + 6), and so
Z Z
1
dy = x + 6 dx provided y 6= 0
2y
1 1
⇐⇒ ln |2y| = x2 + 6x + C provided y 6= 0
2 2
x2 +12x+2C
⇐⇒ |2y| = e provided y 6= 0
2 +12x
⇐⇒ 2y = Aex
where A = ±e2C is an arbitrary nonzero constant.  Example 1.2
dy xy+3x
Example 1.3. Solve dx
= x2 +1
, y(3) = 1.
Answer: Separable:
xy + 3x x(y + 3) x
2
= 2 = 2 (y + 3).
Rx + 1 x +1 x +1
Consequently y+3 dy = x2x+1 dx provided y 6= −3. The left-hand integral is ln |y + 3|.
R 1

For the right-hand integral, let u := x2 +1 so that du := 2x dx. By variable substitution,

Z 1
du
Z
x 1 1
2
dx = 2
= ln |u| + C = ln(x2 + 1) + C.
x +1 u 2 2
Date: May 18, 2006.
1
2 AIDAN SIMS

Consequently,
1 1 2
ln |y + 3| = ln(x2 + 1) + C ⇐⇒ |y + 3| = e 2 ln(x +1)+C
2 √
⇐⇒ y + 3 = A x2 + 1
√
⇐⇒ y = A x2 + 1 − 3
C
p±e is an arbitrary
where A = √ nonzero constant. Now use the initial value y(3)
4 4
√ = 1. So
1+3 = A (3 + 1) = 10A, and so A = 10 , and the solution is y(x) = 10 x2 + 1−3.
2 √ √

 Example 1.3

1.2. First order linear.

dy
Example 1.4. Solve dx
+ 3x2 y = x2 .
R
3x2 dx 3
Answer: Integrating factor. I(x) = e = ex . So
dy
0
I(x) + 3x2 I(x)y = x2 I(x) ⇐⇒ I(x)y = x2 I(x)
dx
3 3
⇐⇒ ex y)0 = x2 ex
Z
x3 3
⇐⇒ e y = x2 ex .

Substitute u := x3 so that du = 3x2 dx and then

Z Z
2 x3 1 u 1 1 3
x e dx = e du = eu + C = ex + C.
3 3 3
3 3 3
Hence ex y = 31 ex + C and hence y = 1
3
+ Ce−x .  Example 1.4

dy
Example 1.5. Solve x dx − 3y = x4 .
dy −3
Answer: Integrating factor: provided x 6= 0 we have dx
+ x
y = x3 . Hence
R −3 1
I(x) = e x = e−3 ln(x) = (eln(x) )−3 = .
x3
Hence, for x 6= 0,
dy −3
I(x) + I(x)y = I(x)x3 ⇐⇒ (I(x)y)0 = I(x)x3
dx x Z
⇐⇒ I(x)y = I(x)x3 dx
Z
y
⇐⇒ 3 = 1 dx
x
y
⇐⇒ 3 = x + C
x
⇐⇒ y = x4 + Cx3 .
 Example 1.5
 MATH2310 SEMESTER 1, 2006 (ODE’S STRAND): WORKED EXAMPLES 3

dy ex x
Example 1.6. Solve dx
+ ex +1
y = ex +1
where y(0) = 1.
R ex
Answer: Integrating factor: I(x) = e ex +1 dx . Put u := ex + 1 so that du = ex dx. The
variable substitution gives
ex
Z Z
du
x
dx = = ln |u| = ln |ex + 1| = ln(ex + 1).
e +1 u
x +1)
Hence I(x) = eln(e = ex + 1. We have
dy ex x
0 x
I(x) + x I(x)y = I(x) x ⇐⇒ I(x)y = I(x) x
dx e + 1 e +1 Z e +1
x
⇐⇒ I(x)y = I(x) x dx
e +1
Z
x
⇐⇒ (ex + 1)y = (ex + 1) x dx
e +1
Z
⇐⇒ (ex + 1)y = x dx
1 2
2
x +C
⇐⇒ y = .
ex + 1
1 2
0 +C C
Now use the initial value: y(0) = 1 gives 1 = 2e0 +1 = 2
and hence C = 2. Hence the
solution is
1 2
x +2
y(x) = 2 x .
e +1
 Example 1.6

2. The Existence/Uniqueness theorem

2.1. Largest intervals: first order linear.

Example 2.1. What is the largest interval on which the E/U theorem guarantees a unique
solution to y 0 + cot(x)y = 3x5 , y(2) = 5.
Answer: First order linear — E/U applies where cot(x) and 3x5 are continuous. 3x5 is
continuous everywhere. cot(x) = cos(x)
sin(x)
is continuous where sin(x) 6= 0 so where x 6= kπ.
Since 2 × 0 × π < 2 < 2 × 1 × π, the desired interval is (0, π).  Example 2.1

Example 2.2. What is the largest interval on which the E/U theorem guarantees a unique
solution to xy 0 + sin(x)y = sin(x), y(0) = 1.

Answer: Rearranging gives y 0 + sin(x)

x
y = sin(x)
x
wherever x 6= 0. First order linear — E/U
applies where x 6= 0 (from the previous sentence) and additionally, sin(x) x
is continuous.
sin(x)
x
is continuous for x 6= 0. Since this does not include the initial point x = 0, y = 1
the E/U theorem does not apply.  Example 2.2
4 AIDAN SIMS

2.2. General application of the E/U theorem.

Example 2.3. Does the E/U theorem apply to the initial value problem y 0 −3y 2 = sin(xy),
y(0) = 1?

Answer: Rearranging gives y 0 = f (x, y) where f (x, y) = sin(xy) + 3y 2 . So E/U applies

where f and ∂f
∂y
are continuous. f is continuous everywhere. ∂f∂y
= x cos(xy) + 6y is also
continuous everywhere. So E/U applies everywhere, and particularly it applies at (0, 1)
and hence it does apply to the given IVP.  Example 2.3

1
Example 2.4. Does the E/U theorem apply to the initial value problem y 0 − 3y 2 =
sin(xy), y(0) = 0?
1
Answer: Rearranging gives y 0 = f (x, y) where f (x, y) = sin(xy) + 3y 2 . So E/U applies
1
where f and ∂f
∂y
are continuous. f is continuous everywhere. ∂f ∂y
= x cos(xy) + 32 y − 2 is
also continuous for y 6= 0. So E/U applies for y 6= 0. But y = 0 at the initial value
point, so E/U does not apply to the IVP.  Example 2.4

3. Euler’s Method

Example 3.1. Use Euler’s method with two steps to calculate y(3) if y(1) = 0 and
dy
dx
= 2x2 (y − 1).

Answer: Since the total x change is 3 − 1 = 2, with two steps, the step size h = 1. So

y1 = y0 + hy 0 (x0 , y0 ) = 0 + 1(2 12 (0 − 1)) = 0 + −2 = −2.

Thus (x1 , y1 ) = (2, −2) and

y2 = y1 + hy 0 (x1 , y1 ) = −2 + 1(2 22 (−2 − 1)) = −2 + −24 = −26.

So y(3) ' −26.  Example 3.1

Example 3.2. Use Euler’s method with two steps to calculate y(7) if y(3) = 1 and
dy √
dx
= 12 (x − 3) y.

Answer: Since the total x change is 7 − 3 = 4, with two steps, the step size h = 2. So
1 √
y1 = y0 + hy 0 (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 2( (3 − 3) 1) = 1 + 0 = 1.
2
Thus (x1 , y1 ) = (5, 1) and
1 √
y2 = y1 + hy 0 (x1 , y1 ) = 1 + 2( (5 − 3) 1) = 1 + 2 = 3.
2
So y(7) ' 3.  Example 3.2
 MATH2310 SEMESTER 1, 2006 (ODE’S STRAND): WORKED EXAMPLES 5

Example 3.3. Use Euler’s method with two steps to calculate y(−2) if y(0) = 0 and
dy
dx
= x + y + 1.
Answer: Since the total x change is −2 − 0 = −2, with two steps, the step size h = −1.
So
y1 = y0 + hy 0 (x0 , y0 ) = 0 + −1(0 + 0 + 1) = 0 + −1 = −1.
Thus (x1 , y1 ) = (−1, −1) and
y2 = y1 + hy 0 (x1 , y1 ) = −1 + −1(−1 + −1 + 1) = −1 + 1 = 0.
So y(−2) ' 0.  Example 3.3

Example 3.4. Use Euler’s method with two steps to calculate y(2) if y(4) = 7 and
dy 2x2
dx
= y+1 + 1.
Answer: Since the total x change is 2 − 4 = −2, with two steps, the step size h = −1.
So
2 42
y1 = y0 + hy 0 (x0 , y0 ) = 7 + −1( + 1) = 7 + −5 = 2.
7+1
Thus (x1 , y1 ) = (3, 2) and
232
y2 = y1 + hy 0 (x1 , y1 ) = 2 + −1( + 1) = 2 + −7 = −5.
2+1
So y(2) ' −5.  Example 3.4

4. Basic Laplace Transforms

4.1. Computing Laplace transforms.

Example 4.1. Compute the Laplace transform of et + 5t2 .
Answer:
1 2! 1 10
L{et + 5t2 }(s) = L{et }(s) + 5L{t2 }(s) = +5 3 = + 3.
s−1 s s−1 s
 Example 4.1

Example 4.2. Compute L{e2t sin(3t) + 5 cos(t)}.

Answer:
L{e2t sin(3t) + 5 cos(t)}(s) = L{e2t sin(3t)} + 5L{cos(t)}
3 s
= 2 2
+5 2
(s − 2) + 3 s + 12
3 5s
= 2 + 2 .
s − 4s + 13 s + 1
 Example 4.2
6 AIDAN SIMS

4.2. Computing inverse Laplace transforms.

Example 4.3. Find L−1 { s32 + 5

s+1
+ 2
s2 +2s+5
}(t).

Answer:
3 5 2
L−1 { 2
+ + 2 }(t)
s s + 1 s + 2s + 5
3 5 2
= L−1 { 2 }(t) + L−1 { }(t) + L−1 { 2 }(t)
s s+1 s + 2s + 5
1 1 2
= 3L−1 { 2 }(t) + 5L1 { }(t) + L−1 { }(t)
s s+1 (s + 1)2 + 22
= 3t + 5e−t + e−t sin(2t).

 Example 4.3

Example 4.4. Find L−1 { (s−1)

1
3 +
3s+8
s2 +4
}(t).

Answer:
1 3s + 8
L−1 { 3
+ 2 }(t)
(s − 1) s +4
1 3s + 8
= L−1 { 3
}(t) + L−1 { 2 }(t)
(s − 1) s +4
1 2 s 2
= L−1 { 3
}(t) + 3L−1 { 2 2
}(t) + 4L−1 { 2 }(t)
2 (s − 1) s +2 s + 22
1
= et t2 + 3 cos 2t + 4 sin(2t).
2
 Example 4.4

4.3. Laplace transforms for derivatives.

Example 4.5. If y 00 + 6y 0 + 8y = e2t and y(0) = 3, y 0 (0) = 1, compute L{y}(s).

Answer: Compute the Laplace transforms of both sides.

L{y 00 + 6y 0 + 8y}(s) = L{y 00 }(s) + 6L{y 0 }(s) + 8L{y}(s)

= (s2 L{y}(s) − sy(0) − y 0 (0)) + 6(sL{y}(s) − y(0)) + 8L{y}(s)
= (s2 L{y}(s) − 3s − 1) + 6(sL{y}(s) − 3) + 8L{y}(s)
= (s2 + 6s + 8)L{y}(s) − 3s − 19

while on the other hand

1
L{e2t }(s) = .
s−2
 MATH2310 SEMESTER 1, 2006 (ODE’S STRAND): WORKED EXAMPLES 7

Equating these two quantities we can then calculate:

1
(s2 + 6s + 8)L{y}(s) − 3s − 19 =
s−2
1
⇐⇒ (s + 2)(s + 4)L{y}(s) = + 3s + 19
s−2
1 + 3s(s − 2) + 19(s − 2)
⇐⇒ (s + 2)(s + 4)L{y}(s) =
s−2
2
3s + 13s − 37
⇐⇒ L{y}(s) = .
(s − 2)(s + 2)(s + 4)
 Example 4.5

Example 4.6. If y 00 + −3y 0 + 3y = et sin(3t) and y(0) = −2, y 0 (0) = 2, compute L{y}(s).
Answer: Compute the Laplace transforms of both sides.
L{y 00 − 3y 0 + 3y}(s) = L{y 00 }(s) − 3L{y 0 }(s) + 3L{y}(s)
= (s2 L{y}(s) − sy(0) − y 0 (0)) − 3(sL{y}(s) − y(0)) + 3L{y}(s)
= (s2 L{y}(s) − (−2)s − 2) − 3(sL{y}(s) − (−2)) + 3L{y}(s)
= (s2 − 3s + 3)L{y}(s) + 2s − 8
while on the other hand
3 3
L{et sin(3t) }(s) = 2 2
= 2 .
(s − 1) + 3 s − 2s + 10
Equating these two quantities we can then calculate:
3
(s2 − 3s + 3)L{y}(s) + 2s − 8 = 2
s − 2s + 10
3
⇐⇒ (s2 − 3s + 3)L{y}(s) = 2 − 2s + 8
s − 2s + 10
3 − 2s(s2 − 2s + 10) + 8(s2 − 2s + 10)
⇐⇒ (s2 − 3s + 3)L{y}(s) =
s−2
3 2
−2s + 12s − 36s + 83
⇐⇒ L{y}(s) = 2 .
(s − 3s + 3)(s2 − 2s + 10)
 Example 4.6

5. Step Functions and Laplace Transforms

5.1. Expressing functions using step functions.

Example 5.1. Express the following in terms of step functions:

7t + 5
 if 0 ≤ t < 3
f (t) = 3 sin(t) − 8t if 3 ≤ t < 5
e5t−1

if 5 ≤ t.
8 AIDAN SIMS

Answer: Convert cases to differences of step functions:

f (t) = (7t + 5) + u3 (t)((3 sin(t) − 8t) − (7t + 5)) + u5 (t)((e5t−1 ) − (3 sin(t) − 8t))
= 7t + 5 + u3 (t)(3 sin(t) − 15t − 5) + u5 (t)(e5t−1 − 3 sin(t) + 8t).
 Example 5.1

Example 5.2. Express the following in terms of step functions:


2
t − 2t + 1
 if 0≤t<2
3t2 − 5

if 2≤t<3
f (t) =

 0 if 3≤t<4

6t − 9 if 4 ≤ t.


Answer: Convert cases to differences of step functions:

f (t) = (t2 − 2t + 1) + u2 (t)((3t2 − 5) − (t2 − 2t + 1))
+ u3 (t)((0) − (3t2 − 5)) + u4 (t)((6t − 9) − (0))
= t2 − 2t + 1 + u2 (t)(2t2 + 2t − 6) + u3 (t)(5 − 3t2 ) + u4 (t)(6t − 9).
 Example 5.2

5.2. Laplace transforms and step functions.

Example 5.3. Compute L{u1 (t)e3t sin(4t) − u3 (t)}(s).
Answer:
L{u1 (t)e3t sin(4t) − u3 (t)}(s)
= L{u1 (t)e3t sin(4t)}(s) − L{u3 (t)1}(s)
= e−1s L{e3(t+1) sin(4(t + 1))}(s) − e−3s L{1(t + 3)}(s)
= e−1s L e3 e3t sin(4t) cos(4) + cos(4t) sin(4) (s) − e−3s L{1}(s).


where we have used the multiple angle formula sin(a + b) = sin(a) cos(b) + cos(a) sin(b)
to expand sin(4t + 4). Now using the linearity of the Laplace transform, we have
L{u1 (t)e3t sin(4t) − u3 (t)}(s)
= e−1s e3 cos(4)L{e3t sin(4t)}(s) + e3 sin(4)L{e3t cos(4t)}(s) − e−3s L{1}(s).
4 3t
Now use the Laplace transform table: L{sin(4t)}(s) = s2 +4 2 , so L{e sin(4t)}(s) =
4 s 3t s−3
(s−3)2 +16
. Likewise, L{cos(4t)}(s) = s2 +42 , and so L{e cos 4t}(s) = (s−3)2 +16 . That is,

L{u1 (t)e3t sin(4t) − u3 (t)}(s)

4 s−3
= e−1s e3 cos(4) 3
− se−3s .


+ e sin(4)
s2 − 6s + 25 s2 − 6s + 25
 Example 5.3
 MATH2310 SEMESTER 1, 2006 (ODE’S STRAND): WORKED EXAMPLES 9

Example 5.4. Compute L{u3 (t)(t2 − 3t) + u5 (t)(sin(t) − t2 ) + u7 (t)e4t }(s).

Answer:
L{u3 (t)(t2 − 3t) + u5 (t)(sin(t) − t2 ) + u7 (t)e4t }(s)
= L{u3 (t)(t2 − 3t)}(s) + L{u5 (t)(sin(t) − t2 )}(s) + L{u7 (t)e4t }(s)
= e−3s L{(t + 3)2 − 3(t + 3)}(s) + e−5s L{sin(t + 5) − (t + 5)2 }(s)
+ e−7s L{e4(t+7) }(s)
= e−3s L{t2 + 3t}(s) + e−5s L{sin(t) cos(5) + cos(t) sin(5) − t2 − 10t − 25}(s)
+ e−7s L{e28 e4t }(s)
using multiple angles: sin(a + b) = sin(a) cos(b) + cos(a) sin(b).
2! 1!
1 s 2! 1! 0!

= e−3s 3 + 3 2 + e−5s cos(5) 2 + sin(5) 2 − 3 − 10 2 − 25 1
s s s +1 s +1 s s s
1
+ e−7s e28
s−4
2(e−3s − e−5s ) 3e−3s − 10e−5s 25e−5s e−5s (sin(5)s + cos(5)) e−7s e28
= + − + + .
s3 s2 s s2 + 1 s−4
 Example 5.4

5.3. Inverse Laplace transforms and step functions.

 −2s e−4s
Example 5.5. Compute L−1 es+7 + s2 +8s+20

(t).
Answer:
 e−2s e−4s
L−1

+ 2 (t)
s + 7 s + 8s + 20
 e−2s e−4s
= L−1 (t) + L−1 2

(t)
s+7 s + 8s + 20
 e−2s e−4s
= L−1 (t) + L−1

2 2
(t)
s+7 (s + 4) + 2
1 1 2
= L−1 e−2s (t) + L−1 e−4s

2 2
(t)
s+7 2 (s + 4) + 2
1
= L−1 e−2s L{e−7t }(s) (t) + L−1 e−4s L{e−4t sin(2t)}(s) (t)
 
2
1
= u2 (t){e−7t }(t − 2) + u4 (t){e−4t sin 2t}(t − 4)
2
1
= u2 (t)e−7(t−2) + u4 (t)e−4(t−4) sin(2(t − 4))
2
1
= u2 (t)e−7t+14 + u4 (t) e−4t+16 sin(2t − 8).
2
 Example 5.5
10 AIDAN SIMS

Example 5.6. Compute L−1 e−7t s2 +2s+2

s+3

(t).

Answer:
s+3 s+1 2
L−1 e−7t −1
  −7t
(t) = L e +
s2 + 2s + 2 (s + 1)2 + 12 (s + 1)2 + 12
= L−1 {e−7t L{e−t cos(t)}(s) + 2L{e−t sin(t)}(s)}(t)
= u7 (t){e−t cos(t) + 2e−t sin(t)}(t − 7)
= u7 (t) e−(t−7) cos(t − 7) + 2e−(t−7) sin(t − 7)

= u7 (t)e7−t (cos(t − 7) + sin(t − 7)).

 Example 5.6

6. Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

6.1. Wronskians.

Example 6.1. Decide if the following are linearly independent: {x2 , sin(2x), 2x − 1}.

Answer: Calculate the Wronskian:

 
x2 sin(2x) 2x − 1
W (t) = det  (x2 )0 (sin(2x))0 (2x − 1)0 
(x2 )00 (sin(2x))00 (2x − 1)00
 2 
x sin(2x) 2x − 1
= det  2x 2 cos(2x) 2 
2 −4 sin(2x) 0
   
2 2 cos(2x) 2 2x 2
= x det − sin(2x) det
−4 sin(2x) 0 2 0
 
2x 2 cos(2x)
+ (2x − 1) det
2 −4 sin(2x)
= x2 (0 − (−8 sin(2x))) − sin(2x)(0 − 4) + (2x − 1)(−8x sin(2x) − 4 cos(2x))
= 8x2 sin(2x) + 4 sin(2x) − 16x2 sin(2x) + 8x sin(2x) − 8x cos(2x) + 4 cos(2x)
= (−8x2 + 8x + 4) sin(2x) + (4 − 8x) cos(2x)

Putting x = 0 into the Wronskian gives 4 sin(0) + 4 cos(0) = 4 6= 0, so yes they are
linearly independent.  Example 6.1

 2
Example 6.2.
Determine whether the following are linearly independent: 6x + 12, (x +
2
1) , 2x − 1 .
 MATH2310 SEMESTER 1, 2006 (ODE’S STRAND): WORKED EXAMPLES 11

Answer: Calculate the Wronskian:

6x2 + 12 (x + 1)2
2x − 1
 
0
W (t) =  (6x2 + 12)0 (x + 1)2
(2x − 1)0 
00
(6x2 + 12)00 (x + 1)2 (2x − 1)00
 2 
6x + 12 (x + 1)2 2x − 1
=  12x 2(x + 1) 2 
12 2 0
   
2 2(x + 1) 2 2 12x 2
= (6x + 12) det − (x + 1) det
2 0 12 0
 
12x 2(x + 1)
+ (2x − 1) det
12 2
= (6x2 + 12)(0 − 4) − (x + 1)2 (0 − 24) + (2x − 1)(24x − 24(x + 1))
= −4(6x2 + 12) + 24(x2 + 2x + 1) − 24(2x − 1)
= −24x2 − 48 + 24x2 + 48x + 24 − 48x + 24
≡ 0.

So the Wronskian is equal to the zero function, which means no they are not linearly
independent.  Example 6.2

Example 6.3. Can the functions {sin(x), cos(x), ex } be a fundamental set of solutions to
any third order constant coefficients homogeneous linear ODE?

Answer: Since there are three functions and the DE is to be third order, the answer is
“yes” if they are linearly independent, and “no” if they are linearly dependent. So we
check the Wronskian:
 
sin(x) cos(x) ex
W (x) = det  cos(x) − sin(x) ex 
− sin(x) − cos(x) ex
= sin(x) − sin(x)ex − ex (− cos(x))

− cos(x) cos(x)ex − ex (− sin(x))

+ ex cos(x)(− cos(x)) − (− sin(x))(− sin(x))

= ex sin(x) cos(s) − sin2 (x) − cos2 (x) − cos(x) sin(x) − cos2 (x) − sin2 (x)

= −2ex .

Since this is not equal to zero for any value of x (in particular, if x = 0 the Wronskian
is equal to 2), the functions are linearly independent and so the answer is yes these
functions could be a fundamental set of solutions to a constant coefficients 3rd order
linear homogeneous DE.  Example 6.3
12 AIDAN SIMS

6.2. Constant coefficient homogeneous.

Example 6.4. Find a general solution to y 00 − 5y 0 + 6y = 0.
Answer: The characteristic polynomial is r2 − 5r + 6 = (r − 3)(r − 2), so the f.s.s. is
{e3x , e2x } and the solution is y(x) = Ae3x + Be2x .  Example 6.4

Example 6.5. Find a general solution to y 000 − 7y 00 = 0.

Answer: Characteristic polynomial: r3 − 7r2 = r2 (r − 7). So f.s.s. is {e0x , xe0x , e7x } =
{1, x, e7x }. Hence the solution is y(x) = A + Bx + Ce7x .  Example 6.5

Example 6.6. Solve the IVP y 00 − 2y 0 + y = 0, y(0) = 1, y 0 (0) = 2.

Answer: The characteristic polynomial is r2 −2r+1 = (r−1)2 giving y(x) = Aex +Bxex .
Hence 1 = y(0) = Ae0 + b0e0 = A. Now y 0 (x) = Aex + Bex + Bxex , and so 2 = y 0 (0) =
Ae0 + Be0 + B0e0 = 1 + B and so B = 1 as well. So the solution is y(x) = ex + xex .
 Example 6.6

Example 6.7. Solve the IVP y 00 + 4y + 5 = 0, y(0) = 0, y 0 (0) = 1.

Answer: The characteristic polynomial is r2 + 4r + 5 = (r + 2)2 + 12 , giving y(x) =
Ae−2x sin(1x) + Be−2x cos(1x). Now 0 = y(0) = Ae0 sin(0) + Be0 cos(0) = B and so
y(x) = Ae−2x sin(x). Hence y 0 (x) = −2Ae−2x sin(x) + Ae−2x cos(x), and so 1 = y 0 (0) =
−2Ae0 sin(0) + Ae0 cos(0) = A. Thus the solution is y(x) = e−2x sin(x).
 Example 6.7

6.3. Undetermined coefficients.

Example 6.8. Find a general solution for y 00 − 5y 0 + 6y = x2 + ex .
Answer: From above, the complementary solution is yc (x) = Ae2x + Be3x . For the
particular solution, guess yp (x) = k1 x2 + k2 x + k3 + k4 ex . Then
yp0 (x) = 2k1 x + k2 + k4 ex
yp00 (x) = 2k1 + k4 ex .
Substituting these into the DE gives
x2 + ex = (2k1 + k4 ex ) − 5(2k1 x + k2 + k4 ex ) + 6(k1 x2 + k2 x + k3 + k4 ex ) = x2 + ex
= 6k1 x2 + (6k2 − 10k1 )x + (2k1 − 5k2 + 6k3 )2k4 ex .
Equating coefficients of x2 gives 6k1 = 1. Now coefficients of x gives 6k2 − 10k1 = 0, so
6k2 = 10k1 = 10
6
= 53 and hence k2 = 18
5
. Now equating constant terms, 2k1 −5k2 +6k3 =
25 2 19 19
0, so 6k3 = 5k2 − 2k1 = 18 − 6 = 18 , and hence k3 = 108 . Finally, equating coefficients
x 1
of e gives 2k4 = 1 so k4 = 2 , and the particular solution is
1 5 19 1
yc (x) = x2 + x + + ex ,
6 18 108 2
1 2 5 19
2x 3x
so yg (x) = yc (x) + yp (x) = Ae + Be + 6 x + 18 x + 108 + 12 ex .  Example 6.8
 MATH2310 SEMESTER 1, 2006 (ODE’S STRAND): WORKED EXAMPLES 13

Example 6.9. Find a general solution for y 000 − 7y 00 = 5.

Answer: As in Example 6.5, the complementary solution is yc (x) = A + Bx + Ce7x . We
want to guess yp (x) = k1 , but this is a solution to the homogeneous DE. Multiplying
by x gives yp (x) = k1 x is still a solution to the homogeneous DE. So we must try
yp (x) = k1 x2 . Then
yp0 (x) = 2k1 x yp00 = 2k1 yp000 = 0.
Substituting these into the DE gives
5
5 = 0 − 7(2k1 ) ⇐⇒ k1 = .
14
5 2 5 2
Hence yp (x) = 14 x and so yg (x) = yc (x) + yp (x) = A + Bx + Ce7x + 14 x.
 Example 6.9
Example 6.10. Solve the IVP y 00 − 2y 0 + y = 3ex , y(0) = 1, y 0 (0) = −1.
Answer: As above the complementary solution is yc (x) = Aex + Bxex . We want to
guess yp (x) = k1 ex , but this is a solution to the homogeneous DE. Multiplying by x
gives yp (x) = ka xex which is also a solution to the homogeneous DE. Hence we guess
yp (x) = k1 x2 ex . Then
yp0 (x) = 2k1 xex + k1 x2 ex = k1 ex (2x + x2 )
yp00 (x) = 2k1 ex + 2k1 xex + 2k1 xex + k1 x2 ex = k1 ex (2 + 4x + x2 ).
Substituting this into the DE gives
3ex = k1 ex (2 + 4x + x2 ) − 2k1 ex (2x + x2 ) + k1 x2 ex
= k1 ex (2 + 4x + x2 − 4x − 2x2 + x2 )
= 2k1 ex .
Equating coefficients gives k1 = 23 and hence yg (x) = yc (x)+yp (x) = Aex +Bxex + 23 x2 ex .
Now use the initial conditions: 1 = y(0) = Ae0 + B0e0 + 23 00 e0 = A. Moreover,
yg0 (x) = Aex +Bex +Bxex + 23 (2x+x2 )ex and so −1 = y 0 (0) = Ae0 +Be0 +B0e0 + 23 (2.0+
02 )e0 = A + B and since A = 1 it follows that B = −2. Hence y(x) = ex − 2xex + 32 x2 ex .
 Example 6.10
7. Fourier series and Fourier coefficients
The following examples of finding the Fourier coefficients of trigonometric functions
are a good indication of what might appear in MATH2310 for Semester 1 2006.
Example 7.1. Find the Fourier coefficients of f (x) = cos2 (x) + sin(4x) cos(4x).
Answer: Since cos(2x) = 2 cos2 (x) − 1, we rearrange to obtain cos2 (x) = 12 (1 + cos(2x)).
Likewise, since sin(8x) = 2 sin(4x) cos(4x), we have sin(4x) cos(4x) = 12 sin(8x). Hence
f (x) = cos2 (x) + sin(4x) cos(4x)
1
= (1 + cos(2x) + sin(8x))
2
1 1 1
= + cos(2x) + sin(8x).
2 2 2
14 AIDAN SIMS

So if the Fourier series for f (x) is

∞
X
f (x) = a0 + an cos(nx) + bn sin(nx),
n=1

then orthogonality of the trigonometric system ensures that a0 = 12 , a2 = 12 , b8 = 12 , and

all other an and bn are equal to 0.  Example 7.1
√
Example 7.2. Find the Fourier coefficients of g(x) = 8sin2 (5x) − 2 2 cos(10x + 3π 4
).
Answer: Since cos(10x) = 1 − 2 sin2 (5x), we can rearrange to obtain sin2 (5x) = 21 (1 −
cos(10x)). Using the multiple-angle formula for cos(α + β) gives
3π 3π 3π 1 1
cos(10x + ) = cos(10x) cos( ) − sin(10x) sin( ) = − √ cos(10x) + √ sin(10x).
4 4 4 2 2
Hence
3π
g(x) = 8sin2 (5x) − cos(10x + )
4
= 4 − 4 cos(10x) − 2 cos(10x) + 2 sin(10x)
= 4 − 6 cos(10x) + 2 sin(10x).
So if the Fourier series of g(x) is
∞
X
g(x) = a0 + an cos(nx) + bn sin(nx),
n=1
then orthogonality of the trigonometric system ensures that a0 = 4, a10 = −6, b10 = 2,
and all other an and bn are equal to 0.  Example 7.2
8. Series solutions
8.1. Finding the recurrence relation. Here are some examples of recurrence re-
lations for series solutions. The first one is more complicated than will appear in
MATH2310 for Semester 1 2006, but it illustrates all the steps.

Example 8.1. If y = ∞ n 2 00 0
P
n=0 an x is a series solution to (x + 2x)y − (3x + 1)y − 7y = 0,
what is the recurrence relation relating the coefficients an ?
Answer: Differentiating gives
∞
X ∞
X
y0 = nan xn−1 and y 00 = n(n − 1)an xn−2 .
n=1 n=2
Substituting into the left-hand side of the DE we obtain
(x2 + 2x)y 00 − (3x + 1)y 0 − 7y
X ∞
= (x2 + 2x) n(n − 1)an xn−2


n=2
∞
X  ∞
X 
− (3x + 1) nan xn−1 − 7 an x n
n=1 n=0
 MATH2310 SEMESTER 1, 2006 (ODE’S STRAND): WORKED EXAMPLES 15

∞
X ∞
X
2 n−2
=x n(n − 1)an x + 2x n(n − 1)an xn−2
n=2 n=2
∞
X ∞
X
− 3x nan xn−1 − 1 nan xn−1
n=1 n=1
∞
X
−7 an x n
n=1
∞
X ∞
X
n
= n(n − 1)an x + 2n(n − 1)an xn−1
n=2 n=2
∞
X X∞ ∞
X
n n−1
+ −3nan x + −nan x + −7an xn .
n=1 n=1 n=1

The first step is to make sure that the bottom index of the sum matches up with the
exponent of x; if the sum involves xn , we want the summation to start at n = 0, if the
sum involves xn−1 we want the summation to begin at n = 1, if the sum involves xn−2 ,
we want the summation starting at n = 2, and so forth; the meta-principle is that the
first term should involve x0 .
This means we have to adjust the first, second, third, fourth and fifth of the sums
above. Do do this, we just add extra zero terms at the beginning. For example (note
that this level of detail would not usually be included, and is just here to indicate what’s
going on) in the first sum,
∞
X ∞
X
n
n(n − 1)an x = 0 + 0 + n(n − 1)an xn
n=2 n=2
∞
X
0 1
= (0)(0 − 1)a0 x + (1)(1 − 1)a1 x + n(n − 1)an xn
n=2
∞
X
= n(n − 1)an xn .
n=0

Doing similar tricks in the second, third and fifth sums we get

(x2 + 2x)y 00 − (3x + 1)y 0 − 7y

X∞ ∞
X
n
= n(n − 1)an x + 2n(n − 1)an xn−1
n=0 n=1
∞
X X∞ ∞
X
+ −3nan xn + −nan xn−1 + −7an xn .
n=0 n=1 n=0

Now we need to fix up the exponent of x in the second and fourth sums. So we substitute
k = n − 1 (that is n = k + 1) in these sums, and k = n in the other three to obtain

(x2 + 2x)y 00 − (3x + 1)y 0 − 7y

16 AIDAN SIMS

∞
X ∞
X
k
= k(k − 1)ak x + 2(k + 1)((k + 1) − 1)ak+1 x(k+1)−1
k=0 k+1=1
∞
X X∞ ∞
X
k (k+1)−1
+ −3kak x + −(k + 1)ak+1 x + −7ak xk
k=0 (k+1)=1 k=0
∞
X ∞
X
= k(k − 1)ak xk + 2k(k + 1)ak+1 xk
k=0 k=0
∞
X X∞ ∞
X
k k
+ −3kak x + −(k + 1)ak+1 x + −7ak xk .
k=0 k=0 k=0

Now we can add everything together term by term and we get

(x2 + 2x)y 00 − (3x + 1)y 0 − 7y

X∞
= k(k − 1)ak xk + 2k(k + 1)ak+1 xk
k=0

+ (−3kak xk ) + (−(k + 1)ak+1 xk ) + (−7ak xk )

∞
X
k(k − 1)ak + 2k(k + 1)ak+1 − 3kak − (k + 1)ak+1 − 7ak xk


=
k=0
X∞
(k(k − 1) − 3k − 7)ak + (2k(k + 1) − (k + 1))ak+1 xk


=
k=0
X∞
k 2 − 4k − 7)ak + (2k 2 + k − 1)ak+1 xk .


=
k=0

Since y is a solution to (x2 + 2x)y 00 − (3x + 1)y
0 − 7y = 0, it follows that each of the
coefficients k 2 − 4k − 7)ak + (2k 2 + k − 1)ak+1 is equal to zero; that is

(k 2 − 4k − 7)ak + (2k 2 + k − 1)ak+1 = 0 ⇐⇒ (2k 2 + k − 1)ak+1 = −(k 2 − 4k − 7)ak

−k 2 + 4k + 7
⇐⇒ ak+1 = ak .
2k 2 + k − 1

 Example 8.1

Example 8.2. If y = ∞ n 2 00 0
P
n=0 an x is a series solution to (x + 2)y − xy − 15y = 0, find
the recurrence relation.

Answer:
∞
X ∞
X
y0 = nan xn−1 and y 00 = n(n − 1)an xn−2 .
n=1 n=2
 MATH2310 SEMESTER 1, 2006 (ODE’S STRAND): WORKED EXAMPLES 17

Hence
(x2 + 2)y 00 + xy 0 − 15y
X∞ ∞
X ∞
X
= (x2 + 2) n(n − 1)an xn−2 − x nan xn−1 − 15 an x n
n=2 n=1 n=0
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
n n−2 n
= n(n − 1)an x + 2n(n − 1)an x − nan x + −15an xn
n=2 n=2 n=1 n=0
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
= n(n − 1)an xn + 2n(n − 1)an xn−2 − nan xn + −15an xn .
n=0 n=2 n=0 n=0
Substitute n = k + 2 or k = n − 2 in the second sum and k = n in the other three:
(x2 + 2)y 00 + xy 0 − 15y
X∞ ∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
k k k
= k(k − 1)ak x + 2(k + 2)(k + 1)ak+2 x − kak x + −15ak xk
k=0 k=0 k=0 k=0
∞
X
k(k − 1)ak + 2(k + 2)(k + 1)ak+2 − kak − 15ak xk


=
k=0
X∞
(k 2 − 2k − 15)ak + 2(k + 2)(k + 1)ak+2 xk .


=
k=0
Since this is a solution to the differential equation, we must have
(k − 2k − 15)ak + 2(k + 2)(k + 1)ak+2 = 0 ⇐⇒ 2(k + 2)(k + 1)ak+2 = −(k − 5)(k + 3)ak
−(k − 5)(k + 3)
⇐⇒ ak+2 = ak
2(k + 2)(k + 1)
for all k.  Example 8.2

Example 8.3. If y = ∞ n 2 00 0
P
n=0 an x is a series solution to (x − 1)y − 3xy + 4y = 0, find
the recurrence relation.
Answer: ∞ ∞
X X
0 n−1 00
y = nan x and y = n(n − 1)an xn−2 .
n=1 n=2
Hence
(x2 − 1)y 00 − 3xy 0 + 4y
X∞ ∞
X ∞
X
2 n−2 n−1
= (x − 1) n(n − 1)an x − 3x nan x +4 an x n
n=2 n=1 n=0
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
= n(n − 1)an xn − n(n − 1)an xn−2 + −3nan xn + 4an xn
n=2 n=2 n=1 n=0
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
= n(n − 1)an xn + n(n − 1)an xn−2 + −3nan xn + 4an xn .
n=0 n=2 n=0 n=0
18 AIDAN SIMS

Substitute n = k + 2 or k = n − 2 in the second sum and k = n in the other three:

(x2 − 1)y 00 − 4xy 0 + 4y

X∞ ∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
= k(k − 1)ak xk + (k + 2)(k + 1)ak+2 xk + −3kak xk + 4ak xk
k=0 k=0 k=0 k=0
∞
X
k(k − 1)ak − (k + 2)(k + 1)ak+2 − 3kak + 4ak xk


=
k=0
∞
X
(k 2 − 4k + 4)ak − (k + 2)(k + 1)ak+2 xk .


=
k=0

Since this is a solution to the differential equation, we must have

(k − 4k + 4)ak − (k + 2)(k + 1)ak+2 = 0 ⇐⇒ (k + 2)(k + 1)ak+2 = (k − 2)2 ak

(k − 2)2
⇐⇒ ak+1 =
(k + 2)(k + 1)

for all k.  Example 8.3

Example 8.4. If y = ∞ n 2 00 0
P
n=0 an x is a series solution to (x + 2x + 1)y + xy − 4y = 0,
find the recurrence relation.

Answer:
∞
X ∞
X
0 n−1 00
y = nan x and y = n(n − 1)an xn−2 .
n=1 n=2

Hence

(x2 + 2x + 1)y 00 + xy 0 − 4y
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
= (x2 + 2x + 1) n(n − 1)an xn−2 + x nan xn−1 − 4 an x n
n=2 n=1 n=0
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
= n(n − 1)an xn + 2n(n − 1)an xn−1 + n(n − 1)an xn−2
n=2 n=2 n=2
∞
X ∞
X
+ nan xn + −4an xn
n=1 n=0
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
= n(n − 1)an xn + 2n(n − 1)an xn−1 + n(n − 1)an xn−2
n=0 n=1 n=2
∞
X ∞
X
+ nan xn + −4an xn .
n=0 n=0
 MATH2310 SEMESTER 1, 2006 (ODE’S STRAND): WORKED EXAMPLES 19

Substitute n = k + 1 or k = n − 1 in the second sum, n = k + 2 or k = n − 2 in the

second sum, and k = n in the other three:
(x2 + 2)y 00 + xy 0 − 4y
X∞ ∞
X ∞
X
k k
= k(k − 1)ak x + 2(k + 1)(k)ak+1 x + (k + 2)(k + 1)ak+2 xk
k=0 k=0 k=0
∞
X ∞
X
+ kak xk + −4ak xk
k=0 k=0
∞
X
k(k − 1)ak + 2k(k + 1)ak+1 + (k + 2)(k + 1)ak+2 + kak − 4ak xk


=
k=0
∞
X
(k 2 − 4)ak + 2k(k + 1)ak+1 + (k + 1)(k + 2)ak+2 xk .


=
k=0

Since this is a solution to the differential equation, we must have

(k 2 − 4)ak + 2k(k + 1)ak+1 + (k + 1)(k + 2)ak+2 = 0
⇐⇒ (k + 1)(k + 2)ak+2 = (4 − k 2 )ak − 2k(k + 1)ak+1
(4 − k 2 )ak − 2k(k + 1)ak+1
⇐⇒ ak+2 =
(k + 1)(k + 2)
for all k.  Example 8.4

8.2. Using the recurrence relation to find the interval of convergence.

Example 8.5. If the coefficients of y = ∞ n n2 +4n−5
P
n=0 an x satisfy an+2 = (n+1)(n+2) an , for which
values of x does the series converge?
Answer: Use the ratio test. Since the recurrence relation relates an+2 to an we check
the ratio of an+2 to an :
 an+2 xn+2 
   
 an+2  2
lim   = lim  x
n→∞  an xn  n→∞  an 
 n2 +4n−5 
 (n+1)(n+2) an  2
 
= lim  x
n→∞  an 
 2 
 n + 4n − 5  2
= lim  x
n→∞ (n + 1)(n + 2) 

n2 + 4n − 5 2
= lim 2 x
n→∞ n + 3n + 2

= x2
because the ratio of the leading coefficients of n2 + 4n − 5 and n2 + 3n + 2 is 1. So the
series converges where x2 < 1, that is −1 < x < 1.  Example 8.5
20 AIDAN SIMS
P∞ 2n2 +4n−5
Example 8.6. If the coefficients of y = n=0 an xn satisfy an+2 = 5n(n+2) n
a , for which
values of x does the series converge?

Answer: Use the ratio test. Since the recurrence relation relates an+2 to an we check
the ratio of an+2 to an :

 an+2 xn+2 
   
 an+2  2
lim   = lim  x
n→∞  an xn  n→∞  an 
 2n2 +4n−5 
 5n(n+2) an  2
 
= lim  x
n→∞  an 
 2 
 2n + 4n − 5  2
= lim  x
n→∞ 5n2 + 10 
2
= x2
5

because the ratio of the leading coefficients of n2 + 4n − 5 and n2 + 3n + 2 is 25 . So the

q q
2 2
series converges where 5 x < 1, that is − 2 < x < 52 .
5
 Example 8.6

P∞ 4n−5
Example 8.7. If the coefficients of y = n=0 an xn satisfy an+2 = a ,
5n(n+2) n
for which
values of x does the series converge?

Answer: Use the ratio test. Since the recurrence relation relates an+2 to an we check
the ratio of an+2 to an :

 an+2 xn+2 
   
 an+2  2
lim   = lim  x
n→∞  an xn  n→∞  an 
 4n−5 
 5n(n+2) an  2
 
= lim  x
n→∞  an 
 
 4n − 5  2
= lim  2 x
n→∞ 5n + 10 

=0

because the polynomial on the denominator has a higher degree than the one on the
numerator. So the series converges where 0 < 1, that is for all x.  Example 8.7

P∞ 2n2 +4n−5
Example 8.8. If the coefficients of y = n=0 an xn satisfy an+2 = (n+2)
an , for which
values of x does the series converge?
 MATH2310 SEMESTER 1, 2006 (ODE’S STRAND): WORKED EXAMPLES 21

Answer: Use the ratio test. Since the recurrence relation relates an+2 to an we check
the ratio of an+2 to an :
 an+2 xn+2 
   
 an+2  2
lim   = lim  x
n→∞  an xn  n→∞  an 
 2n2 +4n−5 
 (n+2) an  2
 
= lim  x
n→∞  an 
 2 
 2n + 4n − 5  2
= lim  x
n→∞ n+2 
(
∞ if x 6= 0
=
0 if x = 0
because the polynomial on the denominator has lower degree than the one on the nu-
merator. The only place that this ratio is less than 1 is at x = 0, so the series converges
only where x = 0.  Example 8.8
P∞ n 4n−5
Example 8.9. If the coefficients of y = n=0 an x satisfy an+1 = 3n−7 an , for which
values of x does the series converge?
Answer: Use the ratio test. Since the recurrence relation relates an+1 to an we check
the ratio of an+1 to an :
 an+1 xn+1 
   
 an+1 
lim   = lim   |x|
n→∞  an xn  n→∞  an 
 
 4n−5 an 
= lim  3n−7  |x|
 
n→∞  an 
4
= |x|
3
because the ratio of the leading coefficients of 4n − 5 and 3n − 7 is 34 . So the series
converges where 43 |x| < 1, that is − 43 < x < 34 .  Example 8.9

8.3. Reduction of order.

Example 8.10. Given that y1 (x) = x is a solution to x2 y 00 − 2xy 0 + 2y = 0, find the
general solution.
Answer: We try a solution of the form y(x) = y1 (x)v(x) = xv. Calculate the derivatives:
y 0 (x) = (xv)0 = v + xv 0
y 00 (x) = (xv)00 = v 0 + v 0 + xv 00 .
Substituting into the DE gives
0 = x2 (2v 0 + xv 00 ) − 2x(v + xv 0 ) + 2xv
= x3 v 00 + 2x2 v 0 − 2xv − 2x2 v 0 + 2xv
= x3 v 00
22 AIDAN SIMS
0
This gives a first order DE in v 0 , namely (v 0 )0 = 0 or dv
dxR
= 0. This is the simplestR possible
separable DE and integrating both sides gives v 0 = 0 dx = A. Hence v = A dx =
Ax + B. So the general solution is yg (x) = y1 (x)v(x) = x(Ax + B) = Ax2 + Bx.
 Example 8.10

Example 8.11. Given that y1 (x) = 3x2 − 1 is a solution to y 00 − 3xy 0 + 6y = 0 find a

second solution.
Answer: We try a solution of the form y1 (x)v(x) = (3x2 − 1)v(x). Calculate the
derivatives:

0
y1 (x)v(x) = 6xv(x) + (3x2 − 1)v 0 (x)

00
y1 (x)v(x) = 6v(x) + 6xv 0 (x) + 6xv 0 (x) + (3x2 − 1)v 00 (x)
= 6v(x) + 12xv 0 (x) + (3x2 − 1)v 00 (x).
Substituting this into the DE gives
0 = 6v(x) + 12xv 0 (x) + (3x2 − 1)v 00 (x) − 3x 6xv(x) + (3x2 − 1)v 0 (x) + 6(3x2 − 1)v(x) = 0

= (3x2 − 1)v 00 (x) + (12x − 3x(3x2 − 1))v 0 (x)

= (3x2 − 1)v 00 (x) − (9x3 − 15x)v 0 (x).
This is a first order DE in v 0 (x): provided 3x2 6= 1, it is equivalent to
9x3 − 15x 0 dv 0 3x(3x2 − 5) 0
(v 0 )0 + v =0 ⇐⇒ = v.
3x2 − 1 dx 3x2 − 1
This is seperable:
3x(3x2 − 5)
Z Z
1
d(v 0 ) = dx
v0 3x2 − 1
3x(3x2 − 1) − 12x
Z
= dx
3x2 − 1
Z Z
12x
= 1 dx − dx
3x2 − 1
Z
12x
=x− dx.
3x2 − 1
Substituting u = 3x2 − 1 gives du = 6x dx and so
Z Z
12x 2 du
dx = = ln |u| + C = ln |3x2 − 1| + C.
3x2 − 1 u
So we obtain
Aex
ln |v 0 | = x − ln |3x2 − 1| + C ⇐⇒ v0 =
3x2 − 1
where A = e±C is an arbitrary nonzero constant. So
Aex
Z
v= .
3x2 − 1
 MATH2310 SEMESTER 1, 2006 (ODE’S STRAND): WORKED EXAMPLES 23
√ √
Now we do partial fractions: 3x21−1 = √3x+1a b
+ √3x−1 where a( 3x − 1) + b( 3x + 1) ≡ 1.
Putting x = 3−1/2 gives b = 21 and x = −3−1/2 gives a = 12 , so
A
Z √ √
v= ex ( 3x − 1)−1 + ex ( 3x + 1) dx,
2
and once this is computed,
A Z √ √ 
2
yg (x) = y1 (x)v(x) = (3x − 1) ex ( 3x − 1)−1 + ex ( 3x + 1) dx
2
is the general solution to the DE.
Integrals of this level of sophistication are beyond the scope of MATH2310 for Se-
mester 1 2005, so the remainder of the example is left as a challenge exercise. The key
elements of the reduction of order operation are those already dealt with.
 Example 8.11
Department of Mathematics, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, AUS-
TRALIA
E-mail address: aidan.sims@newcastle.edu.au