Crude birth rate is the nativity or childbirths per 1,000 people per year (in estimation review points).

Another word used interchangeably with "birth rate" is "natality".When the crude birth rate is subtracted from the crude death rate, it reveals the rate of natural increase. Thi number is equal to the rate of population change (not factoring in migration). It is important to distinguish between a total or crude birth rate, which uses all births, typically indicated as births per 1000, versus an age-specific rate which is typically indicated as the number of births per 1000 persons in this age group. The first known use of the term "birth rate" in the English language was in 1859. The birth rate is typically the main variable in assessing the rate of population growth. According to the United Nations' World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision Population Database, crude birth rate is the number of births over a given period divided by the person-years lived by the population over that period. It is expressed as number of births per 1,000 population. CBR = (births in a period / population of person-years over that period). Another indicator of fertility that is frequently used is the total fertility rate, which is the average number of children born to each woman over the course of her life. In general, the total fertility rate is a better indicator of (current) fertility rates because, unlike the crude birth rate, it is not affected by the age distribution of the population. Fertility rates tend to be higher in less economically developed countries and lower in more economically developed countries.

Years
19501955 19551960 19601965 19651970 19701975 19751980 19801985 19851990 19901995 19952000

CBR
37.2 35.3 34.9 33.4 30.8 28.4 27.9 27.3 24.7 22.5

Years
20002005 20052010 20102015 20152020 20202025 20252030 20302035 20352040 20402045 20452050

CBR
21.2 20.3 19.4 18.2 16.9 15.8 15.0 14.5 14.0 13.4

The birth rate is an item of concern and policy for a number of national governments. Some, including those of Italy and Malaysia, seek to increase the national birth rate using measures such as financial incentives or provision of support services to new mothers. Conversely, other countries have policies to reduce the birth rate, for example, China's one child policy. Measures such as improved information about and availability of birth control have achieved similar results in countries such as Iran. There has also been discussion on whether bringing women into the forefront of development initiatives will lead to a decline in birth rates. In some places,

government policies have been focused on reducing birth rates through improving women's sexual and reproductive health and rights. Typically, high birth rates have been associated with health impairments and low life expectancy, low living standards, low status of women, and low levels of education. There are claims that as countries go through economic development and social change, population growth such as birth rate declines. In 1974, at the World Population Conference in Bucharest, women's issues gained considerable attention. Family programmes were seriously discussed and 137 countries drafted a World Population Plan of Action. In the discussion, many countries accepted mod ern birth control, such as the pill and the condom, but opposed abortion. In 1994, another action plan was drafted in Cairo under the United Nations. They discussed the concern on population and the need to incorporate women into the discourse. They agreed that improvements in women's status, and initiatives in defense of reproductive health and freedom, the environment, and sustainable socio-economic development were needed. Generally, birth rate is calculated using live birth counts from a universal system of registration of births, deaths, and marriages, and population counts from a census or using estimation through specialized demographic techniques. Birth rate is also commonly used to calculate population growth. It is combined with death rates and migration rates to calculate population growth. As of 2009, the average birth rate for the whole world is 19.95 per year per 1000 total population, a 0.48% decline from 2003's world birth rate of 20.43 per 1000 total population. Per U.S. federal government data released in March 2011, births fell 4% from 2007 to 2009, the largest drop in the U.S. for any two-year period since the 1970s.Births have declined for three consecutive years, and are now 7% below the peak in 2007. This drop has continued through 2010, according to data released by the U.S. National Center for Health Statistics in June 2011. Numerous experts have suggested that this decline is largely a reflection of unfavorable uneconomic conditions.This connection between birth rates and economic downturns partly stems from the fact that American birth rates have now fallen to levels that are comparable to the Great Depression of the 1930's.Teen birth rates in the U.S. are at the lowest level in U.S. history. In fact, teen birth rates in the U.S. have consistently decreased since 1991 through 2011, except for a brief increase between 2005 and 2007. The other aberration from this otherwise steady decline in teen birth rates is the 6% decrease in birth rates for 1519 year olds between 2008 and 2009. Despite these years of decrease, U.S. teen birth rates are still higher than in other developed nations.Racial differences prevail with teen birth and pregnancy rates as well. The American Indian/Alaska Native, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic

black teen pregnancy rates are more than double the non-Hispanic white teen birth rate. According to the CIA The World Factbook, the country with the highest birth rate currently is Niger at 51.26 births per 1000 people. The country with the lowest birth rate is Japan at 7.64 births per 1000 people. (Hong Kong, a Special Administrative Region of China, is at 7.42 births per 1000 people.) As compared to the 1950s (birth rate was at 36 births per 1000 in the 1950s[18]), birth rate has declined by 16 births per 1000 people. In July, 2011, the U.S. National Institutes of Health announced that the adolescent birth rate continues to decline. Birth rates vary even within the same geographic areas. In Europe, as of July 2011, Ireland's birth rate is 16.5 per cent, which is 3.5 per cent higher than the next-ranked country, the UK. France has a birth rate of 12.8 per cent while Sweden is at 12.3 per cent. In July, 2011, the UK's Office for National Statistics (ONS) announced a 2.4% increase in live births in the UK in 2010 alone.[21] This is the highest birth rate in the UK in 40 years. By contrast, the birth rate in Germany is only 8.3 per 1,000, which is so low that both the UK and France, which have significantly smaller populations, produced more births in the last year. Birth rates also vary within the same geographic area, based on different demographic groups. For example, in April 2011, the U.S. CDC announced that the birth rate for women over the age of 40 in the U.S. rose between 2007 and 2009, while it fell among every other age group during the same time span. In August 2011, Taiwan's government announced that its birth rate declined in the previous year, despite the fact that it implemented a host of approaches to encourage its citizens to have babies. Birth rates ranging from 1020 births per 1000 are considered low, while rates from 4050 births per 1000 are considered high. There are problems associated with both an extremely high birth rate and an extremely low birth rate.

Mortality rate is a measure of the number of deaths (in general, or due to a specific cause) in a population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit time. Mortality rate is typically expressed in units of deaths per 1000 individuals per year; thus, a mortality rate of 9.5 in a population of 100,000 would mean 950 deaths per year in that entire population, or 0.95% out of the total. It is distinct from morbidity rate, which refers to the number of individuals in poor health during a given time period (the prevalence rate) or the number of newly appearing cases of the disease per unit of time (incidence rate). The term "mortality" is also sometimes inappropriately used to refer to the number of deaths among a set of diagnosed hospital cases for a disease or injury, rather than for the

general population of a country or ethnic group. This disease mortality statistic is more precisely referred to as "case fatality". One distinguishes: The crude death rate, the total number of deaths per year per 1000 people. As of July 2009 the crude death rate for the whole world is about 8.37 per 1000 per year according to the current CIA World Factbook.[1] The perinatal mortality rate, the sum of neonatal deaths and fetal deaths (stillbirths) per 1000 births. The maternal mortality rate, the number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live births in same time period. The infant mortality rate, the number of deaths of children less than 1 year old per 1000 live births. The child mortality rate, the number of deaths of children less than 5 years old per 1000 live births. The standardized mortality ratio (SMR)- This represents a proportional comparison to the numbers of deaths that would have been expected if the population had been of a standard composition in terms of age, gender, etc.[2] The age-specific mortality rate (ASMR) - This refers to the total number of deaths per year per 1000 people of a given age (e.g. age 62 last birthday). In regard to the success or failure of medical treatment or procedures, one would also distinguish: The early mortality rate, the total number of deaths in the early stages of an ongoing treatment, or in the period immediately following an acute treatment. The late mortality rate, the total number of deaths in the late stages of an ongoing treatment, or a significant length of time after an acute treatment. Note that the crude death rate as defined above and applied to a whole population can give a misleading impression. The crude death rate depends on the age (and gender) specific mortality rates and the age (and gender) distribution of the population. The number of deaths per 1000 people can be higher for developed nations than in less-developed countries, despite life expectancy being higher in developed countries due to standards of health being better. This happens because developed countries typically have a completely different population age distribution, with a much higher proportion of older people, due to both lower recent birth rates and lower mortality rates. A more complete picture of mortality is given by a life table which shows the mortality rate separately for each age. A life table is necessary to give a good estimate of life expectancy.

Child mortality, also known as under-5 mortality, refers to the death of infants and children under the age of five. In 2010, 7.6 million children under five died , down from 8.1 million in 2009, 8.8 million in 2008, and 12.4 million in 1990. About half of child deaths occur in Africa. Approximately 60 countries make up 94% of under five child deaths. Reduction of child mortality is the fourth of the United Nations' Millennium Development Goals. Causes According to UNICEF[5], most child deaths (and 70% in developing countries) [6] result from one the following five causes or a combination thereof: acute respiratory infections diarrhea measles malaria malnutrition [edit] Prevention Main article: Child survival Two-thirds of deaths are preventable.[7] Malnutrition and the lack of safe water and sanitation contribute to half of all these childrens deaths. Research and experience show that most of the children who die each year could be saved by low-tech, evidence-based, cost-effective measures such as vaccines, antibiotics, micronutrient supplementation, insecticide-treated bed nets, improved family care and breastfeeding practices [8], and oral rehydration therapy[9]. In addition to providing vaccines and antibiotics to children, education could also be provided to mothers about how they can make simple changes to living conditions such as improving hygiene in order to increase the health of their children. Mothers who are educated will also have increased confidence in the ability to take care of their children, therefore providing a healthier relationship and environment for them. Rate The under-5 mortality rate is the number of children who die by the age of five, per thousand live births per year (this should not be confused with child mortality rate, which is mortality from 1-5 years). In 2010, the world average was 57 (5.7%), down from 88 (8.8%) in 1990.[1] In 2006, the average in developing countries was 79 (down from 103 in 1990), whereas the average in industrialized countries was 6 (down from 10 in 1990). One in eight children in Sub-Saharan Africa die before their fifth birthday.[2] The biggest improvement between 1990 and 2006 was in Latin America and the Caribbean, which cut their child mortality rates by 50%.[10] The world's child mortality rate has dropped by over 60% since 1960. A child in Sierra Leone, which has the world's highest child mortality rate (262 in 2007)is about 87 times more likely to die than one born in Sweden (with a rate of 3). According to a Save the Children paper, there are huge disparities in the under-five mortality rate between rich and poor households in

developing countries. For example, children from the poorest households in India are three times more likely to die before their fifth birthday than those from the richest households. According to the World Health Organization, the main causes of death are pneumonia, diarrhea, malaria, measles, and HIV. Malnutrition is estimated to contribute to more than one third of all child deaths. child dies every 5 seconds as a result of hunger - 700 every hour - 16 000 each day - 6 million each year - 60% of all child deaths (2002-2008 estimates). Highest rates in the world

Overpopulation is a condition where an organism's numbers exceed the carrying capacity of its habitat. The term often refers to the relationship between the human population and its environment, the Earth. Steve Jones, head of the biology department at University College London, has said, "Humans are 10,000 times more common than we should be, according to the rules of the animal kingdom, and we have agriculture to thank for that. Without farming, the world population would probably have reached half a million by now." The worlds population has significantly increased in the last 50 years, mainly due to medical advancements and substantial increases in agricultural productivity. The recent rapid increase in human population over the past two centuries has raised concerns that humans are beginning to overpopulate the Earth, and that the planet may not be able to sustain present or larger numbers of inhabitants. The population has been growing continuously since the end of the Black Death, around the year 1400;[citation needed] at the beginning of the 19th century, it had reached roughly 1,000,000,000 (1 billion). Increases in medical technology have led to rapid population growth on a worldwide level. Current projections show a steady decline in the population growth rate, with the population expected to reach between 8 and 10.5 billion between the year 2040 and 2050.In May 2011, The United Nations increased the medium variant projections to 9.3 billion for 2050 and 10.1 billion for 2100.[ Map of countries by population d ensity, per square kilometer. (See List of countries by population density.) Areas of high population densities, calculated in 1994.

Map of countries and territories by fertility rate (See List of countries and territories by fertility rate.) Human population growth rate in percent, with the variables of births, deaths, immigration, and emigration - 2011 The InterAcademy Panel Statement on Population Growth, which was ratified by 58 member national academies in 1994, called the growth in human numbers "unprecedented", and stated that many environmental problems, such as rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, global warming, and pollution, were aggravated by the population expansion. At the time, the world population stood at 5.5 billion, and low-bound scenarios predicted a peak of 7.8 billion by 2050, a number that current estimates show will be reached around 2022. However, the rate of population growth has been declining since the 1980s, and is expected to stabilize by around the middle of the 21st century. Unlike global warming, which has recently become considered nearly fact by the scientific community, many scientists do not believe that the world is overpopulated , and believe instead that waste and over-consumption, especially by wealthy nations, is the force putting strain on the environment. The United Nations has expressed concern on excessive population growth in sub-Saharan Africa during a report on the human population hitting 7 billion.

Example nation

1st total.

Population

2nd Population total.

3rd Population total.

4th Population total.

5th total.

Population

Life expectancy in years.

Eritrea*

N/A*

N/A*

3,437,000(1994) [40] 54,939,000(1994 ) [40] 27,361,000 (1994)**[40] 6,183,000 (1994) [40] 8,846,000(1994) [40] 108,467,000 (1994)[40] 10,462,000(1994 )[40] 2,211,000 (1994) [40] 8,102,000 (1994) [40] 1,081,000 (1994) [40] 27,325,000 (1994) [40] 42,552,000 (1994) [40]

4,298,269 (2002) 67,673,031(2 003) 38,114,160 (2003)** 9,253,493(20 03) 10,790,352 (2001) 129,934,911 (2002) 11,340,480(2 002) 2,667,859 (2003) 9,967,215(20 02) 1,367,124 (2000) 32,818,500 (2003) 55,225,478 (2003)

5,673,520 [41]

(2008)

61 (2008) [42] 55(2008) [42] 50(2008)** [42] 47(2008) [42] 44 (2008) [42] 47(2008) [42] 50(2008) [42] 54(2008) [42] 57(2008) [42] 55(2008) [42] 74 (2008) [42] 54(2008) [42]

Ethiopia*

23,457,000(1967) *[43] 14,355,000(1967) **[43] 3,410,000(1967) [43] 3,546,000(1967) [43] 61,450,000(1967) [43] 4,745,000(1967) [43] 1,050,000(1967) [43] 3,607,000(1967) [43] 343,000(1967) [43] 11,833,126 (1966) [43] 16,353,000(1967) [43]

50,974,000(199 0)* [44] 25,204,000(199 0)** [44] 5,679,000(1990) [44] 7,732,000(1990) [44] 88,500,000(199 0) [44] 8,156,000(1990) ,[44] 2,025,000(1990) [44] 7,327,000(1990) [44] 861,000(1990) [44] 25,012,000 (1990) [44] 35,562,000 (1990) [44]

79,221,000(2008) [45] 42,272,000(2008)** [46] 10,329,208 (2009) [39] 15,306,252 (2009) [47] 158,259,000 (2008) [48] 14,517,176(2010). [49] 3,291,000 (2009) [39] 13,711,597 (2009) [50] 1,705,000(2008) [48] 34,895,000[45][51] (2008) 70,916,439 (2008) [45][52]

Total population growth from 1st Pop. Total to 5th Pop. Total. 2,236,520 (since independe nce) 55,764,00 0 27,917,00 0 6,919,205 11,760,25 2 96,809,00 0 9,772,176 2,241,000 10,104,59 7 1,362,000 23,061,87 4 54,563,43 9

Sudan**

Chad Niger Nigeria

Mali Mauritan ia Senegal Gambia Algeria The DRC/Zair e

Egypt

30,083,419 (1966) [43] 418,000 [43] (1967)

53,153,000 (1990) [44] N/A(1990) [44]

58,326,000 (1994) [40] N/A (1994)[40]

70,712,345 (2003) 720,934 (2003) 2,967 (2003)

79,089,650 [53][53] (2008) [45] 827,000 (2009) [48]

72 (2008) [42] N/A (2008) [42] N/A(2008) [42]

49,006,23 1 409,000

Runion (French colony) The Falkland Islands (UK colony) Chile Colombia Brazil

2,500(1967)[43]

N/A(1990) [44]

N/A(1994)[40]

3,140(2010)[39]

640

8,935,500(1967) [43] 19,191,000(1967) [43] 85,655,000(1967) [43] 45,671,000(1967) [43] 476,727 (1966) [43] 6,050(1966)[43] 1,876,000 (1967) [43] 11,540,764 (1964) [43] 1,965,500(1964) [43] 31,944,000(1967) [43] 10,212,000(1967) [43] 8,226,564(1965) [43] 55,068,000 (1966) [43] 2,884,002(1966) [43] 720,000,000(1967 )[43] 98,274,961(1965) [43] 934,176(1965) [43]

13,173,000 (1990) [44] 32,987,000(199 0) [44] 150,368,000 (1990) [44] 86,154,000(199 0) [44] 765,000(1990) [44] 10,000(1990) [44] 2,420,000 (1990) [44] 17,086,000 (1990) [44] 3,250,000 (1990) [44] 38,180,000 (1990) [44] 10,553,000 (1990) [44] 8,980,000 (1990) [44] 57,411,000 (1990) [44] 3,503,000(1990) [44] 1,139,060,000(1 990) [44] 123,537,000(19 90) [44]

13,994,000(1994 )[40] 34,520,000(1994 )[40] 153,725,000 (1994)[40] 93,008,000(1994 )[40] 771,000 (1994) [40] N/A (1994)[40] 2,429,000 (1994) [40] 17,843,000 (1994)[40] 3,414,000 (1994) [40] 38,554,000 (1994)[40] 10,261,000 (1994)[40] 8,443,000 (1994) [40] 58,091,000 (1994) [40] 3,571,000 (1994) [40] 1,208,841,000 (1994)[40] 124,961,000 (1994)[40]

15,116,435 (2002) 41,088,227 (2002) 174,468,575 (2000) 103,400,165 (2000) 844,330 (2001) 12,329 (2002) 2,695,867 (2003) 19,546,792 (2003) 3,510,484 (2002) 38,626,349 (2001) 10,106,017 (2002) 7,707,495(20 00) 58,789,194 (2002) 3,840,838 (2000) 1,286,975,46 8 (2004) 127,333,002 (2002)

17,224,200 (2011) 45,925,397(2010) [54] 190,732,694(2010) [55] 112,322,757(2010) [56] 849,000[48] (2010) 9,322 (2011)[57] 2,847,232[58] (2010) 22,764,039[59] (2010) 2,986,952 (July 2010 est.)[39][60] (2010) 38,192,000(2010) [61] 9,979,000(2010) [62] 7,351,234 (2011) [63] 62,008,048 (2010) [64] 4,470,700 [65] (2010) 1,339,724,852(2010 )[66] 127,420,000 (2010) [67]

77 (2008) [42] 73 (2008) [42] 72(2008) [42] 76(2008) [42] 70 (2008) [42] N/A (2008) [42] 74 (2008) [42] 82 (2008) [42] 78 (2008) [42] 75 (2008) [42] 73 (2008) [42] 73 (2008) [42] 79(2008) [42] 78 (2008) [42] 73 (2008) [42] 82(2008) [42]

8,288,700 26,734,39 7 105,077,6 94 66,651,75 7 372,273 3,272 971,232 11,066,50 8 1,021,452

Mexico Fiji Nauru Jamaican Australia Albania

Poland Hungary Bulgaria UK Ireland/ ire The PRC/Chin a Japan***

6,248,000 -142,000 -875,330 7,020,048 1,586,698 619,724,8 52 28,123,86 5

Ryukyu Islands (Once occupied by America) *** India#

511,115,000 (1967)[43]

843,931,000 (1990) [44]

918,570,000 (1994)[40]

1,028,610,32 8 (2001)

1,210,193,422(2011 )[68]

69 (2008) [42]

699,078,4 22

Population growth is the change in a population over time, and can be quantified as the change in the number of individuals of any species in a population using "per unit time" for measurement. In biology, the term population growth is likely to refer to any known organism, but this article deals mostly with the application of the term to human populations in demography. In demography, population growth is used inf ormally for the more specific term population growth rate (see below), and is often used to refer specifically to the growth of the human population of the world. According to Lester R. Brown improvement of the family planning is the main problem and the most urgent problem of the world. The benefit is huge and costs are minimal. If desired the family could become smaller fast. E.g. in Iran the number of children pro family dropped from seven to three by political decisions from 1987 to 1994. if we neglect the active family planning, the costs can exceed our resources. Determinants of Population growth

Population growth is determined by four factors, births(B), deaths(D), immigrants(I), and emigrants(E). Using a formula expressed as P(B-D)+(I-E) In other words, the population growth of a period can be calculated in two parts, natural growth of population (B+D) and mechanical growth of population (I+E),in which Mechanical growth of population is mainly affected by social factors, e.g. the advanced economies are growing faster while the backward economies are growing slowly even with negative growth. Population growth rate In demographics and ecology, population growth rat e (PGR) is the rate at which the number of individuals in a population increases in a given time period as a fraction of the initial population. Specifically, PGR ordinarily refers to the change in population over a unit time period, often expressed as a percentage of the number of individuals in the population at the beginning of that period. This can be written as the formula:[3] The most common way to express population growth is as a percentage, not as a rate. The change in population over a unit time period is expressed as a percentage of the population at the beginning of the time period. That is: For small time periods and growth rates, the added population is the growth rate multiplied by the time period. A positive growth ratio (or rate) indicates that the population is increasing, while a negative growth ratio indicates the population is decreasing. A growth ratio of zero indicates that there were the same number of people at the two times -- net difference between births, deaths a growth rate may be zero even when there are significant changes in the birth rates, death rates, immigration rates, and age distribution between the two times. [4] Equivalently, percent death rate = the average number of deaths in a year for every 100 people in the total population. If the length of the time is taken smaller and smaller, the PGR approaches the logarithmic derivative of the population function P. If the population as a function of time is ex ponential, say P(t) = Ceat, the logarithmic derivative is a. Thus, the PGR approximates the exponent a for populations with exponential growth. A related measure is the net reproduction rate. In the absence of migration, a net reproduction rate of more than one indicates that the population of women is increasing, while a net reproduction rate less than one (sub-replacement fertility) indicates that the population of women is decreasing. Excessive growth and decline

Main articles: Overpopulation and population decline Population exceeding the carrying capacity of an area or environment is called overpopulation. It may be caused by growth in population or by reduction in capacity. Spikes in human population can cause problems such as pollution and traffic congestion, these might be resolved or worsened by technological and economic changes. Conversely, such areas may be considered "underpopulated" if the population is not large enough to maintain an economic system (see population decline). Between these two extremes sits the notion of the optimum population.

Human population growth rate Annual population growth rate in percent, as listed in the CIA World Factbook (2011 estimate).[5] Growth rate of world population (1950-2000) Population of the world from 10,000 BCE to 2000 CE (logarithmic scale)

Sex ratio is the ratio of males to females in a population. The primary sex ratio is the ratio at the time of conception, secondary sex ratio is the ratio at time of birth, and tertiary sex ratio is the ratio of mature organisms The human sex ratio is of particular interest to anthropologists and demographers. In humans the secondary sex ratio is commonly assumed to be 105 boys to 100 girls (which sometimes is shortened to "a ratio of 105"). In human societies, however, sex ratios at birth may be considerably skewed by natural reasons such as the age of mother at birth[2], and unnatural reasons such as sex-selective abortion[citation needed]. The CIA estimates that the current world wide sex ratio at birth is 107 boys to 100 girls. In 2010, the global sex ratio was 986 females per 1,000 males and trended to reduce to 984 in 2011. In biology, sex ratio is defined as the proportion of males in the population. Sex ratio theory The theory of sex ratio is a field of study concerned with the accurate prediction of sex ratios in all sexual species, based on a consideration of their natural history. The field continues to be heavily influenced by Eric Charnov's 1982 book, Sex Allocation.[5] He defines five major questions, both for his book and the field in general (slightly abbreviated here): For a dioecious species, what is the equilibrium sex ratio maintained by natural selection? For a sequential hermaphrodite, what is the equilibrium sex order and time of sex change?

For a simultaneous hermaphrodite, what is the equilibrium allocation of resources to male versus female function in each breeding season? Under what conditions are the various states of hermaphroditism or dioecy evolutionarily stable? When is a mixture of sexual types stable? When does selection favour the ability of an individual to alter its allocation to male versus female function, in response to particular environmental or life history situations? Biological research mostly concerns itself with sex allocation rather than sex ratio, sex allocation denoting the allocation of energy to either sex. Common research themes are the effects of local mate and resource competition (often abbreviated LMC and LRC, respectively). Fisher's principle Main article: Fisher's principle Fisher's principle explains why for most species, the sex ratio is approximately 1:1. Bill Hamilton expounded Fisher's argument in his 1967 paper on "Extraordinary sex ratios"[6] as follows, given the assumption of equal parental expenditure on offspring of both sexes. Suppose male births are less common than female. A newborn male then has better mating prospects than a newborn female, and therefore can expect to have more offspring. Therefore parents genetically disposed to produce males tend to have more than average numbers of grandchildren born to them. Therefore the genes for male-producing tendencies spread, and male births become more common. As the 1:1 sex ratio is approached, the advantage associated with producing males dies away. The same reasoning holds if females are substituted for males throughout. Therefore 1:1 is the equilibrium ratio. In modern language, the 1:1 ratio is the evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS).[7] Types of sex ratio The sex ratio varies according to the age profile of the population. It is generally divided into four: primary sex ratio ratio at fertilization secondary sex ratio ratio at birth tertiary sex ratio ratio in sexually active organisms quaternary sex ratio ratio in post-reproductive organisms Measuring these is a problem since there are no clear boundaries between them. Human sex ratio Main article: Human sex ratio

Humans have a Fisherian sex ratio. In humans the secondary sex ratio is commonly assumed to be 105 boys to 100 girls (which sometimes is shortened to "a ratio of 105"). In human societies, however, sex ratios at birth may be considerably skewed even in economically developed countries such as the United States by natural reasons such as the age of mother at birth and ethnicity[2], and unnatural reasons in other countries because of sex-selective abortion and infanticide.[citation needed] Examples in non-human species Environmental Spending equal amounts of resources to produce offspring of either sex is an evolutionarily stable strategy: if the general population deviates from this equilibrium by favoring one sex, one can obtain higher reproductive success with less effort by producing more of the other. For species where the cost of successfully raising one offspring is roughly the same regardless of its sex, this translates to an approximately equal sex ratio. Bacteria of the genus Wolbachia cause skewed sex ratios in some arthropod species as they kill males. Sex-ratio of adult populations of pelagic copepods is usually skewed towards dominance of females. However, there are differences in adult sex ratios between families: in families in which females require multiple matings to keep producing eggs, sex ratios are less biased (close to 1); in families in which females can produce eggs continuously after only one mating, sex ratios are strongly skewed towards females.[8] Several species of reptiles have temperature-dependent sex determination, where incubation temperature of eggs determines the sex of the individual. In the American Alligator, for example, females are hatched from eggs incubated between 27.7 to 30 C, whereas males are hatched from eggs 32.233.8 C. In this method, however, all eggs in a clutch (2050) will be of the same gender. In fact, the natural sex ratio of this species is five females to one male.[9] Dioecious plants secondary sex ratio and amount of pollen It was found that the amount of fertilizing pollen can influence secondary sex ratio in dioecious plants. Increase in pollen amount leads to decrease in number of male plants in the progeny. This relationship was confirmed on four plant species from three families Rumex acetosa (Polygonaceae),[10][11] Melandrium album (Cariophyllaceae), [12][13] Cannabis sativa[14] and Humulus japonicus (Cannabinaceae). [15]

Individual

In birds, mothers can influence the gender of their chicks. In peafowl, maternal body condition can influence the proportion of daughters in the range from 25% to 87%.[16] In several different groups of fish, such as the Wrasses, Parrotfish, Clownfish, dichogamy or sequential hermaphoditism is normal. This can cause a discrepancy in the sex ratios as well. In the Bluestreak cleaner wrasse, there is only one male for every group of 6-8 females. If the male fish dies, the strongest female changes its sex to become the male for the group. All of these wrasse are born female, and only become male in this situation. Other species, like clownfish, do this in reverse, where all start out as non-reproductive males, and the largest male becomes a female, with the second-largest male maturing to become reproductive. Economical Traditionally, farmers have discovered that the most economically efficient community of animals will have a large number of females and a very small number of males. A herd of cows with a few prize bulls or a flock of hens with one rooster are the most economical sex ratios for domesticated livestock.

"Built-up area" redirects here. For use of the term in the United Kingdom Highway Code, see B uilt-up area (Highway Code). "Urban zone" redirects here. For other uses, see Urban zone (disambiguation). "Urban region" redirects here. For an area in Catalonia, Spain, see mbit metropolit de Barcelona. "Urbanized area" redirects here. For use of the term in relation to the United States Census, see List of United States urban areas. Greater Tokyo Area, the world's most populous urban area, with about 35 million people.

Urban areas with at least one million inhabitants in 2006. In 1800, 3% of the world's population lived in cities, a figure that had risen to 47% by the end of the twentieth century. World map showing percent of population living in an urban environment. An urban area is characterized by higher population density and vast human features in comparison to areas surrounding it. Urban areas may be cities, towns or conurbations, but the term is not commonly extended to rural settlements such as villages and hamlets. Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of urbanization. Measuring the extent of an urban area helps in analyzing population density and urban sprawl, and in determining urban and rural populations.[citation needed] Unlike an urban area, a metropolitan area includes not only the urban area, but also satellite cities plus intervening rural land that is socio-economically connected to the urban core city, typically by employment ties through commuting, with the urban core city being the primary labor market. In fact, urbanized areas agglomerate and grow as the core population/economic activity center within a larger metropolitan area or envelope. In the US, Metropolitan areas tend to be defined using counties or county sized political units as building blocks. Counties tend to be stable political boundaries; economists prefer to work with economic and social statistics based on metropolitan areas. Urbanized areas are a more relevant statistic for determining per capita land usage and densities.[citation needed] Australia In Australia, urban areas are referred to as "urban centres" and are defined as population clusters of 1000 or more people, with a density of at least 200/km2.[1] Canada Downtown Toronto (an urban area) According to Statistics Canada, an urban area in Canada is an area with a population of at least 1,000 people where the density is no fewer than 400 persons per square km2.[2] If two or more urban areas are within 2 km (1.2 mi) of each other by road, they are merged into a single urban area, provided they do not cross census metropolitan area or census agglomeration boundaries.[3] China In China, an urban area is an urban district, city and town with a population density higher than 1,500/km2. As for urban districts with a population density lower than that number, only the population that lives in streets, town sites, and adjacent villages is counted as urban population.[4] France In France, an urban area is a zone (aire urbaine) encompassing an area of built-up growth (called an "urban unit" (unit urbaine)[5] - close in definition to the North American urban area) and its commuter belt (couronne priurbaine). Although the official INSEE translation of aire urbaine is "urban area",[6] most North Americans would find the same as being similar in definition to their metropolitan area. Japan In Japan urbanized areas are defined as contigu ous areas of densely inhabited districts (DIDs) using census enumeration districts as units with a density requirement of 4,000 inhabitants per square kilometre (10,000 /sq mi). New Zealand Statistics New Zealand defines New Zealand urban areas for statistical purposes as a settlement with a population of a thousand people or more. Norway

Statistics Norway defines urban areas ("tettsteder") similarly to the other Nordic countries. Unlike in Denmark and Sweden, the distance between each building has to be of less than 50 m, although exceptions are made due to parks, industrial areas, rivers, and similar. Groups of houses less than 400 m from the main body of an urban area are included in the urban area. [7] Philippines With an estimated population of 16.3 Mio. Metro Manila is the most populous metropolitan area in the Philippines and the 11th in the world. However, the greater urban area is the 5th largest in the world with a population of 20,654,307 people (2010 estimate).[8] Including Metro Manila, the Philippines has twelve metropolitan areas as defined by the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA). Metro Angeles, Metro Bacolod, Metro Baguio, Metro Batangas, Metro Cagayan de Oro, Metro Cebu, Metro Dagupan, Metro Davao, Metro Iloilo-Guimaras, Metro Naga, Metro Olongapo. Poland In Poland, official "urban" population figures simply refer to those localities which have the status of towns (miasta). The "rural" population is that of all areas outside the boundaries of these towns. This distinction may give a misleading impression in some cases, since some localities with only village status may have acquired larger and denser populations than many smaller towns.[9] Russia In Russia, only the population residing in cities/towns and urban-type settlements is considered to be "urban". The city/town/urban-settlement designation means usually that the majority of the population is employed in areas other than agriculture, but the exact definitions vary from one federal subject to another. Sweden Urban areas in Sweden (ttorter) are statistically defined localities, totally independent of the administrative subdivision of the country. There are 1956 such localities in Sweden, with a population ranging from 200 to 1,372,000 inhabitants.[10] United Kingdom The United Kingdom's Office for National Statistics has produced census results from urban areas since 1951, since 1981 based upon the extent of irreversible urban development indicated on Ordnance Survey maps. The definition is an extent of at least 20 ha and at least 1,500 census residents. Separate areas are linked if less than 200 m (220 yd) apart. Included are transportation features.[11] The UK has five Urban Areas with a population over a million and a further sixty nine with a population over one hundred thousand. United States New York City, the most populous urban area in the United States Main article: United States urban area In the United States there are two categories of urban area. The term urbanized area denotes an urban area of 50,000 or more people. Urban areas under 50,000 people are called urban clusters. Urbanized areas were first delineated in the United States in the 1950 census, while urban clusters were added in the 2000 census. There are 1,371 urban areas and urban clusters with more than 10,000 people. The U.S. Census Bu reau defines an urban area as: "Core census block groups or blocks that have a population density of at least 1,000 people per square mile (386 per square kilometer) and surrounding census blocks that have an overall density of at least 500 people per square mile (193 per square kilometer)." The concept of Urbanized Areas as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau is often used as a more accurate gauge of the size of a city, since in different cities and states the lines between city borders and the urbanized area of that city are often not the same. For example, the city of

Greenville, South Carolina has a city population under 60,000 and an urbanized area population of over 300,000, while Greensboro, North Carolina has a city population over 200,000 and an urbanized area population of around 270,000 meaning that Greenville is actually "larger" for some intents and purposes, but not for others, such as taxation, local elections, etc. The largest urban area in the United States is that of New York City, with its city proper population exceeding 8 million and its metropolitan area population almost 19 million. The next four largest urban areas in the U.S. are those of Los Angeles, Chicago, Miami and Philadelphia.[12] About 79 percent of the population of the United States lives within the boundaries of urbanized area as of April, 2000.[13] Combined, these areas occupy about 2 percent of the United States. The majority of urbanized area residents are suburbanites; core central city residents make up about 30 percent of the urbanized area population (about 60 out of 210 million)[citation needed]. In the U.S. Department of Agriculture's natural resources inventory, urban areas are officially known as developed areas or urban and built-up areas. Such areas include cities, villages, other built-up areas of more than 10 ac (4 ha), industrial sites, railroad yards, cemeteries, airports, golf courses, shooting ranges, institutional and public administration sites, and similar areas. The 1997 national resources inventory placed over 98,000,000 ac (40,000,000 ha) in this category, an increase of 25,000,000 ac (10,000,000 ha) since 1982.[14]

The world popula tion is the total number of living humans on the planet Earth. As of today, it is estimated to be 6.973 billion by the United States Census Bureau.[1] According to a separate estimate by the United Nations, it has already exceeded 7 billion.[2][3][4] The world population has experienced continuous growth since the end of the Great Famine and Black Death in 1350, when it stood at around 370 million.[5] The highest rates of growthincreases above 1.8% per yearwere seen briefly during the 1950s, and for a longer period during the 1960s and 1970s. The growth rate peaked at 2.2% in 1963, and had declined to 1.1% by 2009. Annual births peaked at 173 million in the late 1990s, and are now expected to remain constant at their 2011 level of 134 million, while deaths number 56 million per year, and are expected to increase to 80 million per year by 2040.[6] Current projections show a continued increase in population (but a steady decline in the population growth rate), with the global population expected to reach between 7.5 and 10.5 billion by 2050. Population by region Population statistics for all six permanently inhabited continents and the ten most-populated countries. The world's population is unevenly distributed, with six of the world's seven continents being permanently inhabited on a large scale. Asia is the most-populated of Earth's continents, with its over 4 billion inhabitants accounting for over 60% of the world population. The world's two most-populated countries alone, China and India, constitute about 37 percent of the world's population. Africa is the second-most-populated continent, with around 1 billion people, or 15% of the world's population. Europe's 733 million people make up 11% of the world's

population, while the Latin American and Caribbean regions are home to 589 million (9%). Northern America has a population of around 352 million (5%), and Oceania, the leastpopulated region, has about 35 million inhabitants (0.5%).[10] Though it is not permanently inhabited by any fixed population, Antarctica has a small, fluctuating international population, based mainly in polar science stations. This population tends to rise in the summer months and decrease significantly in winter, as visiting researchers return to their home countries. Milestones by the billions World population milestones (USCB estimates)Population (in billions) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Year 1804 1927 1960 1974 1987 1999 2011 2027 2046 Years elapsed 123 33 14 13 12 12 16 19 It is estimated that the population of the world reached one billion for the first time in 1804. It would be another 122 years before it reached two billion in 1927, but it took only 33 years to rise by another billion people, reaching three billion in 1960. Thereafter, the global population reached four billion in 1974, five billion in 1987, six billion in 1999 and, by some estimates, seven billion in October 2011.[2] It is projected to reach eight billion by 20252030. According to current projections, the world's population is likely to reach around nine billion by 2045 2050, with alternative scenarios ranging from a low of 7.4 billion to a high of more than 10.6 billion.[15] Projected figures vary depending on underlying statistical assumptions and which variables are manipulated in projection calculations, especially the fertility variable. Longrange predictions to 2150 range from a population decline to 3.2 billion in the 'low scenario', to 'high scenarios' of 24.8 billion. One scenario predicts a massive increase to 256 billion by 2150, assuming fertility remains at 1995 levels.[16] There is no estimation for the exact day or month the world's population surpassed each of the one and two billion marks. The days of three and four billion were not officially noted, but the International Database of the United States Census Bureau places them in July 1959 and April 1974. The United Nations did determine, and celebrate, the "Day of 5 Billion" on 11 July 1987, and the "Day of 6 Billion" on 12 October 1999. However, the International Programs division of the United States Census Bureau estimated that the world population reached six billion on 21 April 1999, several months earlier than the official United Nations day. The "Day of 7 Billion" has been targeted by the United States Census Bureau to be in March 2012,[1] while the Population Division of the United Nations suggests 31 October 2011.[17]