DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENT

Load and Stress Analysis

Lec Amir Hamza Department of Mechatronics Engineering Spring - 2011

Load and Stress Analysis

Equilibrium Free Body Diagram Shear Force and Bending Moment in beams Stress Cartesian Stress Components Plane Stress Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress General Three Dimensional Stresses Elastic Strain

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Equilibrium
If we assume that the system to be studied is motionless or, at most, has constant velocity, then the system has zero acceleration. Under this condition the system is said to be in equilibrium

The phrase static equilibrium is also used to imply that the system is at rest. For equilibrium, the forces and moments acting on the system balance such that

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Free Body Diagram

We can greatly simplify the analysis of a very complex structure or machine by successively isolating each element and studying and analyzing it by the use of free-body diagrams

Thus, free-body diagramming is essentially a means of breaking a complicated problem into manageable segments, analyzing these simple problems, and then, usually, putting the information together again

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Shear Force and Bending Moment in beams

Fig 1

If the beam is cut at some section located at x = x1 and the left-hand portion is removed as a free body, an internal shear force V and bending moment M must act on the cut surface to ensure equilibrium Shear force and bending moment are related by the equation

dM V= dx
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Shear Force and Bending Moment in beams

Sometimes the bending is caused by a distributed load q(x) q(x) is called the load intensity with units of force per unit length and is positive in the positive y direction

Fig 2

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Stress
When an internal surface is isolated as in the last F.B.D, the net force and moment acting on the surface manifest themselves as force distributions across the entire area

The force distribution acting at a point on the surface is unique and will have components in the normal and tangential directions called normal stress and tangential shear stress, respectively

Normal and shear stresses are labeled by the symbols and

If the direction of is outward from the surface it is considered to be a tensile stress and is a positive normal stress. If is into the surface it is a compressive stress and commonly considered to be a negative quantity

Units: U.S Customary units are pounds per square inch (psi) SI units, stress is in newtons per square meter (N/m2): 1N/m2 = 1 Pa.

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Cartesian Stress Components

The Cartesian stress components are established by defining three mutually orthogonal surfaces at a point within the body

The normals to each surface will establish the x, y, z Cartesian axes

In general, each surface will have a normal and shear stress The shear stress may have components along two axes

Fig 3

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Cartesian Stress Components

Fig 4

The state of stress at a point described by three mutually perpendicular surfaces is shown in Fig a As the dimensions of the cube in Fig. 4a approach zero, the stresses on the hidden faces become equal and opposite to those on the opposing visible faces
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Cartesian Stress Components

Thus, in general, a complete state of stress is defined by nine stress components

x , y , z, xy ,xz, yx , yz, zx , and zy

For equilibrium, in most cases, cross-shears are equal, hence yx = xy zy = yz xz = zx

This reduces the number of stress components for most 3-D states of stress from nine to six quantities

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Cartesian Stress Components

A very common state of stress occurs when the stresses on one surface are zero. When this occurs the state of stress is called plane stress

Figure b shows a state of plane stress, arbitrarily assuming that the normal for the stress-free surface is the z direction such that z = zx = zy = 0

Here it is assumed that the cross-shears are equal such that yx = xy , and yz = zy = xz = zx = 0

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Plane Stress
Suppose the dx dy dz element of Fig 4b is cut by an oblique plane with a normal n at an arbitrary angle counterclockwise from the x axis as shown in Fig. 5

We are concerned with the stresses and that act upon this oblique plane

By summing the forces caused by all the stress components to zero, the stresses and are found to be s x +s y s x - s y s= + cos 2f + t xy sin 2f 2 2
t= sx - s y 2 sin 2f + t xy cos 2f
Fig 5 1212

plane-stress transformation equations

Plane Stress
Differentiating the first Eq. with respect to and setting the result equal to zero gives

This Equation defines two particular values for the angle 2p, one of which defines the maximum normal stress 1 and the other, the minimum normal stress 2. These two stresses are called the principal stresses, and their corresponding directions, the principal directions

It is important to note that the above Eq. can be written in the form

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Plane Stress
In a similar manner, we differentiate Eq. of shear stress, set the result equal to zero, and obtain

It defines the two values of 2s at which the shear stress reaches an extreme value

Also,

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Plane Stress
Formulas for two principal stresses and two extreme valued shear stresses are found to be

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Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress

Mohrs Shear Convention
The relationship between and is that of a circle plotted in the , plane, where the center of the circle is located at C = (, ) = [(x + y)/2, 0] and has a radius of R = ([(x y)/2]2 + 2xy )1/2. Shear stresses tending to rotate the element clockwise (cw) are plotted above the axis Shear stresses tending to rotate the element counterclockwise (ccw) are plotted below the axis.

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Fig 6

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Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress

A stress element has x = 80 MPa and xy = 50 MPa cw, as shown in Fig. 7 (a) Using Mohrs circle, find the principal stresses and directions, and show these on a stress element correctly aligned with respect to the xy coordinates. Draw another stress element to show 1 and 2, find the corresponding normal stresses, and label the drawing completely.

(b) Repeat part a using the transformation equations only.

Fig 7

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General Three-Dimensional Stresses

As in the case of plane stress, a particular orientation of a stress element occurs in space for which all shear-stress components are zero

When an element has this particular orientation, the normals to the faces are mutually orthogonal and correspond to the principal directions, and the normal stresses associated with these faces are the principal stresses

Since there are three faces, there are three principal directions and three principal stresses 1, 2, and 3. For plane stress, the stress-free surface contains the third principal stress which is zero

In our studies of plane stress we were able to specify any stress state x , y and xy and find the principal stresses and principal directions

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General Three-Dimensional Stresses

Six components of stress are required to specify a general state of stress in three dimensions, and the problem of determining the principal stresses and directions is more difficult

In plotting Mohrs circles for three-dimensional stress, the principal normal stresses are ordered so that 1 2 3. Then the result appears as in Fig. 8

The stress coordinates , for any arbitrarily located plane will always lie on the boundaries or within the shaded area
Fig 8 2121

General Three-Dimensional Stresses

Fig 8 also shows the three principal shear stresses 1/2, 2/3, and 1/3 Each of these occurs on the two planes, one of which is shown in Fig. 9
Fig 9

The figure shows that the principal shear stresses are given by the equations

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General Three-Dimensional Stresses

For the stress states listed below, find all three principal normal and shear stresses. Draw a complete Mohrs three-circle diagram and label all points of interest

(a)

x = 10, y = 4

(b) x = 10, xy = 4 ccw

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Solution (a)

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Solution (b)

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Elastic Strain
Normal strain is defined for the tensile specimen and is given by = /l

Hookes law for the tensile specimen is given by = E where the constant E is called Youngs modulus or the modulus of elasticity

When a material is placed in tension, there exists not only an axial strain, but also negative strain (contraction) perpendicular to the axial strain. Assuming a linear, homogeneous, isotropic material, this lateral strain is proportional to the axial strain

If the axial direction is x, then the lateral strains are y = z = x

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Elastic Strain
If the axial stress is in the x direction, then

For a stress element undergoing x , y , and z simultaneously, the normal strains are given by

Shear strain is the change in a right angle of a stress element when subjected to pure shear stress, and Hookes law for shear is given by 2727