STANDARD-FORM CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION

By Dr. El Mithra M. Delacruz

PROPOSITIONS AND ARGUMENTS Arguments are expressed through propositions. An expressed idea or concept through a proposition may be analyzed as either true or false. Analysis of each proposition will help and guide us in our analysis of the entire argument. An argument is either valid or invalid. Analysis of which is based on the relationship of each proposition within an argument. But an argument should not be misconstrued as having a dispute, or hostile physical or verbal attack upon another. It is simply composed of propositions which may either be true or false that would lead one to evaluate whether there is logical coherence between and among propositions within an argument, and, assess whether the conclusion logically follows from a proposition or series of propositions. Judgments are expressed in the form of a proposition or series of propositions. Usually, one proposition provides a reason or explanation to support a judgment made. A proposition expresses an idea, feeling or emotion. It must articulate a complete thought. Remember that a proposition is either true or false while an argument is either valid or invalid.

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TRUE

PROPOSITION

FALSE

VALID

ARGUMENT

INVALID

One of the essential things that one has to consider is the meaning that an author intends to convey against another persons interpretation. This may be tantamount to the analysis and interpretation of a work of art. An individual may see something in what an artist portrays that is far from what the artist is trying to say. Hence, one has to be on guard all the time concerning the language we use and at the same time, be extra wary about the content of what we are saying. A persons ability to evaluate an argument as valid or invalid; or, asserting a proposition as true or false would be highly dependent on the persons knowledge and understanding of the matter. For instance, one person talks about the impact of EVAT to consumers. To sustain the argument is to present, perhaps, its list of strengths or its advantages to consumers. On the other hand, one can argue against it. If a person simply says that I love red color or asserts that There is a new mall, these propositions are non-argumentative. Yet, one

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says that Death penalty is a justifying circumstance for a heinous crime is argumentative. But, before we go any further on argumentation, let us first have the basic working knowledge on how to treat and analyze propositions. Look at the given examples.

The following are examples of true propositions:

1. All judgments are either acceptable or unacceptable. 2. Most children are in dire need of attention. 3. Not all business presentations are clear. 4. Mall of Asia is not in Ayala Avenue. 5. No child is walking into my optical store at this time.

The examples below are false propositions:

1. An average Filipino is six feet tall. 2. No telephone operator is a college graduate. 3. Every existentialist is an atheist. 4. Some pens are not writing materials. 5. All questions are complex.

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Whether a proposition is true or false is of great concern in the analysis of the entire argument. Every proposition has the following elements -- a subject term, a predicate term and a copula. It is very easy to identify these elements. A subject term is the point under discussion; it is the central focus or the main idea or the content in a proposition. There is usually a quantifier before the subject term. ELEMENTS OF A STANDARD-FORM PROPOSITION

A predicate term tells or describes something about the main idea (or subject term) in a proposition. A copula is the connector between the subject term and the predicate term. Generally, it is the verb to be that is displayed or used as the copula in a proposition. Although in some cases, a proposition may not be declared in its standard form using the verb to be. An example of which is Some people enjoy horror movies. This can be restated in its standard form as Some people are enjoying horror movies. There are four standard forms of categorical propositions that can be stated in the following examples: All government officials are natural-born citizens. No involuntary act is a conscious act. Several movie directors are passionate. Not all commentators are objective.

Each proposition may be analyzed in accordance to its elements, quantity of the proposition, quality of the proposition, symbol and quantity of the predicate.

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In terms of its elements, the subject term in each of the propositions given above are government officials, involuntary act, movie directors, and commentators. The predicate terms in each of the propositions are naturalborn citizens, conscious act, passionate, and objective. QUANTITY OF THE PROPOSITION One easy way to determine the quantity of the proposition (or extension of the proposition) is to check the quantifiers seen in each proposition. A proposition can be categorized as either universal, or singular, or particular. The quantity of a proposition is universal if it implies each and every member of a class or if it signifies general expressions and ideas. Common universal quantifiers are all, every, no, no one, nobody, nothing, none, whoever, wherever, whichever, whomever, whatever, whenever. The quantity of a proposition is singular if it refers to something definite or refers to only one. Nouns, personal pronouns, collective nouns and nouns modified by adjectives in the superlative degree are examples of singular quantifiers. In such cases where the proposition is singular, for instance, University of Santo Tomas, it means that it is categorized as a class of one. Hence, when you encounter a proposition, say, UST is one of the oldest universities it implies that Every class or category of UST is one of the oldest universities. This can be further illustrated through the proposition They are active participants in the discussion. The personal pronoun they may be attributed to the universal proposition All (they) of them are active participants in

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the discussion. The universal and singular propositions have, therefore, the same extension. The quantity of a proposition is particular if it pertains to a part of a whole, or less than the whole, or something indefinite. The use of indefinite pronouns is the most commonly used particular quantifiers such as many, several, most, few, almost all, not all, some, part, etc. The use of numbers also signifies that the quantity of a proposition is particular. Hence, from the given examples above, the first two propositions are universal in quantity and the last two propositions are particular.

QUALITY OF THE PROPOSITION The copula of the proposition is actually that which should be checked to determine the quality of the proposition. Whenever the predicate term accepts something of the subject term, the quality of the proposition is affirmative. If the predicate term rejects or denies something of the subject term, the quality of the proposition is negative. It is based on whether the entire class or a part of it is affirmed or denied. It follows that based on the given examples above, the first and the third propositions are affirmative, and the second and the last propositions are negative. Once the proposition has already been analyzed based on its quantity and quality, one can already determine the symbol because it is where the symbol of a proposition is grounded.

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SYMBOLS OF PROPOSITIONS If it is universal or singular - affirmative, the symbol is A and if the proposition is universal or singular - negative, the symbol is E. Notice that A and E propositions are universal or singular in quantity but different in quality. A is affirmative and E is negative. The propositions symbolized by I and O are both particular in quantity but, they are different in quality. A and I propositions share the same quality which is affirmative, while E and O propositions share the same quality which is negative. Of course these symbols are not vowels as seen in the English language! A, E, I, and O symbols came from the Latin words AffIrmo which means affirmative, to affirm or to agree; and, nEgO which means negative, to negate or to deny. But, be reminded that in terms of extension, the universal and singular propositions have the same extension. This is the reason why they have the same symbols. Determine now the symbol of the propositions given above.

The proposition All government officials are natural-born citizens is symbolized as A since the quantity is universal and the quality is affirmative. No involuntary act is a conscious act is symbolized as E since the quantity is universal and the quality is negative. The third proposition Several movie directors are passionate is symbolized as I because the quantity is particular and the quality is affirmative. The fourth proposition Not all commentators are

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objective is symbolized as O because the quantity is particular and quality is negative. Do not be confused with this particular quantifier not all with a universal quantifier. You might be misled to believe that since you see the word all therefore, the quantity of the proposition is universal. Such quantifier not all is the same or equivalent to some are not which means that the quantifier not all is particular and not universal. Take note of that.

QUANTITY OF THE PREDICATE

The quantity of the predicate is entirely different from the quantity of the proposition. Just remember that whenever the quantity of the proposition is analyzed, you have to assess the quantifier used, hence, it could be universal, particular or singular. However, in order to determine the quantity of the predicate, the quality of the proposition, whether affirmative or negative, is the point of reference. The following guidelines are applied:

1.

if the quality of the proposition is affirmative, the quantity of the predicate is automatically particular

2.

if the quality of the proposition is negative, the quantity of the predicate is automatically universal.

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Take note of the following examples:

1. This modern technology

is

the solution to our problem.

Affirmative

Particular

2. Most ideas

were not

expressed.

Negative

Universal

You must have noticed that in the first example, the quantity of the proposition is singular. But since the quality of the proposition is affirmative, the quantity of the predicate is particular. While in the second example, the quantifier most is an indefinite pronoun. When we say most it means that a particular statement is being referred to. Therefore, the proposition is particular in quantity. Since the quality of the proposition is negative, the quantity of the predicate is automatically universal. It has no relation with the quantity of the proposition. In some cases, the quantity of the proposition may be the same or different from the quantity of the predicate. In the first place, the quantity of the predicate has nothing to do with the quantity of the proposition.

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Now, lets go back to the four examples of standard form categorical propositions stated above. The predicate term natural-born citizens in the proposition All government officials are natural-born citizens has a particular quantity because the quality of the proposition is affirmative. The quantity of the predicate conscious act is negative since the proposition No involuntary act is a conscious act has a negative quality. The same principle is used in the second and fourth examples given above. Thus, the quantity of the predicate passionate in the proposition Several movie directors are passionate is particular since the quality is affirmative and the quantity of the predicate objective in the proposition Not all commentators are objective is universal because the quality is negative. The analysis of a proposition can now be summarized as follows based on the given:

SUBJECT TERM Government officials Involuntary act Movie directors Commentators PREDICATE TERM Natural-born citizens Conscious act Passionate Objective

All government officials are natural-born citizens. No involuntary act is a conscious act. Several movie directors are passionate. Not all commentators are objective.
QUANTITY OF PROP Universal Universal Particular Particular QUALITY OF PROP Affirmative Negative Affirmative Negative A E I O
SYMBOL

QNTY Particular Universal Particular Universal

OF

PREDICATE

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You will notice that the propositions symbolized by A and E are both universal in quantity but they are different in quality. The same symbols are used if the quantity is singular.

In the first two examples, the quantity of the propositions is universal. The first example: " All government officials are natural-born citizens has an

affirmative quality, so the symbol is A. While the second example: No involuntary act is a conscious act has a negative quality, so the symbol is E. Universal propositions are symbolized as either A or E.

The propositions symbolized by I and O are both particular but they are also different in quality. A and I propositions are both affirmative in quality. E and O propositions are both negative in quality. You can have your own distinct way to remember how to analyze propositions. Perhaps you can best remember the four standard-form of categorical propositions using the diagram below. Take note of the relationship and connection of the quantity of proposition, quality of the proposition and the symbols.

Universal

Affirmative

A E I O
Particular

Negative

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Remember that Practice leads you to perfection. In order to achieve this goal, it takes a simple technique to remember certain tips on how to best analyze propositions. You can see different ways and means to express oneself though language and it is crucial to comprehend the essence of each proposition. The four standard forms of categorical propositions can be stated in various ways. Here are a number of examples:

UNIVERSAL PROPOSITIONS All astronauts are pilots. Every individual is a special creation. Whoever is an entrepreneur is resourceful. Everyone is entitled to his own opinion. Everything is in proper order. No brute animal is a human being. None of the animals were hurt in the film. Whoever is below 25 is not a candidate in this job. Nothing was done. David is not one of the disciples of Christ. PARTICULAR PROPOSITIONS Many people are gifted. Few journalists were murdered. Millions of people were waiting for Pope Benedict XIV. Almost all his dogs were trained to track down. At least 5 children were rushed to the hospital. Not everyone was prepared for the strong typhoon. Not all the students were able to submit their portfolio. Some diseases are not contagious. Several shoppers are not excited about the new mall. Twenty percent of the taxpayers are not tax evaders.

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