PRACTICAL APPROACH TO

CATHODIC PROTECTION
AUTHOR Gulzar Ahmed Rana (Ph.D.)

First Edition March 2005

FOREWARD
Numerous books on the subject of Corrosion and Cathodic Protection have been written internationally. The book titled Practical Approach to Cathodic Protection is the first of its kind written by a Pakistani author with the sole purpose of creating awareness of corrosion and its deleterious effects. Corrosion control methods, monitoring techniques, system troubleshooting and system design features are presented in detail in such a manner that will guide those working in this field to gain sufficient knowledge to efficiently operate and monitor Cathodic protection systems. System design guidelines are presented in such a way that with time and experience a corrosion engineer will gain sufficient knowledge to enable him to undertake complex design work. The book starts off explaining the fundamentals of electricity. Ohms law and the Faradays laws, which are so important in the understanding of cathodic protection functions, are explained in detail with mathematical models. Corrosion being an electrochemical phenomenon, an entire chapter is devoted to this subject. Various types of corrosion cells and how they function are illustrated followed by in-depth discussion on the various forms of corrosion that are menace to the industry. Coatings being a vital barrier against corrosion, an entire chapter is devoted to this subject. A detailed discussion on material selection is presented which includes various types of anodes (sacrificial and impressed current), and DC power sources. System designs as well as monitoring techniques are explained in sufficient detail.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

The author, Dr. Gulzar Ahmed Rana is the director of corrosion projects in the Oilman Technologies (Pvt.) Ltd. He received his Ph.D. in Cathodic Protection from Trinity College & University (South Dakota, USA). He has to his credit over 40 years of experience in diversified aspects of cathodic protection. He had worked 20 years in Aramcos Corrosion Control Department (Saudi Arabia) and retired in 1980 as a corrosion control engineer. Soon after retirement he joined Saudi Maple (also in Saudi Arabia) as a project engineer responsible for designing over 1100 oil well casings cathodic protection systems. Since his repatriation from Saudi Arabia (1985), he has designed cathodic protection systems for well casings of 56 wells in Pakistan belonging to OGDC (Oil & Gas Development Corporation), PPL (Pakistan Petroleum Limited) and OPI (Orient Petroleum Inc.). Cathodic protection design, installation and commissioning work also included Oil terminals, Oil and gas facilities, fertilizer plants, pipelines and flow lines. He also did cathodic protection critique and audit surveys of facilities owned by PPL, FJFC, BHP and OPI. The book Practical approach to Cathodic Protection has been written with the sole purpose of providing corrosion awareness and its control. It is hoped that the reader will learn and benefit from it. BADAR H. KHAN Managing Director Oilman Technologies (Pvt.) Ltd Karachi, Pakistan

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Preface
External corrosion of subsurface metallic objects such as pipelines, storage tank bottoms, sea going vessels, jetties and piers, is not a strange phenomena to those who are particularly involved in the oil and gas industries, marine installations, power plants and fertilizer plants etc., the list can go on and on. Corrosion directly cost the national economy approximately 4% of its GNP. It would be fair to assume that the cost of corrosion in Pakistan is in excess of 2 billion dollars annually. The huge dollar amount represents the cost of material, labor, equipment and funds associated with lost revenues that are caused by corrosion damage to metallic structures including bridges, gas and liquid pipelines, motor vehicles, aircraft and oil production facilities. The effectiveness of cathodic protection in controlling corrosion is well recognized through out the world. Corrosion handbooks, textbooks and manuals have been written on this subject by well-known authors and researchers. Continuing research is ongoing and as a result new materials and techniques are being made available by various institutions, N.A.C.E. (National Association of Corrosion Engineers) being the worldrenowned. The purpose of this book is not to re-invent the wheel but to provide basic knowledge and guidance to those who are beginning a career in the field of corrosion and cathodic protection. The real intention of the author is to provide sufficient knowledge for practical people actively engaged in cathodic protection work as a corrosion engineer or a technologist. As Peabody has said so rightly that any textbook of similar nature is in no way intended to be used as a manual for selecting materials, survey methods and design philosophies. Each installation whether it is a pipeline, an oil & gas facility or an industrial plant, be treated as a unique system and incorrect selection of material, survey methods or application of designs may prove to be hazardous and greatly affect the safety of personnel and capital investment. Therefore, it is strongly emphasized that those who are new in this filed must not embark on material selection and CP system design work on their own unless they have gained sufficient experience working under the guidance of experienced corrosion engineers, Corrosion engineering is a subject, which cannot be classified as a complete science. There are no Universities in the world, which offer degree in corrosion engineering. Even today this subject remains much of an art than it is a science and thus can only be learned by the actual hands-on experience in the field. Many corrosion engineers today may hold degrees in electrical engineering, chemical engineering, and metallurgy or may possess no degree at all. All of these men become corrosion engineers by working with or under the guidance of experienced corrosion engineers and by perseverance. Steel is by far the most common material of construction, which presents a real challenge.

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Its wide spread use lends itself to its physical properties, abundance and it is comparatively cheap as compared to other metals and alloys. Most pipelines buried or submerged are made of steel. The submerged surfaces of piers and jetties are made of steel. Almost all of the buried equipment within oil & gas plants as well as other industrial installations comprises of steel objects. Although, steel is a strong material, it is chemically very unstable and when exposed to the elements, will deteriorate. Cathodic protection is the state-of-the-art technology which when applied in combination with coatings, can effectively control corrosion and provide long lasting equipments service life which can be almost free of corrosion. This book concentrates on familiarizing the reader with the fundamentals of corrosion mechanism, cathodic protection, coatings and various field survey methods.
Chapter-1 is devoted to the understanding of fundamental electricity and Ohms law and is intended for those readers who require this subject as a re-fresher. Chapter-2 is devoted to electrochemistry. This chapter discusses the Faradays law and its applicability in defining rates of corrosion of various metals in aqueous environments. Chaptrer-3 defines corrosion, discusses various forms of corrosion, and behavior of different types of corrosion cells. Chapter 4 presents fundamentals of corrosion mechanism, various types of corrosion cells and their reactions and how they relate to real world situations. Chapter 5 is devoted to coatings. Chapter 6 outlines the history of cathodic protection and goes on to briefly describe the polarization phenomenon and cathodic protection system types followed by a detailed discussion on the different type of environments affecting metals. Chapter 7 is devoted to soil resistivity measurement techniques. Chapter 8 presents details discussion of sacrificial & impressed current anodes, coke breeze backfill and the DC power sources for cathodic protection. Chapters 9 & 10 are devoted to practical design aspects of cathodic protection. Chapter 11 discusses various criteria of protection and their applicability. Also discussed are the monitoring instruments and techniques and safety devices. Chapter 12 discusses in detail the various survey techniques and methods. Chapter 13 is devoted to pipeline coating evaluation surveys.

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CONTENTS
Chapter - 1.........................................................................................................................1 Basic Concept of Electricity............................................................................................1 Ohms Law..................................................................................................................1 Types of circuits...........................................................................................................2 Power and Energy........................................................................................................3 Voltage Drop in an Electric Circuit.............................................................................3 Measurements of voltage (IR Drop) In Electrical Circuits..........................................4 Figure 1-4b illustrates measurement of IR drop ...........................................................4 The voltage measured between two screw drivers driven in earth and placed some distance apart is the IR drop through soil which is conducting current from the anode to the structure........................................................................................................4 Chapter 2.........................................................................................................................5 Electrochemistry..............................................................................................................5 Nomenclature...............................................................................................................5 Current Phenomena..........................................................................................................5 Faradays Laws............................................................................................................5 The Faraday.................................................................................................................6 Electrochemical Equivalents........................................................................................6 Electrochemical Series ................................................................................................7 Over voltage ................................................................................................................8 Back Electromotive Force (EMF)...............................................................................9 IR Drop In Cathodic Protection Circuits...................................................................10 Depolarization............................................................................................................12 Chapter - 3........................................................................................................................15 Definition of Corrosion..................................................................................................15 Forms of corrosion.........................................................................................................15 Uniform Corrosion.....................................................................................................15 Pitting Corrosion........................................................................................................15 Crevice Corrosion......................................................................................................16 Galvanic Corrosion....................................................................................................16 Erosion Corrosion......................................................................................................17 Cavitation Erosion.....................................................................................................17 Fretting Corrosion ...................................................................................................18 Intergranular Corrosion..............................................................................................18 Exfoliation corrosion.................................................................................................19 Dealloying..................................................................................................................19 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)..............................................................................19 Corrosion by Microbial Action..................................................................................20 Electrolytic Corrosion................................................................................................20 Chapter 4 ......................................................................................................................22

Fundamentals of Corrosion Mechanism........................................................................22 Corrosion Cell............................................................................................................22 Corrosion Cell Reaction.............................................................................................23 Various Types of Corrosion Cells.............................................................................24 Differential Aeration Cell..........................................................................................24 Electrolyte Concentration Cells.................................................................................25 Potential Due to Mechanical Forces ****.................................................................25 Dissimilar Electrolyte cell.........................................................................................26 Mill Scale...................................................................................................................28 Shielded Corrosion....................................................................................................28 Terminology of current flow.....................................................................................29 Natural Electrode Potential........................................................................................30 Corrosion Cell Current...............................................................................................31 Weight of Metal Loss................................................................................................31 Area Effects...............................................................................................................31 Chapter 5.......................................................................................................................34 Coatings.........................................................................................................................34 Moisture.....................................................................................................................35 Coke...........................................................................................................................35 Mechanical Faults......................................................................................................35 Faults Covered by Wrappers......................................................................................35 Mill Coated Pipe........................................................................................................35 Plastic Tapes (Pressure-Sensitive).............................................................................36 Pressure Sensitive Tapes............................................................................................36 Film Thickness (PVC)...............................................................................................36 Laminated Tapes with Primers..................................................................................36 Tape Thickness..........................................................................................................36 Coal Tar Tapes...........................................................................................................37 Extruded Plastic Coatings..........................................................................................37 Thin Film Coatings....................................................................................................37 Reinforcing Materials................................................................................................38 Asbestos Wrappers.....................................................................................................38 Glass Outer-wrap.......................................................................................................38 Paper Outer-wrap.......................................................................................................38 Glass Inner Wrap.......................................................................................................38 Rock shield.................................................................................................................39 Coating Disbondment................................................................................................39 Chapter 6.......................................................................................................................39 Cathodic Protection .......................................................................................................39 History........................................................................................................................39 Basics of Cathodic Protection....................................................................................40 Basic Theory .............................................................................................................40 Polarization................................................................................................................41 Cathodic Protection Systems.....................................................................................41 Environment...................................................................................................................42 Atmosphere................................................................................................................42 vi

Natural Waters...........................................................................................................43 Soil Variables.............................................................................................................46 Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC).........................................................47 Chapter - 7........................................................................................................................50 Soil Resistivity ..............................................................................................................50 Soil Box Procedure....................................................................................................50 Wenner 4-Pin Method................................................................................................51 Geonics Method.........................................................................................................53 Chapter - 8........................................................................................................................56 Anodes ..........................................................................................................................56 Anodes Classification................................................................................................56 Extruded Galvanic Ribbon ........................................................................................58 Impressed Current Anodes.........................................................................................58 Graphite Anode..........................................................................................................58 High Silicon Chromium Cast Iron.............................................................................59 Anode specifications .................................................................................................59 Scrap Steel Anode......................................................................................................60 Platinized Anode........................................................................................................63 Magnetite Anode........................................................................................................64 Anodeflex...................................................................................................................64 Carbonaceous Backfill...............................................................................................65 D.C. Power Sources.......................................................................................................66 Conventional Transformer/Rectifier..........................................................................66 Pulse Rectifier............................................................................................................67 Theory behind the pulsed systems.............................................................................67 Solar Power Unit........................................................................................................68 Thermoelectric Generator (TEG)..............................................................................69 Energy Converters (Ormat).......................................................................................70 Chapter 9........................................................................................................................72 Ground bed Resistance .................................................................................................72 Chapter 10.....................................................................................................................78 CP Design Considerations.............................................................................................78 Electrically Remote Structures..................................................................................79 Cathodic Protection Design Parameters....................................................................80 Examples of C.P. System Designs.............................................................................81 Example-1: ................................................................................................................82 Example-2:.................................................................................................................84 Example-3a: ..............................................................................................................86 Example-3b: ..............................................................................................................87 Example-4: ................................................................................................................88 Example 5: ................................................................................................................89 Example 6:.................................................................................................................92 Chapter - 11......................................................................................................................95

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Criteria of Protection.....................................................................................................95 Instant-off 100mV Shift.............................................................................................95 Minimum 850mV with Cathodic Protection Applied.............................................95 Minimum 850mV with CP Current interrupted......................................................96 Cathodic Protection Coupons....................................................................................96 Maximum Allowable Potentials................................................................................96 Monitoring Techniques..............................................................................................96 Basic Instruments Used in Monitoring......................................................................97 Cathodic protection Monitoring ..................................................................................100 Long Term Monitoring............................................................................................101 Routine Monitoring..................................................................................................102 Chapter 12....................................................................................................................110 Some Unusual Problems..............................................................................................110 Parallel Buried line .................................................................................................110 Induced AC..............................................................................................................110 DC Decoupling Devices..........................................................................................111 Cathodic Protection Coupons..................................................................................112 Pipeline Casings.......................................................................................................113 Insulating flanges.........................................................................................................117 Chapter 13..................................................................................................................121 Special Surveys............................................................................................................121 Coating Evaluation Surveys.....................................................................................121 Miscellaneous other Surveys...................................................................................125 Ground bed Performance.........................................................................................131 Glossary of Terms..........................................................................................................134

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Chapter - 1 Basic Concept of Electricity

In the understanding of Corrosion and Cathodic Protection it is very essential that the basic principles of DC electricity and its generation is known. All electrical power sources such as generators, transformers, rectifiers and batteries are merely instruments for moving electricity from one place to another and doing work while returning back to its source. The conductors through which the electric current flow, offers more or less resistance to that flow, depending on the conductors material and its crosssectional area. Copper wire is mostly used because it offers little resistance to the current flow. Volt: The current in an electrical circuit must have pressure to overcome the resistance of the conductor or the components of an electrical circuit through which current passes. The pressure is called voltage and is caused by difference in potential across the terminals of the power source. This pressure, which causes current flow, is measured in Volts. Ohm: The restriction, which opposes the current flowing along a conductor, is called resistance. The unit for the measurement of this resistance is called Ohm. The standard ohm is the resistance of a column of mercury 106.3 centimeters in length and one square millimeter in cross-section under standard laboratory conditions. Ampere: The ampere is the quantity of current flowing in a circuit. By definition, an ampere is the current produced when a pressure of one volt is impressed upon a circuit having a resistance of one ohm. Conductor: Any metallic object through which electrons can flow is called conductor Metals such as copper, aluminum, gold and, silver are the best conductors of electric current, other metals like zinc, iron and tin platinum, mercury and carbon are poor conductors. Copper is particularly used as electrical conductors on account of its high conductivity, its abundance and the ease with which it is worked into various shapes. The resistance of a conductor varies directly with the length and inversely with its cross-sectional area, the general formula for the resistance is: R = pL A

Where: R = resistance L = Length p = Resistivity of material (or specific resistance). A = Cross sectional area

Ohms Law
Ohms law establishes a definite relation ship between voltage, current and resistance. When a current flows in any electric circuit, the magnitude of that current is determined by the electromotive force (EMF) acting upon

that circuit and the resistance of the circuit, the resistance being dependent on the material, cross-section, and length of the conductor. The relation that determines the amount of current flowing through a circuit is known as Ohms Law. It is a very simple law but is of such a great value that without it, complete understanding of how electricity works, would not be possible. This law can conveniently resolve the majority of problems of electric circuits. Ohms Law states that in a given circuit the amount of current in amperes is equal to the pressure in volts, divided by the resistance in ohms, that is:
CRET U N R = PESR R U S E R I TN E S C S A E = VLS O T OM HS

is less than the resistance of the lowest individual resistor. A series resistance may be defined as one in which the resistances are connected in a continuous run (i.e., connected end to end) as shown in fig. 1-1. It is evident that since the circuit has no branches, the same current flows through each resistance. + BATTERY E4=IR4 E1=IR1 R4 I R2 E2=IR2 R3 E3= IR3

R1

Figure 1-1
The total potential drop (IR) across the whole circuit equals simple addition of voltage drop (IR) across each individual resistor E1 = IR1 E2 = IR2 E3 = IR3 E4 = IR4 Since E = E1+E2+E3+E4 and R = R1+R2+R3+R4 The equation for the total potential drop of the circuit becomes: E = IR1+IR2+IR3+IR4 = I (R1+R2+R3+R4) Therefore: I = E R 2 + = E R

Which when expressed by symbols, becomes:

I = E R

Where I = current flow in amperes. E = pressure in volts. R = resistance in ohms. In the form as thus written, Ohms law applies only to direct current circuits or non-inductive alternating current circuits. In cathodic protection work, all circuits involved are direct current circuits.

R1

R 3 + R 4

Types of circuits
Resistances may be connected in series, parallel or combination of series-parallel circuits. When two or more resistors are connected in series, the total resistance of the group is higher than that of each individual resistor. When, on the other hand, two or more resistors are connected in parallel the total resistance

If several resistances are connected as shown in Figure 1-2, so that each resistor is conducting part of the total current flowing from point A to point B then the resistors are said to be in parallel circuit,

from (A) to (C) plus that from (C) to (D) plus that from (D) to (B). The main thing to remember when dealing with series and parallel combination of resistances is to reduce each parallel group into its equivalent resistance and then add up the result to obtain the total resistance of the circuit. The total resistance of the circuit is: R = R + 1 1 ( 1 R2 + 1 R3 + 1 ) R4 + R5

I1 I2 I3

R1

I1= E /R 1

R 2 I2 = E /R 2
3 R 3 I3= E /R

Figure 1-2
The voltage E between points (A) and (B) is the same over any branch of the circuit. It may then be stated: E = I1R1 + I2R2 + I3R3 And I = I1 + I2 + I3 When Ohms law is applied to the individual resistances, the following equations are obtained. I1 = E/ R1 I2 = E/ R2 I3 = E/ R3 Hence: I = E/ R1 + E/ R2 + E/ R3 The complex arrangement of conductors in an electrical circuit is a combination of the series and parallel circuit such as that shown in Figure 1-3
R2 R1
A C

Power and Energy

When a steady current I flows through a conductor and the voltage drop across the terminals of the conductor is E, the power or the energy per unit time, delivered to the conductor is: PE = I

Current is expressed in amperes, the potential in volts and power in watts (joules per second). When the voltage and current are variable, their instantaneous values being represented by E and I gives the instantaneous power, that is, the instantaneous rate at which energy is being delivered. When a known value of the current I flows through a conductor whose resistance R is known, then the power per unit time is: P= I2 R

R3
D

R5
B

R4

Figure 1-3
The resistance from (A) to (B) of such a circuit is the sum of all the resistances of the several parts. Thus the resistance from (A) to (B) is equal to the resistance

Voltage Drop in an Electric Circuit

When an electric current is used at a considerable distance from the power source, the voltage at the receiving end

of the line is always less than the power source voltage. This voltage drop in the line is equal to the current times the resistance of the entire length of the line (IR). Using larger size conductors can reduce the voltage drop in ordinary circuits. When the current return path involves earth as a conductor, the IR drop at the metal/earth contact is dependent upon the surface area of the metal contacting the earth and the resistivity (or conductivity) of the earth. This IR drop can be a significant portion of the overall IR drop in a cathodic protection circuit and will be discussed further in later chapters.

ANODE

V +

+ STR UCTURE

Figure 1-4b
The voltage measured between two screw drivers driven in earth and placed some distance apart is the IR drop through soil which is conducting current from the anode to the structure.

Measurements of voltage (IR Drop) In Electrical Circuits

The IR drop occurs if the resistor is a metallic (electron) conductor or an electrolytic (ion) conductor. Figure 1-4a illustrates the measurements of IR drop in a metallic circuit.

V O LTM ETER

0.0 1A

10 O HM

CU R R E N T

Figure 1-4a
A voltmeter placed directly across the resistor reads the I R drop across that resistor which is the product of current and resistance, that is, 0.01 x 10 = 0.1 V Figure 1-4b illustrates measurement of IR drop

Chapter 2 Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry is that branch of science, which deals with the electrical energy that causes chemical changes by transfer of electrons from one substance to the other. In other words, reaction by which electricity is generated by chemical means
Cations: These are positively charged particles. These particles are attracted towards the cathode Anolyte: This is the body of the electrolyte in the vicinity of anodic surface Catholyte: This is the body of the electrolyte in the vicinity of cathodic surface Electrolyte: Ionized solution which is capable of conducting DC conventional current. Electrolysis: The process of causing chemical changes by the flow of current Electrolytic Conductors: The solutions that are acids, bases and salts and which permit movement ions accompanied with chemical reactions. Metallic Conductors: A metallic object, which permits movement of electrons through its body

Nomenclature
Because the equipment and procedures associated with the applications of electrochemistry are different than those used in ordinary chemistry, a nomenclature specific to electrochemistry has been developed which is as follows: Anions: Anions are negatively charged particles. These particles are attracted towards the anode

Ions: Ions are negative or positive charged particles. Anode: The anode is the metal or surface of a metal which discharges current into the electrolyte. Cathode: The cathode is the metal or surface of a metal which receives current from the electrolyte. Electrodes: The metallic objects picking up or discharging current in the solution are called electrodes.

Current Phenomena
Faradays Laws
Faradays first law states that, when a reaction takes place at the surface of metals which involves the passage of the current, then the weight of material liberated or deposited by the flow of current is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity which has passed and are independent of factors, such as size of electrode, voltage, temperature, etc.

In other words, the same amount of metal will be deposited by 1 amp in 60 sec. as by 2 amps in 30 sec. or by 3 amps in 20 sec. Faradays second law gives the numerical relation between the quantity of electricity flowing through the cell and the quantity of material liberated at the electrodes, specifying that the quantities of material liberated at the anode by a given quantity of electricity are proportional to the equivalent weights of the substance involved. Equivalent weight is the combining weight of the substance defined as the atomic weight divided by the valance of the substance. If a unit of electricity dissolves 5 pounds of silver, for example, then the same unit of electricity will dissolve copper at the ratio of 107.88 (equivalent weight of silver) and 31.6 (equivalent weight of copper). Since the ratio of the equivalent weights = 107.88/31.6 = 3.4, then the weight loss of copper will be 3.4*5 = 17 pounds. Figure 2-1 (below) is a schematic description of Faradays second law. A silver plate is immersed in electrolyte in the left container and it is connected to the positive terminal of an automotive battery. Another metallic plate in the same container, which is acting as a cathode in this series circuit, is connected to a copper plate immersed in the right hand side container. Finally a fourth plate in the right container is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. As can be seen, silver and copper are both acting as anodes since these plates are discharging current into the electrolyte. This being a series circuit, the quantity of current discharged at the surface of silver is same as discharged by the surface of

copper. As described earlier, the metal loss of both, silver and copper will be in the ratio of their chemical equivalent weights.

Figure 2-1 The Faraday

In electrochemistry an ampere is defined as that quantity of current which when passing through a solution of Silver Nitrate (AgNO3) will deposit silver at the rate of 0.001118 grams per second. This quantity of current is called a coulomb. The number of coulombs required to dissolve one equivalent weight of silver (107.88) in grams will therefore be

107.88 0.001118 or 96,493.7 coulombs. This is considered as a unit

quantity of electricity necessary to liberate or deposit one equivalent weight of any metal in a solution and is called faraday, after its discoverer, and for ordinary calculation this number is rounded off to 96,500 coulombs.

Electrochemical Equivalents
By the use of the numerical relationship given by the Faradays 2nd law, we can calculate weight of any element that will

be liberated by a unit amount of current in a unit time. Take aluminum for example, its atomic weight is 26.97 and the valence is 3. Therefore, its combining or equivalent weight is 26.973=. As stated by the 2nd law of Faraday, 96500 coulombs will dissolve 8.99 grams of this element. This is called the electrochemical equivalent of the element. For scientific purposes it is usually stated in milligrams per coulomb, grams per ampere-hour, lbs. per 1000 amp hr. and lbs. per amp-yr. A table of electrochemical equivalents of the more important elements is given in Table 2-1.

liberated at the anode by electrochemical action can be calculated as per the following conversion factors: Atomic equivalent weight x 0.010363 = mg. per coulomb (per ampere-sec.) Atomic equivalent weight 0.0382073 = gr per amp-hr x

Atomic equivalent weight x 0.082073 = lbs. per 1000 amp-hr Atomic equivalent weight 0.718955 = lbs. per amp-yr. x

For any other element not listed in Table 2-1, the amount of element Table 2-1 Electrochemical equivalents of Elements
AMP-HOUR1000LB.PER SYMBOL AT. WT. AMP-HRGR. PER COULOMB MG. PER/ AMP-YRLB. PER
6.463 45.704 141.778 0.725 20.073 13.382 74.487 8.742 77.561 42.670 22.784 2.159

Aluminum Copper Gold Hydrogen Iron (ferrous) Iron (ferric) Lead Magnesium Silver Tin Zinc Carbon

ELEMENT

Al Cu Au H Fe Fe Pb Mg Ag Sn Zn C

26.97 3 63.57 1 197.2 1 1.008 1 55.84 2 55.84 3 207.21 2 24.32 2 107.88 1 118.7 2 63.38 2 12.01 4

VALENCE

0.093 0.659 2.044 0.010 0.289 0.193 1.074 0.127 1.118 0.615 0.328 0.031

0.335 2.372 7.357 0.038 1.042 0.694 3.865 0.454 4.025 2.214 1.182 0.112

0.738 5.217 16.185 0.083 2.291 1.528 8.503 0.998 8.854 4.871 2.601 0.246

Electrochemical Series
The discovery by Alessandro Volta of the potential series was a stride towards the development of

electrochemistry. This series is also called the electrochemical series, and is arranged in the order in which the metals replace each other chemically.

Since the voltage developed by the different combinations varies depending on the properties of the electrolyte used, some of the metals which are very close together in the series may change their

position relative to each other on the voltage scale and such a change will not take them far apart from each other. In most cases the general order remains unchanged.Table 2-2 is the electromotive series of metals.

Table 2-2 Electromotive Series of Metals (Referred to Hydrogen Standard Electrode) Electromotive Series of Ion Formed Potential Metals Potassium K+ -2.92 Barium Ba++ -2.90 Calcium Ca++ -2.87 Sodium Na+ -2.71 Magnesium Mg++ -2.40 Aluminum Al+++ -1.70 Manganese Mn++ -1.10 Zinc Zn++ -0.76 Chromium Cr++ -0.56 Iron (ferrous Fe++ -0.44 Cadmium Cd++ -0.40 Cobalt Co++ -0.28 Nickel Ni++ -0.23 Tin Sn++ -0.14 Lead Pb++ -0.12 Iron (ferric) Fe+++ -0.04 Hydrogen H+ 0.00 Antimony Sb+++ +0.10 Bismuth Bi+++ +0.23 Copper(cupric) Cu++ +0.34 Copper(cuprous) Cu+ +0.47 Silver Ag+ +0.80 Mercury Hg++ +0.80 Platinum Pt++++ +0.86 Gold (aurous) Au+ +1.50

The potential shown in the last column is the standard electrode potential which is established by immersing an electrode in a standard solution of its own ions and measuring the potential difference between it and a standard hydrogen electrode to which is assigned the arbitrary value of zero. The standard solution adopted is that which contains an ion concentration of one mole per 1000 grams of water, and the standard temperature for making the determination is 25C. Actual potentials developed between pairs of electrodes in

various solutions and at various concentrations can vary from the values shown, but the general order is the same in most situations, that is, no metal moves very far from the position shown.

Over voltage
The term over voltage, as generally used, is simply another name for the polarization in a corrosion cell in which gases are produced at one or both electrodes. The chief components of over voltage are the ohmic resistance

due to gas film on the surface of the electrode and the bubbles on and near the electrode, and any electrode effect that may exist between the particular electrodes in question and the gas being produced at their surfaces. Since both of these factors are variable over rather wide limits and, so far as known, are independent of each other, the resulting combination may amount to nearly one volt. In most cases it is probable that the resistance factor is greater than the electrode effect. The prime-determining factor in over voltage is the particular combination of electrode and gas that is brought together. The smoother the surface of the electrode the higher is the over voltage. Over voltage increases with increasing current density, and in most cases increases with time, at least up to a certain limit. In some cases the values vary considerably with the characteristics of the electrolyte, particularly between acid and alkaline electrolytes. The temperature and pressure of the electrolyte also have some effect. The values of over voltage as determined by different investigators vary considerably, depending on the conditions used in the experiment. Tables 2-3a & 2-3b give some maximum and minimum values recorded by various investigators; this shows the general character and magnitude of a number of typical over voltages. Table 2-3a
Over Voltage of Hydrogen Electrode Platinum (platinized) Graphite Platinum (smooth) Gold Silver Carbon Monel Iron Copper Tin Min V 0.00 0.002 0.02 0.02 0.10 0.14 0.19 0.20 0.23 0.24 Max V 0.07 1.22 0.77 0.95 1.08 1.23 1.21 1.29 1.27 1.23

Brass Zinc Aluminum

0.38 0.48 0.30

1.25 1.24 1.29

Table 2-3 b
Over voltage of Oxygen Platinum (platinized) Iron Copper Platinum (smooth) Gold Graphite Silver 0.24 0.24 0.42 0.44 0.52 0.53 0.58 0.77 0.83 0.84 1.38 1.66 1.28 1.014

Back Electromotive Force (EMF)

When a circuit in an ordinary electrolytic cell with is broken the voltmeter connected across its terminals will continue to read for some moments after the current flow has stopped and then gradually fall off to zero. This, being opposed to the applied EMF of the cell, has been called back electromotive force. If there is any concentration polarization in the cell, it will be manifested as a back EMF on breaking the circuit, but most if not all of the back EMF is due to the accumulation around the electrodes of some of the products of electrolysis in a reactable form, so that as soon as the electrolyzing current is no longer acting, these products on the electrodes set up a recombination process, which, of course, is in the reverse direction to the applied EMF since the direction of reaction is reversed. Many would consider this EMF a part of the polarization, which is not entirely correct, for only a portion of the back EMF is true polarization. Most of this EMF is due to reversal of the decomposition voltage.

IR Drop In Cathodic Protection Circuits

Figure 2-2 schematically shows a typical cathodic protection system together with the current flows and voltmeter connections to measure upscale indication of IR drops. Note the cathodic protection system has both, metallic and electrolytic IR drops.
AN OD E

side of junction.

the

structure-environment

Nevertheless, if measurements are made potentiometerically, it does eliminate the IR drop in the potentiometer lead wires, and meter connections. This is because the function of a potentiometer is such that there is no current flow through the instrument hence, there is no IR drop in the potential measuring portion of the circuit. Furthermore, cathodic protection current flows between the anode and the protected structure. During cathodic protection measurements, this current flowing through soil causes an IR drop in the electrolyte (soil) thus making the pipe-to-soil potential appear more negative than it really is. Figure 2-3 illustrates the IR drop between the pipe surface and the electrode placed at grade level.

V + V

+ -

+ STRUCTUR E

Figure 2-2
A voltmeter connected across a span of wire connecting the anode to structure, directly reads IR drop in the cable. Similarly a voltmeter connected across a span of the pipeline directly reads the IR drop across that span. IR drop in soil is the voltmeter reading across two identical electrodes placed some distance apart in the path of current flow through soil from anode to cathode. The level of cathodic protection is determined by the potential of the cathode half-cell reaction on the surface of a protected structure. This potential exists at the interface between the structure and its environment (e.g., between pipe and soil interface). An IR drop is included if the reference half-cell used in the potential measurement is placed anywhere other than at the liquid side of the structureenvironment junction. An IR drop is also included in this potential measurement if the test point (metal connection) is placed anywhere other than at the metal

Figure 2-3 ****

The rectifiers positive current is discharged by the ground bed, which then flows through the earth and is collected by the buried pipeline and returned to the rectifiers negative

terminal. The earth current path acts as a resistor and voltage drop occurs which can be read on the meter if two half-cells are placed in such a way that one is buried at the pipeline depth (permanent reference electrode) and the other is placed directly on the surface of the soil. The IR drop increases with increasing distance between the structure and the reference electrode. It also increases with resistivity and current. IR drops in excess of 100 millivolts are not uncommon. An anode and structure are remote if the regions of significant IR drop caused by each do not overlap. The included IR drops are often larger if the protected structure is not remote to the cathodic protection anode. The IR drop can be ignored if it falls within the acceptable error of the measurement. The magnitude of the IR error can be estimated from the current value, the resistivity of the media, and the distance between the reference electrode and the structure. If the current is small and the distance between the structure and the reference electrode is also small, the IR drop contribution can be negligible. Neglecting the IR drop can be acceptable in low resistivity electrolytes, if the current requirement is small. Clearly neglecting the IR drop is the easiest way of considering it. The method has the disadvantage of causing a significant error if the IR drop is not small. A surface potential of 950 millivolts vs. CuCuSO4 might represent a protection level of less than 700 millivolts in 5000 ohm-cm soil. This is particularly true on bare structures with high current requirement. Figures 2-4 & 2-5 illustrate the danger in ignoring IR drop correction.

If the half-cell is laterally moved away from the pipeline, the error in the measured value increases with the distance (figure 2-4a).
S T R U C T U R E
m V

-9 3 0 -9 3 5 -9 3 9 -9 6 4 -1 0 0 4 -1 1 0 9

Figure 2-4a
An actual case of IR drop was demonstrated by excavation of a pipeline in a fertilizer plant near Karachi. The cathodic protection operators had reported potentials in excess of 5V at a number of locations where the soil resistivity was predominantly in excess of 10000 ohmcm.

criterion of protection the pipeline is not protected as shown by the measurement at location B.

Depolarization
As its name indicates depolarization is the process of more or less removing or neutralizing, in a cell, the polarizing effect of one or more of those particular polarizing factors, which are operating in the cell. Depolarization is also a tool by which the level of protection can be determined. Potential measured within fraction of a second immediately after the current source is turned off, is plotted at 0 hour on the X axis. This value in our example is 1200 mV (See figure 2.6) If the difference between the instant off potential and the completely depolarized state of the structure is 100mV or more then it can be said that the NACE potential criterion of 100 mV shift has been attained. This is done by completely turning off the cathodic protection current and monitoring the polarization decay versus time. A plot is generated as shown in Figure 2-6. If the natural potential is not know then the structure is permitted to depolarize over a period of time. In this particular example, time 0 hour to time10 hour is the period over which the depolarization continued. At the end of this period potential stabilized at a value, which is considered as the natural potential of the structure.

Figure 2-4b Figure 2-4b demonstrates the effect of high soil resistivity as the half-cell is moved closer and closer to the protected pipe. Similarly, the change in the depth of burial of a pipeline will have the same error effect since the vertical distance between the half-cell and the surface of pipe varies (figure 2-5).

VM 1 .0 V

0 .8 V

HA LF C ELL LO C A T IO N S

Figure 2-5
The above figure simply demonstrates that even though the measured value at location A is more than the minimum

Figure 2-6

Chapter - 3 Definition of Corrosion

Corrosion is defined as the destruction of all materials of construction by interaction with its environment. Since the word all materials makes this definition very broad so as to include not only the metals but also all non-metals such as plastics, ceramics, woods etc. This definition can be narrowed down to read as undesirable destruction of metals by the interaction with its environment. The word undesirable will then exclude the corrosion of materials such as zinc, magnesium and aluminum, when these are used as anodes and are intended to corrode. Hydrogen embrittlement Environmental cracking Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) Exfoliation Dealloying (selective leaching) Corrosion fatigue

Uniform Corrosion
This type of corrosion proceeds evenly over the entire surface area or a large part of the surface area of the structure. Therefore, general thinning is the result due to which time to failure is long. On the basis of tonnage wasted. This is the most important type of corrosion. This type off corrosion can be easily detected, measured and protected against. Protection methods include painting, increasing the metal thickness or the use of expensive alloys for structures exposed to atmospheres. For structures buried of submerged, cathodic protection in combinations of coatings is used.

Forms of corrosion
There are many forms of corrosion each of which has distinct characteristics. These can be grouped as follows: Group-1: Forms of corrosion that can be visually identified. Uniform corrosion Pitting Crevice corrosion Galvanic corrosion

Pitting Corrosion
Pitting corrosion is a localized form of corrosion by which cavities or "holes" are produced in the material. Pitting is much more dangerous than uniform corrosion damage. It is more difficult to detect, and design against. Corrosion products usually cover the pits A small, narrow pit with minimal metal loss can lead to the failure of the structure. One pit in a large system can be disastrous and result in catastrophic failure of that system. Examples have

Group-2: Forms of corrosion that may require Supplementary Means of Examination Erosion corrosion Cavitation Fretting corrosion Intergranular corrosion

Group-3: Forms of corrosion that may require microscopic examination.

been the destruction of large oil processing plant and an oil gas separating plant in Saudi Arabia. Complete destruction of many large plants throughout the world is documented. All these failures were the result of small pin-hole gas leaks which continued to spread as a blanket until ignited

Corrosion of the anode will accelerate Corrosion of the cathode will decelerate or even stop.

Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion is a localized form of corrosion which usually result under shielded areas, such as those formed under gaskets, washers, insulation material, fastener heads, surface deposits, disbonded coatings, threads, lap joints and clamps. As oxygen diffusion into the crevice is restricted, a differential aeration cell is set up between crevice and the adjacent external surface.

Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic or dissimilar metal corrosion refers to corrosion damage caused when two dissimilar materials are coupled in a corrosive electrolyte. It occurs when two dissimilar metals are electrically connected in a corrosive soil. * When a galvanic couple forms, one of the metals in the couple becomes the anode and corrodes faster than it would all by itself, while the other becomes the cathode and does not corrode or corrodes slower than it would alone. Either (or both) metal in the couple may or may not corrode by themselves in electrolytes if not in electrical contact with each other. When contact with a dissimilar metal is made, however, the self-corrosion rates will change as follows: -

The driving force for corrosion is a potential difference between the different materials. Luigi Galvani discovered the bimetallic driving force in the late part of the eighteenth century in a series of experiments with the exposed muscles and nerves of a frog that contracted when connected to a bimetallic conductor. The principle was later put into a practical application by Alessandro Volta who built, in 1800, the first electrical cell, or battery; a series of metal disks of two kinds, separated by cardboard disks soaked with acid or salt solutions. This is the basis of all modern wet-cell batteries, and it was a tremendously important scientific discovery, because it was the first method found for the generation of a sustained electrical current. Sir Humphrey Davy and Michael Faraday also engineered the principle into the useful protection of metallic structures in the early part of the nineteenth century. The sacrificial corrosion of one metal, such as zinc, magnesium, or aluminum, is a widespread method of cathodically protecting metallic structures. In a bimetallic couple, the less noble material (more negative than the other) will become the anode of this corrosion cell and tend to corrode at an accelerated rate, compared with its uncoupled condition. The more noble material will act as the cathode in the corrosion cell. Galvanic corrosion can be one of the most common forms of corrosion as well as one of the most destructive.

The relative nobility of a material can be predicted by measuring its corrosion potential. The well known galvanic series lists the relative nobility of certain materials in seawater. A small anode to cathode area ratio is highly undesirable. In this case, the galvanic current is concentrated onto a small anodic area. Rapid thickness loss of the dissolving anode tends to occur under these conditions. Designing to avoid these problems in the first place should solve galvanic corrosion problems. Galvanic corrosion cells can be set up on the macroscopic level or on the microscopic level.

important. It is generally desirable to reduce the fluid velocity and promote smooth flow; increased pipe diameters are useful in this context. Rough surfaces are generally undesirable. Designs creating turbulence, flow restrictions and obstructions are undesirable. Abrupt changes in flow direction should be avoided. Tank inlet pipes should be directed away from the tank walls, towards the center. Welded and flanged pipe sections should always be carefully aligned. Impingement plates or baffles designed to bear the brunt of the damage should be easily replaceable. The thickness of vulnerable areas should be increased. Replaceable ferrules, with a tapered end, can be inserted into the inlet side of heat exchanger tubes, to prevent damage to the actual tubes. Several environmental modifications can be implemented to minimize the risk of erosion corrosion. Abrasive particles in fluids can be removed by filtration or settling, while water traps can be used in steam and compressed air systems to decrease the risk of impingement by droplets. De-aeration and corrosion inhibitors are additional measures that can be taken. Cathodic protection and the application of protective coatings may also reduce the rate of attack.

Erosion Corrosion
Erosion corrosion is acceleration in the rate of corrosion attack in metals due to the relative motion of a corrosive fluid on the metal surface. The increased turbulence caused by pitting on the internal surfaces of a tube can result in rapidly increasing erosion rates and eventually a leak. Erosion corrosion can also be aggravated by faulty workmanship. For example, uneven surfaces left at cut tube ends can upset smooth water flow, cause localized turbulence and high flow velocities, resulting in erosion corrosion. A combination of erosion and corrosion can lead to extremely high pitting rates. In offshore well systems, the process industry in which components come into contact with sand-bearing liquids, this is an important problem. Materials selection plays an important role in minimizing erosion corrosion damage. Caution is in order when predicting erosion corrosion behavior on the basis of hardness. High hardness in a material does not necessarily guarantee a high degree of resistance to erosion corrosion. Design features are also particularly

Cavitation Erosion
Cavitation is a process where the pressure of a flowing liquid is decreased below that liquid's vapor pressure, usually by a discontinuity like an orifice plate, the leading edge of a propeller blade, or a shell caught in a condenser tube. The decrease in pressure causes the water to boil locally, creating bubbles. These bubbles will collapse as soon as

they travel to an area of higher pressure. The bubble collapse creates little pressure waves and plenty of noise. Cavitation is possible in some propeller designs, and is commonly caused by orifice plates and throttled valves. Cavitation-corrosion usually looks like as if small chunks of the metal have been ripped from the surface. In milder cases it can appear as heavy etching. How do we know whether the mechanical forces cause damage from the flow alone or whether corrosion contributes? It is easy to think that the damage is purely mechanical. However, if cathodic protection is applied to a part that is undergoing erosion, impingement, or cavitation-corrosion, the amount of metal loss can be significantly reduced or eliminated. The amount of metal loss that is not affected by cathodic protection is the amount of damage that is caused by the purely mechanical processes. The only exception to this is that extreme amounts of cathodic protection can generate hydrogen bubbles that will cushion the impact of cavitation bubble collapse, creating a purely mechanical barrier for the damage. This level of cathodic protection is quite unusual, however. For minimizing cavitation damage steps that can be taken include: Minimization of hydrodynamic pressure gradients Designing to avoid pressure drops below the vapor pressure of the liquid The prevention of air ingress The use of resilient coatings and cathodic protection

Fretting Corrosion
Fretting corrosion refers to corrosion damage at the areas of contact surfaces. This damage is induced under load and in the presence of repeated relative surface motion, as induced for example by vibration. Pits or grooves and oxide debris characterize this damage, which is typically found in machinery, bolted assemblies and ball or roller bearings. Contact surfaces exposed to vibration during transportation are exposed to the risk of fretting corrosion. Damage can occur at the interface of two highly loaded surfaces, which are not designed to move against each other. The most common type of fretting is caused by vibration. The protective film on the metal surfaces is removed by the rubbing action and exposes fresh, active metal to the corrosive action of the atmosphere.

Intergranular Corrosion
The microstructure of metals and alloys is made up of grains, separated by grain boundaries. Intergranular corrosion is localized attack along the grain boundaries, or immediately adjacent to grain boundaries, while the bulk of the grains remain largely unaffected. This form of corrosion is usually associated with chemical segregation effects (impurities have a tendency to be enriched at grain boundaries or specific phases precipitated on the grain boundaries). Such precipitation can produce zones of reduced corrosion resistance in the immediate vicinity. A classic example is the sensitization of stainless steels or weld decay. Chromium-rich grain boundary precipitates lead to a local depletion of Cr immediately adjacent to these precipitates, leaving these areas

vulnerable to corrosive attack in certain electrolytes. Re-heating a welded component during multi-pass welding is a common cause of this problem. In austenitic stainless steels, titanium or niobium can react with carbon to form carbides in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) causing a specific type of intergranular corrosion known as knife-line attack. These carbides build up next to the weld bead where they cannot diffuse due to rapid cooling of the weld metal. The problem of knife-line attack can be corrected by reheating the welded metal to allow diffusion to occur. Many aluminum base alloys are susceptible to intergranular corrosion on account of either phases anodic to aluminum being present along grain boundaries or due to depleted zones of copper adjacent to grain boundaries in copper containing alloys. Alloys that have been extruded or otherwise worked heavily, with a microstructure of elongated, flattened grains, are particularly prone to this damage.

Dealloying
Dealloying or selective leaching refers to the selective removal of one element from an alloy by corrosion processes. A common example is the dezincification of unstabilized brass, whereby a weakened, porous copper structure is produced. The selective removal of zinc can proceed in a uniform manner or on a localized (plug-type) scale. It is difficult to rationalize dezincification in terms of preferential Zn dissolution out of the brass lattice structure. Rather, it is believed that brass dissolves with Zn remaining in solution and Cu plating out of the solution. Graphitization of gray cast iron, whereby a brittle graphite skeleton remains following preferential iron dissolution is a further example of selective leaching.

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)

Stresses that cause environmental cracking arise from residual cold work, welding, grinding, thermal treatment, or may be externally applied during service and, to be effective, must be tensile (as opposed to compressive). Stress definition or stress variables are: Maximum stress Biaxial Minimum stress Constant load/constant strain Mean stress Plane stress/plane strain Cyclic frequency Wave shape Strain rate Stress origins are: Intentional

Exfoliation corrosion
Exfoliation corrosion is a further form of intergranular corrosion associated with high strength aluminum alloys. Alloys that have been extruded or otherwise worked heavily, with a microstructure of elongated, flattened grains, are particularly prone to this damage. Corrosion products building up along these grain boundaries exert pressure between the grains and the end result is a lifting or leafing effect. The damage often initiates at end grains encountered in machined edges, holes or grooves can subsequently progress through an entire section.

Shearing, punching, cutting Residual Welding Grinding Produced by reacted products Bending, crimping, riveting Machining Quenching Vibration Thermal cycling Thermal expansion Bolting Rotation Pressure Dead load

present in the corrosion product. The most important species from the point of view of corrosion is Desulfovibrio Desulfuricans. Consumption of hydrogen at the pipe surface acts to depolarize the steel at cathodic areas thereby accelerating corrosion attack. The significance of anaerobic bacteria is related to the degree of damage they can do in oxygen free conditions where pipe metal deterioration would not normally be anticipated. In practical terms increased amount of current are required to maintain cathodic protection in the presence of anaerobic bacteria. It has been suggested that higher than normal protective potentials should be used in areas where anaerobic bacteria are active and an additional 100mV of protective potential has been recommended. Until recently it had been necessary to take samples with considerable precautions and to grow cultures under laboratory conditions. The test taken in these instances were within the scope of field operations and although cultures again had to be grown they matured in a very much shorter time due to new sampling techniques.

The cracks form and propagate approximately at right angles to the direction of the tensile stresses at stress levels much lower than those required to fracture the material in the absence of the corrosive environment. As cracking penetrates further into the material, it eventually reduces the supporting cross section of the material to the point of structural failure from overload. SCC occurs in metals exposed to an environment where, if the stress was not present or was at much lower levels, there would be no damage. If the structure, subject to the same stresses, were in a different environment (noncorrosive for that material), there would be no failure. Examples of SCC in the nuclear industry are cracks in stainless steel piping systems and stainless steel valve stems.

Electrolytic Corrosion
Electrolytic or electrochemical corrosion is the corrosion of metals which are either buried or submerged and are thus exposed to corrosive aqueous medium called the electrolyte. The soil surrounding a buried pipeline is an electrolyte. Seawater is another example of an electrolyte to which jetties, piers and sea going vessels are exposed. Prevention methods against electrolytic corrosion include coatings and cathodic

Corrosion by Microbial Action

Corrosion of iron and steel in anaerobic waterlogged conditions is usually caused by sulfate reducing bacteria. These microbes reduce dissolved sulfates to sulfides and consume hydrogen in the process. The bacterial action is characterized by the fact that a) it occurs in the absence of air, and b) sulfides are

protection, which will be discussed in detail later on.

Chapter 4 Fundamentals of Corrosion Mechanism

Metals are normally found in nature in one of their lowest energy states, usually as oxides, sulfides, chlorides, etc. In reducing and refining metals to produce useful alloys (such as the carbon and low alloy steels used in gas and oil transmission pipelines), significant amount of energy is consumed which is stored in the reduced metallic structure. Subsequent corrosion of steel pipelines thus represents the natural tendency of the iron in the pipe to return to a preferred, lower energy state (usually as an oxide, carbonate or sulfide). Corrosion is caused by the formation of a cell rightfully named as corrosion cell. There are certain conditions, which are essentials for a functional corrosion cell. These conditions are: Presence of an anode (negative electrode) Presence of a cathode (positive electrode) Electrolyte surrounding both, the anode and the cathode A metallic conductor connecting both, the anode and the cathode together.

Figure 4-1
The metal, zinc, is used as the case of the battery and is the anode. The carbon rod in the center of the battery is the cathode. And the space in between the two is filled with an acid (or alkaline) substance, which is the current conducting material, the electrolyte. Three of the four conditions of a corrosion cell are present, so there is yet no reaction. But when the battery is connected to an external load (a bulb in this cased), the fourth condition is also met and electric current is then caused to flow from the zinc (anode) through the electrolyte to the carbon rod (cathode). This is a perfect example of a galvanic cell. The numerous other galvanic cells, which cause corrosion on buried pipelines, all work very much in the similar manner as the simple battery cell described above. The actual mechanisms of the corrosion process may be more complex but the principles are the same.

Corrosion Cell
Probably one of the most common galvanic or corrosion cell that we can consider as an example is the simple flashlight battery shown in Figure 4-1.

Figure 4-2 is another typical illustration of a corrosion cell composed of two dissimilar metals.
ELEC TRO N FLO W P O S. CU RR EN T FLO W ELECTRO LYTE OH + H OH + H Fe(O2 ) H OH + H H e2 FH O e + W L + H H e2 + e H + H

The ferrous ions react with the negatively charged hydroxyl ions which are present in the electrolyte forming ferrous hydroxide [Fe (OH) 2] which is the corrosion product called rust. The reaction can be represented as follows: Fe++ + 2(OH)- Fe (OH) 2 At the cathode surface, a corresponding reaction goes on by which the surplus of arriving electrons combine with the hydrogen ions of the electrolyte and form hydrogen gas molecules. The hydrogen is said to have undergone the chemical process called reduction as per the following reaction: 2e + 2H+ H2 (gas molecule) The combined reaction of the cell is the Oxidation-Reduction; oxidation taking place at the anode surface resulting in the dissolution of iron or corrosion of Iron and reduction taking place at the cathode surface which results in the formation of hydrogen gas, some of which may escape to the atmosphere but most of it clings to the surface of the copper cathode as thin film. As the hydrogen film buildup progresses, the cell current begins to drop partly on account of the decreased area of copper cathode in contact with the electrolyte, and partly because the hydrogen tends to produce a voltage which is in the opposite direction. This phenomenon is generally referred to, as polarization which in fact is the cathodic polarization. Anodic polarization, although not as pronounced, takes place simultaneously at the surface of anode due to increase in concentration of the metal (Fe) ions. The combined result is decrease in the current flow as the potential difference

OH + H OH + H

ee- P O S . C U R R E N T eOH e+ OH H + F e ( O 2 )H H OH + H

OH + H

OH

IR O N ANODE

+ H CO PPER CATHODE

Figure 4-2
Copper electrode forms the cathode and the Iron electrode forms the anode. The potential difference between the two electrodes acts as the driving voltage that sets up the electrons in motion. The electrons begin to flow from the negative electrode to the positive electrode through the wire connecting both electrodes. The direction of the positive (conventional) current flow is opposite the direction of electron flow, that is, from the positive terminal (cathode) to the negative terminal in the metallic circuit. Positive current flow in the electrolyte is from the anode to the cathode, that is, from the iron anode to the copper cathode.

Corrosion Cell Reaction

The chemical reactions taking place are the electrons migration from the Iron (anode) to the copper (cathode) through the connecting metallic path (wire) leaving behind positively charged ferrous ions. The Iron has undergone oxidation reaction as follows: Fe Fe++ + 2e (Iron Iron ion + 2e)

between the anode and the cathode decreases. The changes taking place at the anode and the cathode surfaces can be summarized as follows: At the Anode Surface: Metal Metal Ion + 2e Metal Ion + Hydroxyl Ion Metal hydroxide At the Cathode Surface: Electrons + Hydrogen Ions Hydrogen atom Hydrogen atoms Hydrogen Gas

Same metal in same electrolyte at different temperatures. Same metal with section(s) under stress

Some demonstrations of the corrosion cell formation of similar metals under different circumstances are shown in the following examples.

Differential Aeration Cell

Perhaps the most common concentration cell affecting engineered structures is that of oxygen diffusion. When oxygen has access to a certain area of a metal surface, it causes that area to become cathodic with respect to its adjacent areas and thus corrosion is promoted. Sections of a metal that are covered by dirt or scale will often corrode faster, since the flow of oxygen to these sections is restricted. An increased corrosion rate will lead to increased residue, further restricting the oxygen flow to worsen the situation. Pitting often results from this "runaway" reaction. The corrosion cell illustrated in Figure 4-3 is differential aeration cell also known as the oxygen concentration cell. In this example, the material of both the cathode and the anode is the same metal immersed in two different compartments of the cell. Porous membrane separates both compartments, yet provides communication between the two electrolytes. The compartment on the left side is open to atmosphere and the oxygen is easily diffused creating comparatively high concentration while the compartment on the right side is covered on the top and

Various Types of Corrosion Cells

The cell described in the above example was a Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Cell, which represents the generalized concepts of corrosion cell. The driving potential or the cell voltage in this particular case is the result of the difference in the half-cell (electrode) potentials of each of the metals comprising the cell. The cell driving voltage can be developed by various other means. Some of these are listed below. Surface Irregularities such as scratch in mill scale or permeable paint. Portion of the metal partly in poorly aerated soil and partly in well-aerated soil. Same metal in two different concentrations of the same electrolyte Same metal in two chemically different electrolytes.

isolated from the atmosphere resulting in oxygen starvation thus creating potential difference between the two iron electrodes.
H IG H O X Y G EN C O N C E N TR A T IO N

H IG H C O N C E N TR A T IO N ELECTRO LYTE

D IL U T E ELECTRO LYTE

O XYG EN ST A R V A T IO N

IRON (CATHODIC)

IRON (ANODIC)

P o ro u s m e m b r a in

Figure 4-4 Potential Due to Mechanical Forces ****

It has been known for many years that purely mechanical forces could produce potential differences. An area of metal under strain or stress is always positive to the area of the same metal without such mechanical forces. This has been one of the great difficulties to overcome in the measurement of electrode potentials, for the metals will not give reproducible results unless they are always under the same condition of internal strain or external stress. Two electrodes in a solution will show a minute potential difference when one electrode is placed above the other, due to gravity of solution or soil stress. The lower electrode will experience relatively higher stress than the electrode above it. As shown in Figure 4-5, two pipelines are separated vertically. The one below is under relatively higher stress than the other pipeline. Similar stress cells can also exist on a single pipeline running through different degree of soil compactions or varying depths from place to place.

Figure 4-3
This particular differential aeration cell shows current flow through the electrolyte from the oxygen-starved electrode (anode) to the electrode, which is exposed to high oxygen concentration (cathode).

Electrolyte Concentration Cells

In basic principle, the dissimilar electrolyte cell shown in Figure 4-4 has similarities with the differential aeration cell as illustrated in Figure 4-3. In the corrosion cell shown in Figure 44, the electrolyte is ferrous chloride. The higher concentration of FeCl2 in the left compartment makes the metal cathodic with respect to the other. The current begins to flow from the dilute to the concentrated electrolyte causing the deterioration of anode, which in turn increases the concentration of ferrous ions in the right compartment. If the process continues the cell will cease to function as the equilibrium in concentration between the two compartments is reached.

IRON (CATHODIC)

P orou s m e m b r a in

IRON (ANODIC)

TEST STATIO N

G R AD E LEVEL LO W STR ESS

its while to look at how some of these cells could be formed in the real world situations and what their behavior would be. As shown in Figure 4-6, section of a steel pipe is encased in concrete. The concrete encased section becomes cathodic (more positive) with respect to the adjacent sections.
G A E R D FO O C R E T L W F U RN

+
H IG H S TR ES S

Figure 4-5 Dissimilar Electrolyte cell

Consider a metal immersed in an electrolyte in such a way that the chemical composition of the electrolyte in contact with one part of the metal surface differs from the composition of the electrolyte contacting the other part of the same metal surface. Although the metal properties are identical at both surfaces, a potential difference will be created due to the difference in the chemical composition of the electrolytes, thus, creating a corrosion cell in which one surface of the same metal will become anodic to the other surface of the metal and will undergo corrosion. Corrosion Cells as Applied to Buried Structures on any metallic object in contact with electrolyte such as a storage tank bottom, buried vessel, pipeline, well casing etc., corrosion results due to formation of a corrosion cell of one kind or the other. The underground corrosion of pipelines and industrial plant equipment is mostly the result of such corrosion cell formation. On a given surface area of the structure, the corrosion cells are multitudinous and can shift locations giving the appearance of general corrosion rather than localized corrosion. It would therefore, be worth

PP I C N R T I E N O C E E

Figure 4-6
Potential difference between the encased steel and the adjacent areas of steel is created and corrosion cell forms. Current begins to flow from the more negative areas out side the concrete encasement through the soil to the concrete encased pipe section. A new replacement section of a pipe (Figure 4-7) connected to an old piping network will become anodic with respect to the old pipe.

G A E R D FO O C RE T L W F URN

O DP P L I E

NW I E E PP

O DP P L I E

Figure 4-7
Thus a corrosion cell will form in which the new section of the pipe will begin to corrode much rapidly than the old pipe. This will continue until such time the anodic potential of the new pipe approaches the cathodic potential of the old pipe. Another example is the mill scale on hot rolled steel, which becomes cathodic

with respect to the rest of the steel pipe thus forming a corrosion cell. Dissimilar metal corrosion cell can form as illustrated in Figure-4-8. Bare copper electrical grounding system of a storage tank farm for example, becomes cathodic to tank bottom plates and soil sides of these plates begin to corrode by the copper steel galvanic cell thus formed. Figure 4-8 illustrates the corrosion cell action on a tank bottom.

oxygen concentration as illustrated in Figure 4-9.

GRADE

- 0 .6 -0 .4

PSP

-0 .6

L O O S E S O ILC O M P A C T S O IL C O M P A C T S O IL

P IP E

AN O DE CATHO D E N O DE A

STORAGE TAN K

STEEL CATHO DE GRADE A R R O W S IN D IC A TE D IR EC TIO N O F C UR RE N T FLO W CO PPER CATH O D E

Figure 4-8
Numerous other corrosion cells, although not as sever as the copper/steel couple, can form because of nonhomogenous steel surface or due to soil variations from place to place underneath a tank bottom. These cells will then keep shifting locations and uniform corrosion of the tank bottom will result. The corrosion of the tank bottom in the presence of copper grounding would indeed be much more severe and may over-shadow the effect of other corrosion cells. When a pipeline is excavated and rebackfilled, the soil compaction is relatively less dense than the compaction of soil in the adjacent areas. This permits oxygen diffusion through the backfilled section. This results in an

Figure 4-9 The section in the middle represents an area loosely backfilled while the adjacent areas on either side are undisturbed and compact. The higher oxygen diffusion in the middle section causes this section to become cathodic (more positive) with respect to the adjacent sections. A potential difference is created and the current begins to flow from the negative anodic areas in to the soil and from the soil to the positive cathodic areas. The return path for the current flow is provided by the pipeline itself, which acts as the metallic path connecting the anodic and cathodic areas. Another corrosion cell formation on a pipeline results when the pipeline passes through soil of differing chemical compositions. Figure 4-10 demonstrates the mechanism of a dissimilar electrolyte cell.

-0.4
GR ADE SO IL TYPE "B"

PS P

- 0.6
SOIL T YPE "A "

itself. To better understand this phenomenon let us consider an analogous light and shadow condition. Visualize a room, which is illuminated by a fluorescent lamp. When an object is placed near the lamp both the object and the wall behind the object remain illuminated. Now if the object is moved closer and closer to the wall a shadow on the wall will begin to appear which will become more and denser as the object approaches the wall. It can be stated that the wall is shielded from light when the object is very close to it. Similarly, the cathodic protection current discharged by a remote ground bed can reach the surfaces of several pipelines running in parallel provided sufficient distance (spacing) between lines exists. If these lines are spaced very close together, as is the case in some plant piping, mutual shading effect (shielding) will result. This will prevent current reaching some areas of the buried pipelines. A typical example of such shielding effect is shown in Figure 4-11 (below). .
A RE
R BA DI UN NG E IR W

PIP E CA TH O D E

A N O DE

Figure 4-10
Because of the different soil chemical compositions or different electrical resistivity through which the pipeline traverses, the section of the pipeline in soil type A has a different half-cell potential than the section of the same line passing through soil type B. This results in an overall potential difference between the two sections of the pipeline with one behaving as anode and the other as cathode. The circuits for the current flow are setup in much the same manner as described for the differential aeration cell causing corrosion of the pipeline at the anodic area.

Mill Scale
Mill scale on pipe, if not properly removed prior to wrapping, makes the affected section of the pipe cathodic with respect to the adjacent areas. Thus a corrosion cell is created because of the potential difference.
SH

L IE

DA DE

O GR ER PP CO E

L PE PI

E IN

E RR CU

NT

FL

OW

Shielded Corrosion
Shielded corrosion refers to that type of corrosion, which occurs on a metallic structure, which is seemingly under adequate cathodic protection. Cathodic protection current path to certain areas of the metal structure is obstructed either by a metallic object or a dielectric object such as the disbonded pipeline coating

Figure 4-11
As shown in the above diagram, both, the pipeline and the bare copper grounding wire are running parallel. In the shielded area enclosed inside the ellipse, the copper wire is situated very close to the pipeline. Hence, the copper wire picks up current flowing towards the pipeline and none reaches the

pipeline surface. In the adjacent areas, the copper wire is sufficiently separated from the pipe and the protection current reaches, both, the pipeline and the copper grounding system. Similarly, if a pipeline is located in the middle of two other lines and particularly when the separation between lines is negligible, or a small diameter pipeline is in the middle of two big diameter lines, shielding can occur on the middle line. The above described shielding is by metallic object. Non-metallic object can also cause shielding, which differs from the earlier described as the shading effect. The perfect example is the pipeline coating, which has disbonded. Such a coating can permit moisture penetration through voids or holidays in the coatings and become a conducting electrolytic path between macro corrosion cells under the coating, which would be shielded from the cathodic protection current because of the high dielectric strength of the coating material.

Figure 4-2, it was shown that the electrons begin to migrate at the negative electrode, which is called the anode and the movement of these electrons is towards the positive electrode through the metallic path, which is called the cathode. Now, if we were to complete the circuit, it would be logical to assume that the current return path is from the cathode to the anode. Although the above is true when we speak of electronic current flow, the actual flow through the electrolyte; already discussed in the previous section, is by migration of positive ions from the anode towards the cathode. This is in reverse of the direction of current shown in Figure 4-12.
ELECTRO N FLOW PO W ER SOU RCE

C U R R E N T F LO W
ANODE (N EG A TIVE IO N S) CATHO DE

Figure 4-12
Since it is the reactions taking place in the electrolyte that are of concern to a corrosion engineer and also because the positive charges are carried by the positive ions it can be said that the direction of positive current flow is from the anode to cathode in the electrolyte and, logically again, from cathode to anode in the external circuit. When we speak of the current flow under the galvanic action, it will always be from the negative terminal (electrode) to the positive terminal in the electrolyte. Reverse is true in the case of impressed current system and that is, that the current will flow from the

Terminology of current flow

The electric current flow is generally understood to be the flow of electrons in the circuit from the negative potential to the positive potential electrodes. This is both true and false. Electric current by definition is any movement of electric charge. A voltage difference between two ends of a wire causes a flow of negatively charged electrons in the wire, which is an electric current (electronic current). But in other materials, electrons may or may not carry the current. Any positive or negative charged particles could do the job. In the explanation of the function of corrosion cell in previous example illustrated in

positive terminal to the negative terminal in the electrolyte. Confusing? Yes, it may be to some extent. But if it is remembered that the conventional or the positive current direction is always from the anode to cathode, the confusion can be cleared. Why? Because in the galvanic system the anode is negative while in the impressed current system the anode is positive.

Metal

Volts

Natural Electrode Potential

Natural electrode potential of an element is a relative value, which is assigned to it by comparing the potential of the pure metal in a standard solution of its own ions under standard laboratory conditions against standard electrodes. These potentials are also referred to as the half-cell potentials or the corrosion potentials of the metals, Table 4-1 lists some of the most common metals arranged in the order of their corrosion potentials. Some of the most common metals and their electrode potentials were shown in Table 2-2 (Chapter-2). The EMF (electromotive force) series listed in Table 4-1 is more practical from a corrosion engineers standpoint. This is because all values listed are with reference to a copper/copper sulfate half-cell, which is a standard reference electrode, used in fieldwork. The metals at the top of the list are more reactive than the metals below them. If any two metals shown in the list are connected together and placed in a conductive medium such as soil or water (electrolyte), the metal that is more reactive will behave as an anode and begin to corrode.

Table 4-1
Electromotive Force Series of Metals In Neutral Soil Reference to Copper/Copper Sulfate Electrode

Magnesium; Pure Magnesium Alloy (6%Al,3%Zn) Zinc Aluminum Alloy (5% Zinc) Pure Aluminum Mild Steel (shiny) Mild Steel (rusted) Cast Iron Lead Mild Steel in Concrete Copper, High Silicon Cast Iron Carbon

-1.75 -1.60 -1.10 -1.05 -0.80 -0.5 to -0.8 -0.2 to 0.5 -0.50 -0.50 -0.20 -0.20 +0.30

under the above condition can be computed by using the basic Ohms Law which is I = E/R =0.3/0.5 =0.6A.

Weight of Metal Loss

As previously discussed in Chapter-2, the loss of metal is directly related to the current flowing in amperes. From Table 2-1 (Chapter-2) the metal consumption rate in pounds per ampere/year is 20 lbs., for iron. Therefore the Iron electrode will loose 12 lbs per year with a current discharge of 0.6 amperes (20 x .6 = 12).

The corrosion or the metal loss of the anodic electrode will be dependent on the difference in potential of the two metals, the conductivity of the electrolyte and the value of the total current passage. The higher the potential difference the greater will be the corrosion loss in any given medium provided of course rapid polarization of anode does not alter the reaction rate as will be discussed later on under the Area Effect.

Area Effects
The corrosion effect of the current flow on polarization is not only related to the total amount of current flow but also to the current density, which is current flow per unit area. One can easily visualize the effect produced by any given amount of current on a small area of the metal surface as compared to the same amount of current on a much greater surface. This area effect in terms of current density can be illustrated in a practical illustration by combinations of steel and copper as either plates or the fastenings used to join them and immersed in a corrosive solution. If steel rivets are used to join copper plates (Figure 413a), the current density on the relatively large cathodic copper plates will be low.
COPPER PLATE

Corrosion Cell Current

Consider that a corrosion cell is formed where copper is the positive electrode and iron is the negative electrode. Both of these electrodes are immersed in electrolyte and externally connected together using an insulated copper wire. From Table-4-1, the potential difference of the two metals comprising the corrosion cell (Copper and Iron) is (-0.2) - (-0.50) = 0.30 volts. Assuming that each electrode to electrolyte resistance is 0.25 ohms and the resistance of the electrolyte path and the metal path completing the circuit is disregarded then the total circuit resistance of the cell is equal to 0.5 ohms. The corrosion current flowing

STEEL RIVET

Figure 4-13a

Therefore, cathodic polarization of the copper will be slight and the voltage of the galvanic couple will maintain a value close to their open circuit potential. At the same time the current density on the small anodic steel rivets will be very high and the consequent corrosion will also be very high. With arrangement reversed that is copper rivets joining steel plates (Figure 4-13b), the current density on the copper cathode will be high with considerable high

cathodic polarization on the copper reducing the open circuit potential below its initial value.
STL.PLATE

COPPER
RIVET

Figure 4-13b The current density on the anodic surface will be very low since the current is spread over a relatively large anodic area. Therefore, the undesirable galvanic effect will hardly be noticeable.

Chapter 5 Coatings
The major cost component of a buried pipeline installation is the cost of coating, which is applied to provide a barrier between the metal and the surrounding environment. The degree of effectiveness of this barrier depends not only on the material used but also on the surface pretreatment by chemical or mechanical means, method of application and the final inspection of the finished job. It is well recognized that a poor coating material may, with excellent pretreatment and application method with strict inspection, perform better than a superior coating material if it is not properly applied. The need for proper surface pretreatment by chemical or mechanical means cannot be overemphasized to assure adhesion of coating to the surface of steel. Some poor coating jobs can be traced to the lack of knowledge of the proper type of coating to be used, poor control of coating temperature, poor pipe cleaning operation, applying the coating over dead or incompatible primer, improper application of tape or wrong tension, careless handling of the coated pipe after being coated or during lowering in and backfilling operation. Wide variation of coating systems is available to choose from. These include bituminous, waxes and greases, plastic tapes, laminated tapes, coal tar tapes, extruded plastics, and thin film fusion bonded epoxies. It is generally conceded that corrosion of underground pipe would not exist if moisture were prevented from contacting the metal. If the coating waterproofs the pipe completely then there would be no contact of the metal surface to its environment and hence virtually no corrosion will occur. When pipe is installed in the earth and covered with backfill, it is subjected to mechanical forces generated by its contact with the bottom of the ditch due to expansion and contraction of the soil, as it passes through wet and dry stages. The metal possesses sufficient strength to resist such mechanical stresses under ordinary conditions. The coating materials do not have this strength so the soil will act upon them causing coating damage. A good bond cannot be assured if the coating is applied over a primer that has been applied over mill oil or lacquer. In fact, during warm weather it is sometimes possible to roll the coating off the pipe when it has been applied over the mill oil. Primers will gradually lose their volatile liquids after they have been applied to a metal surface for a period of time because of evaporation. The primer is said to be dead when this occurs and if enamel is applied over a dead primer it will not bond. The period of time after application before the primer becomes dead depends upon the heat and humidity of the air. The best test for a dead primer is to see if it will flake off when the fingernail is scraped over it. When this occurs the cleaning machine is run over the pipe and it is again primed.

Moisture
Most, if not all, primers contain a small amount of moisture. When the percentage exceeds 1 to 2 percent it will cause a considerable number of holidays. This condition will continue as long as the primer is used. The faults look like craters with the bare metal exposed at the bottom. The pits are most frequent on the top and side of the pipe close to the top where the enamel is at its highest temperature. The remedy is to secure new primer.

contact with it. When the steam is trapped under the wrapper it will cause a blister, which will blow the enamel from the pipe surface. At times this can be observed by wisps of steam given off the wrapper surface. The remedy for this is preventive. Keep the felt in a good storage room with a good roof and keep the felt from contacting the dirt or cement floor. If it becomes too bad the felt will have to be discarded. If the material used to saturate the felt contains too much naphthalene, the naphthalene will tend to form on the surface of the felt in the form of white crystals. The naphthalene crystals will evaporate when the heated enamels contact them and form a gas that may affect the enamel in a manner similar to steam. It may also cause a sufficient loss of solvents to cause the saturating material to become brittle causing the felt to break readily when being used.

Coke
When a coating machine is made ready for use it is customary to heat all the parts with a high temperature torch. During this operation the material from the last operation may change to coke. This will flow with the coating when the machine is put into operation. Particles of coke will cause the coating to fail. If it does not clear in a short time, check the kettles to make sure the coating has not formed into coke. Never depend upon the thermometers in the coating kettle. Check with a portable thermometer.

Mill Coated Pipe

When hot enamels or waxes are applied at the coating mill the conditions under which they are applied are much more favorable than over the ditch or yard applications. Moisture and dust on the pipe to be coated is seldom if ever encountered. Asbestos felt wrappers used over the coating are stored under conditions that preclude an excess of moisture being absorbed. Even though these conditions do not exist, faults in the coating will occur making it necessary for the applicators to test the coating with high voltage electricity to expose the faults. Because the paper is used as a packaging material for the pipe it is customary to use a higher test voltage than would be used for an over the ditch coating. This is because the dielectric of the paper is added to that of the enamel and the felt.

Mechanical Faults
When the coating machine is put into operation some parts of it may rub the pipe causing the enamel to be either too thin or be removed. Watching the machine can check this. In flood coating types the Iron is often found to rub. This is apparent when the faults occur on either up or down grades.

Faults Covered by Wrappers

Asbestos felts as used for pipeline wrappers will absorb a certain amount of moisture. If the moisture content becomes too high, it will cause steam to form when hot enamel comes into

Most difficulties encountered with millcoated pipe occur during the unloading, stringing and bending operations. Protection of the pipe and the welds often presents a considerable problem. Heat shrink sleeves or hot enamel types are used for joint protection.

thickness ranges from 8 & 2 and 15 & 5 mils. Additional thickness of the adhesive film is important and desirable where the surface to which the tape is being applied is rough. The extra thickness permits the adhesive to extend to the bottom of the rough area, thus securing stronger bond. When a plastic tape with a pressure sensitive adhesive is applied to pipe, the metal surface should be free of rust, dirt, dust, and mill scale. Also, it is good practice to apply a primer to the metal surface just prior to tape application. For protection against abrasion, and additional wrapper can be applied over the plastic tape. Tar or asphalt saturated asbestos felt wrappers may be used for this purpose.

Plastic Tapes (PressureSensitive)

Base materials for the plastics used in the tape are natural products processed through chemical plants. The virgin plastic materials are calendared into a film and during the process a pressure sensitive adhesive is applied to one side of the film.

Pressure Sensitive Tapes

Sensitive plastic tapes for wrapping underground pipe fall into two general categories. In the first, the backing is classified as a primary functional protective wrap and the adhesive selected serves merely as a means of applying this functional wrap to the pipe. The second approach is to use the adhesive mass as a primary protective coating and to consider the backing merely as a carrier or protective shield. Various thickness of backing and adhesive and selection of their composition all relate in either case to the approach used. There can be combinations of two approaches.

Laminated Tapes with Primers

There are several laminated tapes on the market. The two main categories are those having polyolefin backings and those having polyvinyl chloride backing. The butyl adhesive masses used in these tapes require a primer to affect an immediate bond to the pipe. Primers usually are polymeric systems carried in the solvent systems of mixed aliphatic hydrocarbon distillates. The primers recommended for each tape are specifically designed for the tape selected for use, and should be applied according to individual tape manufacturers specifications.

Film Thickness (PVC)

Two basic films are used in the manufacture of Polyolefin and PVC pressure sensitive tapes. These tapes are furnished in a variety of thicknesses, which range from 10 mils to 20 mils. The backing thickness to adhesive

Tape Thickness
Standard thicknesses available are as follows: 8 mils vinyl7 mils butyl 8 mils vinyl12 mils butyl 10 mils vinyl15 mils butyl

10 mils polyolefin5 mils butyl 12 mils polyolefin6 mils butyl 12 mils polyolefin8 mils butyl 16 mils polyolefin10 mils butyl

Thin Film Coatings

Another relatively new in protective pipe coatings is the thin film coating. Essentially, these are thermosetting materials, in powder for liquid form, that are sprayed on heated pipe to form a thin coating of 6 to 10 mils thickness. Application of such coatings, of necessity, is performed in a coating plant. Materials in use include epoxy resins, epoxy-silicon combinations, polyester resins, butadiene-styrene copolymer resins, and vinyl resins. The epoxy resins and combinations based on epoxy resins, as well as the polyester resins, are powdered materials with complex catalysts and pigments. These are applied to pipe that is preheated to temperatures up to 500 F. The vinyl resin, which does not require a catalyst, is applied in the same fashion. Use of electrostatic deposition methods permits application of the powders in a fashion that insures continuity of the coating and desired thickness. In this system, the heated pipe is grounded while the powder has a positive charge and is attracted to the pipe in a uniform manner. Precise heating of the pipe to the exact temperature that is required for each type of material is also necessary. After the film is formed on the pipe, the coating is quenched by spraying cool water on the pipe. Final step is to inspect the coating using an electrical holiday detector. All of the materials cure to a strong, hard bond that does not flow under pressure. The materials have high impact strength and high abrasion resistance. For coating field joints, and for applying such coating to fittings, valves, etc., a

Various types of polyolefin and polyvinyl chloride outer wrap are available in thickness ranging from 13 mils to 40 mils. The 40 mils is specially designed as a rock shield protection.

Coal Tar Tapes

Coal tar tapes have been in use as protective coating for over half a century. Both hot-applied and cold-applied tapes are available. Hot applied tapes require use of torch to heat the underside of the coating immediately prior to wrapping. Cold-applied tapes are wrapped directly over primed surfaces. The coal tar tapes generally consist of a layer-specified thickness of coal tar pitch applied to a coal tar saturated fabric, plus a somewhat thinner coal tar coating on top, with a separator (paper or plastic film) on top of the outer layer. Refinements in the coating are included for a wider range of applications and use of a special plastic film that serves as both separator and outer wrap for protection against abrasion.

Extruded Plastic Coatings

Relatively the newest application of plastic materials to pipe protection is the extruded polyethylene coating, applied at the mill. The coatings are a special high molecular weight polyethylene extruded over a rubber-based adhesive compound that holds the coating to the pipe. The coating is cut back at the ends to permit welding and joints are either wrapped with pressure sensitive tapes or heat shrink sleeves.

flame-spray unit is used that heats the surface of the object to be coated and sprays the powder (or liquid) on to the surface. The resultant coating is compatible with the mill or yard-applied coating. Another method of making field joints and coating fittings, tees, valve, etc., is to use a two part epoxy resins that is brushed on to heated surface (about 350 to 450F). Heat shrink sleeves are also gaining wide spread acceptance.

squeezing the enamel out at the lap. Excessive tearing of the felt during the application will indicate too much tension or it may be caused by evaporation of the volatile liquids out of the cutback used to saturate felt. Ordinarily a 15-lb felt wrapper, approximately 28 mils in thickness, is used as an outer-wrap with hot enamels. Thinner felt wrapper of 8-lb weight also is available. This wrapper is generally reinforced with wrapper to prevent tearing. Care should be taken to make sure that the wrapper used is compatible with the enamel being applied.

Reinforcing Materials
Materials used to reinforce hot applied coatings by becoming an integral part of the coating or a wrapper that is bonded to the enamel so that a greater resistance to sag and penetration is secured. In the later case they also act as a shield against backfill.

Glass Outer-wrap
Glass outer wrap is a thick film of glass fibers held together with a binder. The wrap may or may not be furnished saturated with a tar or asphalt cutback.

Asbestos Wrappers
The general form for wrappers of this type is asbestos felt. The material ordinarily is a mixture of 85% asbestos fibers and 15% organic material before saturation with either asphalt or coal tar enamel. Fibers may be either of the short or long fiber type. The wrapper is applied directly over the hot enamel as it is flooded or sprayed on the pipe. In this manner it becomes tightly bonded to the enamel. Tension of the wrapper should be so adjusted that it does not pull through the hot enamel and come in contact with the metal surface. Cutting out a section of the coating at the lap in the wrapper and making a physical examination can accurately check this. It is often indicated by the size at the bead formed at the lap in the wrapper. If the bead is of considerable size, the felt has been pulled in too tight

Paper Outer-wrap
When pipe is coated at a coating mill a paper outer-wrap is applied over the felt wrapper to protect it during shipment and handling. On some over-the-ditch jobs it has also been used., In this case it is probably used to resist the damage caused by backfill. Paper has relatively short life when it is installed underground because of rot and bacteria action. Paper should not be applied over and bonded to the enamel.

Glass Inner Wrap

Glass in the form of single filaments laid down in random form and bonded together with a tough, flexible binder, is formed into a wrapper that is used with hot enamel applications. Sufficient tension is applied to this wrapper to pull it into the enamel but not through the enamel to the metal surface. Purpose of the web-like formation of glass fibers is to reinforce the enamel to make it more resistant to physical damage by soil

stress or penetration, and to prevent sag. Care should be exercised to make sure that the glass filaments are completely saturated with hot enamel. Unless this is accomplished, it is possible for capillary action to draw water into the enamel where the glass is exposed.

Rock shield
Rock shield is used to prevent damage to coated and wrapped pipe where a considerable amount of rock is encountered in the backfill or where the pipe may be handled roughly because of the terrain. In one form of manufacture, the standard padding consists of mineral filled mastic or asphalt saturated organic felt bound with mineral filled mastic or asphalt. Because of its thickness, it cannot be wrapped around the pipe, but is installed in the form of sheets fastened around the pipe with steel strapping or by use of glass filament tape with an adhesive.

completely free of holidays and therefore, corrosion cell action will be concentrated on a much smaller surface areas of coating faults. The effectiveness of a good quality coating is its resistance to disbondment around holidays. An intact coating that is well bonded to the pipeline surface will resist all forms of corrosion regardless of the coating quality. However, all coatings experience some degree of disbondment and, therefore, the behavior of a disbonded coating is important in the overall performance of a coating system. The major cause of coating disbondment is overprotection. A polarized potential of 1.2 volts (IR free negative vs. CSE) is considered by many as the safe limit for cathodic protection if disbondment is to be prevented. The polarization potential can be measured by momentarily interrupting the current source and immediately measuring the pipeline potential with respect to CSE directly over the line. If on steel pipelines, this potential is less negative than 1.2V, the danger of coating damage is slight. If the current off (polarization) potential is at or more negative than this value, free hydrogen may be produced, and possible coating damage should be expected.

Coating Disbondment
For protection of pipelines, coatings and cathodic protection work synergistically. Current required to protect a bare pipeline can be 20,000 times more than that needed to protect a pipeline with superb coating. Coating alone cannot protect the pipeline. On the contrary, with increasing quality of coating, time to failure can becomes short. This is because of the fact that no coating is

Chapter 6 Cathodic Protection

History
Sir Humphrey Davy is known as the inventor of cathodic protection. In the 1920s, he was engaged by the royal navy to investigate the corrosion of copper cladding on the wooden ship hulls of the naval vessels. He found that by attaching zinc plates he was able to protect copper. He named this method Cathodic Protection which later became known as galvanic protection. In the early days almost all of the cathodic protection work was related to sacrificial anode systems.

Thomas Edison used impressed current cathodic protection by applying current to ship hulls in the 1890s. He was unsuccessful in finding suitable DC power sources and anode materials. The commercial use of impressed current systems began in the early 1920s. In 1937 a French engineer (Sorel) patented a method of coating steel by dipping it in molten zinc. He named this process Galvanizing. Extensive use of cathodic protection began in the United States by 1945. Galvanic system in Pakistan had become known earlier but Sui Southern Gas Transmission Company introduced the first use of impressed current cathodic protection in 1955. Although we have come a long way from the days of Sir Humphrey Davy, the science of cathodic protection is still not fully understood and is in its infancy stage. That may very well be the reason for it to be classified as more of an art than science.

Such a cathodic protection system, however, is undesirable because the copper is protected at the expense of steel equipment that is essential for the existence of the plant. Suppose that zinc metal is now substituted for the electrical grounding system. Here, we now have an efficient working cathodic protection system and our plant equipment is also protected. The basic concept of cathodic protection, therefore, is applying techniques by which the metal intended for protection is made cathode in the corrosion cell system. Thus, the cathodic protection is very much similar to the corrosion cell itself. One metal is protected at the expense of the other metal (or alloy). In other words, it is fair to state that cathodic protection technique does not in reality stops corrosion. It only shifts corrosion from one metal to the other. A trained corrosion engineer possesses the proper understanding and knowledge of the basic principles of cathodic protection and with proper application of the basic concepts he can effectively use cathodic protection to control corrosion of the pipelines and plant equipment.

Basics of Cathodic Protection

As a matter of fact, the basics of cathodic protection are very simple. It is as simple as the operation of a common flashlight cell explained in Chapter-4. In much the same manner, when we install bare copper grounding system in a plant facility where other steel structures also exists we are unknowingly creating a cathodic protection system. By virtue of the steel structures in electrical contact with the copper grounding system, a capable working cathodic protection system has been created. Here, one metal (steel) is providing cathodic protection to another metal (copper).

Basic Theory
In Chapter-4, various corrosion cell actions were described. From the study of these cell actions and applying them to the field conditions, it becomes obvious that the causes leading to corrosion of buried steel are mainly due to the formation of anodic and cathodic areas on the surface of the steel. The anodic areas discharge current into the soil and cathodic areas pickup this current from the soil.

Corrosion results at surfaces discharging current into the soil. If sufficient current is impressed on the entire surface of the steel it can be seen that the net current flow becomes unidirectional i.e., from an external ground bed through the surrounding soil to the surfaces of the steel. This is the principle basis of cathodic protection.

any one of the two electrodes has a smaller surface area than the other it can be seen that for any given corrosion cell current, the current density would be much higher on the surface of the smaller electrode, hence, the polarization of that electrode will be much rapid than the other. The zero potential difference is only theoretical. IR drop in the circuit causes equilibrium to reach with a slight potential difference remaining between the two electrodes and a small amount of current continues to flow in order to maintain that equilibrium. I (corr) on the X-axis designate the cell corrosion current. I (applied) designate the cathodic protection current. By providing additional current from an external source, all areas on the metal surface can be placed under cathodic protection as illustrated at point M in the above diagram. At this stage, the potential of entire surface of the cathode has shifted to equal the open circuit potential of anode.

Polarization
In a given corrosion cell, as soon as the current begins to flow, it manifests itself by shift in potential of either the cathode or the anode or both from their natural potential state. This shift in potentials is called polarization. The potential of cathode shifts in the direction of the open circuit potential of the anode. Similarly, the potential shift of anode is in the direction of the open circuit potential of the cathode. This is illustrated in the diagram 6-1. When the anode is connected to the cathode by a metallic conductor the cathodic potential EC and the potential of anode EA begins to approach each other until the theoretical net difference of potential between the two equals zero as shown at point O.

Cathodic Protection Systems

There are two distinct methods by which cathodic protection can be applied to metallic structures. These are:

Ec

E( C O R R )

1. Sacrificial (galvanic) protection system.

M

Ea I( C O R R )

I(A P P LIED )

2. Impressed current system. Sacrificial System Sacrificial system is the most ideal protection system. The principle advantage of such a system, as compared to the impressed current system, is that the current is distributed much more uniformly along a pipeline in small

Diagram 6-1
The rate of polarization of the anode and the cathode as depicted in the above diagram is equal. This is true only when the current densities on the surface of the anode and the cathode are equal. If

units. The structure, even at the drain points, is seldom overprotected. So there is hardly any wasted current. Furthermore, it is possible to distribute the current over the entire structure evenly and most effectively. Although it is true that sacrificial system uses less current for protection of a given pipeline it does not necessarily mean that it is the cheapest system. In fact a sacrificial system can cost much more per mile of pipeline than an impressed current system over a period of time. Sacrificial systems are not economical when protection current demands are high. Also, soil resistivities over 2000 ohm-cm often precludes its use except in exceptional cases where the structure coating is extremely good and the current requirement is very small. In such cases, anodes can be installed in soil resistivities as high as 5000 ohm-cm and provide adequate protection up to 10 kilometer of an average diameter line such as 14 or 16from a single drain point. Impressed current system Impressed current systems are much more versatile in comparison with sacrificial systems. Soil resistivities and driving voltages are not restrictive. The cost per pipeline mile is less as compared to a galvanic system over a period of time. Impressed current ground beds can be conveniently designed and installed in soil resistivities as high as 10,000 ohm-cm. In areas of extremely high surface soil resistivities the option of a deep well anode is always available. These types of systems are particularly suited when the current demand is high and the life expectancy of the system is over ten years. Unlike sacrificial system, the impressed current system can cause

harmful interference on foreign underground metallic structures, which may come close or cross the protected structures.

Environment
Atmosphere
Atmospheric corrosion causes far more failures on both the cost basis and tonnage basis than any other type of corrosion as a result of the environment surrounding metallic structures. Huge amount amounts of steel in buildings, bridges, automobiles etc., are exposed to the atmosphere and attacked by oxygen and moisture. The severity of corrosion is increased when salt, sulfur compounds and other atmospheric contaminants are present. Atmospheric classified as: environments can be

Marine Rural Industrial Indoor

The major corrosive constituents of the atmospheres are the humidity oxygen, and the industrial gases. The highest humidity is found in the coastal areas. Wind in the marine atmosphere carries salt particles, which settles on the exposed surfaces of metal. The salt contamination decreases with increasing distance from the coastal areas. Acid film formation on metallic structures results from atmospheres contaminated with sulfur compounds, which usually is the case in industrial areas when moisture is present. Other pollutants such as chlorides are much more severe than the acid sulfates

Moisture with some electrical conductivity when present in air allows corrosion of metallic structures and alloys to occur even when pollution is absent. The corrosion mechanism is similar to metal immersed in large quantity of electrolyte. Most atmospheric corrosion is highly localized and measurement of polarization characteristics is not possible. Some metals and alloys are very effective in resisting atmospheric corrosion by formation of impervious thin oxide films, which stifles further corrosion. Some examples are copper, zinc, aluminum and stainless steel.

galvanizing is used for the corrosion prevention. Coatings isolate the metal surface from the surrounding water while galvanizing is a layer of zinc, which provides an anodic surface which in turn self-sacrifices and prevents corrosion of steel. Various others alloys and metals such as stainless steels, brasses, bronzes, lead and copper are used. Before selecting any one of these metals and alloys, the constituents of water must be considered. Sea Water Seawater contains almost all of the natural elements and salts in the dissolved state. It is the only electrolyte containing high concentration of salts that occur naturally. Seawater has a very high electrical conductivity. Ocean seawater is roughly equivalent in strength to 3.5 per cent solution of sodium chloride but it has much more complex composition. In terms of corrosiveness it is not more severe than the fresh water. The initial rate of corrosion of Iron for instance could be quite high but due to marine growth it becomes steady at about 5 mpy. It would be expected that temperature variations would cause major difference, but great deal of experimental evidence suggest that this is not so and that remarkably uniform corrosion rates are found in temperate and tropical waters. Under the influence of cathodic protection, calcareous deposits are formed on the cathodic metal. The reaction at the cathode produces alkalinity, which precipitates calcium carbonate from the seawater. This forms a resistant film on the metal surface,

Natural Waters
Water is often called the universal solvent because it has the power to dissolve virtually all-inorganic substances to some extent. Most water handling problems in the oil field arise from the fact that water is such a superb solvent. Both produced and surface waters contain considerable quantities of impurities. In addition to numerous dissolved compounds it usually contains some suspended solids and dissolved gases. Metals being thermodynamically unstable undergo corrosion when immersed. Sometimes suspended and colloidal matter alters the corrosion mechanism by forming protective films on the surface of metals. The corrosiveness of the water is dependent on whether or not the dissolved materials assist in the maintenance of self-healing film. Iron and steel are the two most common materials that are used in the water systems. Protective coatings or

which can greatly reduce the current requirement. Soils Soil, as a corrosive environment is by far the most important of all mediums to which the industrial equipment is exposed. The corrosivity of soil and, to a lesser extent, of water is most commonly determined by electrical resistivity tests. Often the critical factor is the change of electrical resistivity. Knowledge of electrical resistivity values throughout an area under investigation is necessary for the design of cathodic protection systems and as an aid in locating ground beds as providing information on current distribution. Such tests are also important when designing electrical grounding systems. The most accurate available method of predicting the corrosivity is a combination of resistivity test with knowledge of the texture, aeration, and alkalinity or acidity of the types of soil in the area. The high conductivity (low resistivity) soils provide an easy path for the flow of current from the anodic areas to the cathodic areas of structures and such soils are therefore corrosive. Although low resistivity areas are more corrosive than high resistivity areas, the design of ground beds for cathodic protection is economically possible only in low resistivity areas. Alkaline soils are usually low in resistivity because of their large content of soluble salts and a low resistivity coupled with an alkaline pH are indicative of a high corrosive soil. In such soil there is a direct relationship between the resistivity and corrosivity. At one time, medium and high resistivity soils were considered as not particularly corrosive but much corrosion has been found in high resistivity soil areas. Consequently, change in resistivity

between different soils in contact with different parts of a structure is a much more accurate indication of corrosivity in medium and high resistivity soils than an absolute resistivity value. Soils are classified as to their texture. Soils made up of fine particle size are classed as sands while medium range of particle size are known as silt and coarse particle size are commonly accepted as clays. The particle size alone does not determine the relative corrosiveness. Soil constituents such as various organic matter, moisture, gases and living organisms as well as mineral particles alter the chemical nature of any given soil. Moisture holding capacity of clay type soils is much greater than the sandy soils. The soil moisture acts as a solvent for soil salts and results in the salt solution of varying degree of concentrations. In temperate climates and moderate rainfall areas, the salt solution is relatively dilute with total dissolved salts ranging from 80 to 1500 ppm. Regions of extensive rainfall show lower concentrations of soluble salts as the result of leaching action. Conversely, soil in arid regions is usually quite high in salts as these salts are carried to the surface layers of the soil by water movement due to surface evaporation. Oxygen diffuses easily in sandy soils because of pore spaces. On the other hand, closely packed structure of clays is least permeable to gaseous diffusion. Oxygen content of soil is of special interest in corrosion. Biological activity decreases the oxygen content as other gases such as carbon dioxide replaces it. This leads to formation of carbonic acid thus increasing the acidity of the soil.

Factors, which tend to increase microbial respiration, such as the addition of large amounts of readily, decomposed organic matter, or factors, which decrease diffusion rates, will lead to development of anaerobic conditions within the soil. Corrosion cannot occur in completely dry soils. Without water the oxidized state of the metal surface cannot be ionized. Water is also required to ionize the soil electrolytes thus completing the circuit for flow of corrosion current. Water is always present at depths from few feet to hundreds of feet. Capillary action is responsible for bringing up moisture in the upper layers. Continual variation is expected to occur due to climatic influences such as rainfall and flooding which increases the moisture content. Water losses occur due to gravitational downward movement and surface evaporation. These changes in soil moisture content results in wet-dry or anaerobic-aerobic alternations, either short-lived or sustained, and leads to higher corrosion rates than would be obtained within a constant environment. This fluctuation in water and air relations promotes oxygenconcentration-cell formation and leads to greater variation in biological activity within the soil. Soils encountered along the pipeline route are generally neutral (pH 7). There may be locations where soils could be either alkaline or acidic. Alkaline conditions, if moderate, are not serious to steel. On the contrary, this condition prevents corrosion of steel and is the side effect of the application of cathodic protection. Acid soil conditions are aggressive in corrosiveness and acts as depolarizing

agents when cathodic protection is applied. This increases current requirement in such areas. Sulfate reducing bacteria in soils, which can exist in anaerobic conditions (absence of oxygen) at the pipeline surface, are generally known as anaerobic bacteria. The action of this type bacterium is consumption of hydrogen, which leads to cathodic depolarization at the surface of the pipe. Unless the protection current is increased, rapid corrosion can result. The bacterium does not directly attack the pipe but provide conditions conducive to more rapid attack by the existing corrosion cells. Anaerobic corrosion is suspected in areas where the soil at pipeline depth is saturated with water. This can be coarse soils in close proximity to rivers or canals or can be heavy soils at any location where drainage is poor, resulting in stagnant water logged conditions. The practical effect of anaerobic bacterial activity on the application of cathodic protection is an increase in the amount of current required to maintain cathodic protection. Higher-thannormal protective potentials are recommended in areas where anaerobic bacteria are active because the open circuit potentials of anodic areas are higher. An additional 100mV protective potential is suggested (-0.95 volts to copper sulfate electrode instead of the usual 0.85 volts). In the case of a pipeline route, variations in soil resistivity may stimulate localized corrosion and can also cause long line currents. The area in the soil of lower resistivity is usually anodic (more negative)

compared to that in the soil of higher resistivity. In spite of the numerous reservations mentioned above, the simplest and most popular criterion for estimating the corrosivity of a soil remains its resistivity, which depends largely upon the nature and the amount of dissolved salts in the soil and is also affected by temperature, moisture content, compactness of the soil, and the presence of inert materials such as stones and gravel. The assessment of corrosivity of soil according to the British Standard Code of Practice CP1021 (1973) is stated to be on the following approximate basis. Up to 10-Ohm meters: Severely corrosive 10 Ohm-meter to 100 Ohm-meters: Moderately corrosive 100-Ohm-meter and above: Slightly corrosive Corrosion engineers all over the world have long worked with different figures and as their experience stretches back over decades we prefer to continue with the old gradation: Up to 5000 Ohm-cm: Extremely corrosive 5000 to 10,000 Ohm-cm: Mildly corrosive 10,000 Ohm-cm and above: Progressively less corrosive

Soil Variables
Several variables have been identified to have an influence on corrosion rates in soil. Some of these are: Water Water, in liquid form, represents the essential electrolyte required for electrochemical corrosion reactions. A distinction is made between saturated and unsaturated water flow in soils. The latter represents movement of water from wet areas towards dry soil areas. Saturated water flow is dependent on pore size and distribution, texture, structure, and organic matter. Degree of Aeration The oxygen concentration decreases with increasing depth of soil. In neutral or alkaline soils, the oxygen concentration has an important effect on corrosion rate due to its participation in the cathodic reaction. However, in the presence of certain microbes (such as sulfate reducing bacteria) corrosion rates can be very high, even under anaerobic conditions. Excavation can obviously increase the degree of aeration in soil, compared with the undisturbed state. Effect of pH Soils usually have a pH range of 5-8. In this range, pH is generally not considered to be the dominant variable affecting corrosion rates. More acidic soils obviously represent a serious corrosion risk to common construction materials such as steel, cast iron and zinc Water Degree of Aeration Effect of pH Effect of Resistivity Redox Potential Effect of Chloride Level Effect of Sulfate Level

coatings. Soil acidity is produced by mineral leaching, decomposition of acidic plants (for example coniferous tree needles), industrial wastes, acid rain and certain forms of microbiological activity. Alkaline soils tend to have high sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium contents. The latter two elements tend to form calcareous deposits on buried structures with protective properties against corrosion. The pH level can affect the solubility of corrosion products and also the nature of microbiological activity. Effect of Resistivity Resistivity has historically been used as a broad indicator of soil corrosivity. Since ionic current flow is associated with soil corrosion reactions, high soil resistivity will slow down corrosion reactions. Soil resistivity generally decreases with increasing water content and the concentration of ionic species. Soil resistivity is by no means the only parameter affecting the risk of corrosion damage. A high soil resistivity alone will not guarantee absence of serious corrosion. Redox Potential The redox potential essentially is a measure of the degree of aeration in a soil. A high redox potential indicates a high oxygen level. Low redox values may provide an indication that conditions are conducive to anaerobic microbiological activity. Sampling of soil will obviously lead to oxygen exposure and unstable redox potentials are thus likely to be measured in disturbed soil. Effect of Chloride Level Chloride ions are generally harmful, as they participate directly in anodic dissolution reactions of metals and their

presence tends to decrease the soil resistivity. They may be found naturally in soils as a result of brackish groundwater and historical geological seabeds (some waters encountered in drilling mine shafts have chloride ion levels comparable to sea water). The chloride ion concentration in the corrosive aqueous soil electrolyte will vary, as soil conditions alternate between wet and dry cycles. Effect of Sulfate Level Compared to the corrosive effect of chloride ion levels, sulfates are generally considered to be more benign in their corrosive action towards metallic materials. However, concrete may be attacked as a result of high sulfate levels. The presence of sulfates does pose a major risk for metallic materials in the sense that sulfates can be converted to highly corrosive sulfides by anaerobic sulfate reducing bacteria.

Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC)

Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) is that form of corrosion, which is influenced by the presence of microorganisms and their products, which are produced in their metabolism. Fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms can greatly promote soil corrosion. Pipeline systems provide favorable conditions in which microbiological bacteria can thrive. MIC in combination of other forms of corrosion such as crevice corrosion, corrosion under disbanded coatings, in the presence of H2S and CO2 can accelerate the corrosion attack.

Rapid corrosion failures have known to occur in soil because of microbial action and most metallic alloys are prone to MIC can be detected by various methods. Although soils samples can be taken to laboratories and cultured but for proper assessment it is advisable to perform the investigation at the actual site where the bacterial activity is suspected. Valuable information can be gained by chemical analysis and determination of pH of the corrosion product. Remedial action for the prevention of MIC is accomplished by increasing the

one form or another type of corrosion, which appears to be localized corrosion. level of cathodic protection by raising the minimum criterion of protection from 0.085V to 0.095V. For problems within the pipelines if the problem lies within a pipeline that is not cathodically protected (internal protection) the remedy can be pigging which will remove any standing water or debris accumulated in the pipeline. The other method could be the use of inhibitors and biocides,

Chapter - 7 Soil Resistivity

The units of resistivity most commonly used are ohm-centimeter (ohm-cm) and ohmmeter (ohm-m). The resistivity of a unit cube volume of soil or any other substance is equal to the resistance measured across the opposite faces of that cube. The resistivity () of a rectangular volume other than a cube is given by = RWD/L Where: W = width D = depth L = length R = measured resistance value The methods used for measurements of soil resistivity are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. Soil box procedure AC Soil Rod procedure Werner 4-pin procedure. Geonics 22 x 3 cm. This container is filled with samples of soil or water. Brass or stainless steel plates (current plates) are located at the longitudinal ends of the box, which serve to pass current through the specimen. Two pins are provided which are approximately 7 cm apart and are located in the middle of the box longitudinally for measuring voltage drop. These pins are uniformly spaced such that the resistance R of the soil sample equals resistivity in ohm-cm. The soil sample for the soil box tests are taken by digging down to the depth of interest, usually 5 feet or so. The samples are then carefully packed and sealed in plastic bags to prevent evaporation of soil moisture. If evaporation does occur the soil samples may be wet down using distilled water. Following instruments may be used for performing the soil resistivity test in combination with the soil box: Two separate multimeters and a 12-volt automotive battery are used. One of the multimeters is inserted in series to read current and the other multimeter is set to read potentials. The schematic hook-up is shown in Figure 7-1a. A combination meter such as MCM Model B3A2 and a 12-volt battery may be used. The left side meter of this instrument can be set to read amperes while the right side meter may be used to measure voltage between the potential pins. Schematic hook-up is shown in Figure-7-1b.

Methods 1 & 2 provide soil resistivity measurements, which are limited to the surface layers only where as method 3 can determine resistivities at intermediate depths (from 2.5 feet to 20 feet). Method 4 can measure resistivity down to 60 meters and by extrapolation can provide resistivity profile to a depth of 100 meters.

Soil Box Procedure

The soil box is a rectangular shaped container normally made of Plexiglas (Figure 7-1a). Inside dimensions are 4 x

A soil resistivity meter such as Nilsson Model 400 may be used. The use of this meter is very popular, as no external battery is needed. The instrument directly reads resistivity in ohm-cm. Schematic hook-up is shown in Figure 7-1c. When using multimeters, be sure readings on both meters are obtained simultaneously. Potential must be in volts and current must be in amperes to obtain results in ohm-cm. Calculate resistance following the ohms law. When using earth resistivity meter the polarity as stated above must be strictly observed. No calculations are necessary since the dial reading in ohm equal resistivity in ohm-cm.

P1 C1

P2 C2

S O IL R E S IS T IV IT Y M ETER

SO IL BO X

Figure 7-1c Meter reading equals resistivity in ohm-cm. Wenner 4-Pin Method

SO IL BO X

+
AMMETER VOLTMETER

Figure 7-1a
Resistivity in ohm-cm = E/I

Wenner 4-pin method (Figure 7-3) is universally used by corrosion engineers for either profiling the resistivity of the soil through which a pipeline traverses or for the purpose of designing a ground bed for a cathodic protection system. In this method 4 metal pins usually carbon steel or stainless are driven in a straight line. The pins are equally spaced. The penetration (d) of pins is restricted to not more than 2% of the spacing S. Before application of D.C. current across the outer pins, potential difference between the inner pins (P1 & P2) is recorded as E1. Current of value typically ranging between 5 to 10 amperes is applied to the outer pins (C1 & C2). Exact value of current I is recorded. The potential difference between the inner pins is again measured as E2. The resistance is equated as follows: -

C O M B IN A T IO N M E TE R (M C M B 3 A 2 )

EXTERN AL BATTERY
+

P O T N T IA L P IN S

CU R REN T P LATE

CU RRE NT PLAT E

Figure 7-1b
Resistivity in ohm-cm = E/I

R =

E2 - E 1 I

A m m ete r

Commercially available instruments such as Vibroground or a 4-terminal Megger are specially designed for earth resistivity measurement. These instruments have terminals marked P1.P2.C1 &C2. Figure 7-4 illustrates the use of such a meters.
VIB R OG R O U ND C -1 C -2 P -2

BATTERY V a r ia b le R e s is t o r

P -1

V o lt m e t e r
S te e l P ro b e s

C1

P1

P2

C2

GRA DE

C1

P1

P2 S te e l P r o b e s

C2 G ra d e Le v e l

Figure 7-3
After determining the resistance R the resistivity of the soil is calculated by using the following equation: = 191.5 x S x R Where: = Resistivity in ohm-cm R = Ohms as read on the meter S = Pin Spacing in feet If pin spacing S is standardized, calculations in field can be simplified. For instance 1000/191.5 = 5.22 feet (5 2.5) Therefore if pin spacing 5.22 is used the resistivity will be R x 1000. The most commonly used pin spacing are: Spacing 5-2. 5 7-10 10-5 15-8 20-11 Multiplier 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000

Figure 7-4
Vibroground are powered by DC batteries. A galvanometer is used which when balanced to null position reads R directly on the graduated balancing knob. The 4-terminal Megger is powered by a hand-crank generator and supplies power to the current pins. The rest of the operation is identical to the Vibroground. The resistivity value represents an average resistivity of the earth to a depth equal to the pin spacing. The layer resistivity at any given depth can vary greatly from the average resistivity measured to that depth. It is important to understand that if ground bed design calculations are based on an average soil resistivity to a certain depth without consideration of the layer resistivity at that depth, the error introduced in the calculations can result in disappointment. The layer resistivity can be determined at any specific depth using the Barns layer method. Table 7-1, which is based

on actual survey in the Zamzama region in Sindh, illustrates the extent of variations.

Table 7-1
Depth R 2'-7" 5'-2" 7'-9" 10'-6" 1/ R 1.4 0.714 . 0.3 2.857 2.143 5 0.2 3.704 0.847 7 0.2 4.348 0.644 3 1/R 1/ (1/R) . 0.467 FACTOR Layer Ave Layer 500 500 700 1000 500 500 500 Avera ge 700 350 405 460

between the coils is 10, 20 and 40 meters. The coils are placed on the ground in two modes 1) coil axis horizontal to ground and 2) coil axis vertical to ground. The effective depth for each coil mode and separation is as follows: Coil Mode Coil Spacing (Meters) Effective K to Depth (Meters) Plot Position (Meters) Symbol

1.181 1500 1.553 2000

Horizontal

Vertical

The factor used for any specific depth is the product of 191.5 times that depth in feet while the factor used for layer resistivity calculations is 191.5 times the layer thickness in feet.

10 20 40 10 20 40

7.5 15 30 15 30 60

3.75 7.50 15.00 7.50 15.00 30.00

A B C AA BB CC

The conductivity readings obtained at various coil spacing and mode are plotted against depth as shown in Table7-2.

Geonics Method
Geonics is an electromagnetic technique by which the earth conductivity can be measured using an instrument specifically designed for this purpose. The instrument most commonly used is model EM-34 developed by Geonics Limited (Canada). This instrument consists of a radio frequency (RF) transmitter and a receiver with transmitting and receiving coils or antennae. An RF signal is broadcasted downwards into the soil by the transmitter coil. This induces circular eddy current loops to flow in the soil. The circular eddy current in turn generates a secondary magnetic field, which can be measured by the receiver coil. The ratio of this secondary magnetic field is directly proportional to the soil conductivity permitting a direct read-out by the instrument of the conductivity value (mmoh). The transmitting coil (Tx) and the receiver coil (Rx) are each (separately) carried by two operators and are linked by a reference cable. The spacing used

Table 7-2 (*Measured Values)

Horizontal Mode Plot Depth 3.75 7.5 11.25 15 18.75 22.5 26.25 30 33.75 37.5 41.25 45 48.75
52.5

Vertical Mode Symbo l DD AA* EE BB* FF GG HH CC* II KK LL MM NN Value 2*AA-EE AA (AA+BB)/2 BB (GG+BB)/2 2BB-AA (CC+GG)/2 CC (KK+CC)/2 (4*II-AA)/3 (MM+KK)/2 2CC-BB 2MM-LL

Symbo l A* B* D C* E F G H

Value A B 2B-A C (4*c-a)/3 2C-B 2F-E 2G-F (etc)

OO

56.25

2NN-MM (etc)

The table also shows formula for extrapolating the conductivity values at other plot depths, which are not directly measured. Cable connections of coils, transmitter and receiver are shown in Figure 7-5. With this method reliable results can be obtained irrespective of surface

anomalies, which may render the 4-pin method non-interpretable. The limitations are interference effects resulting from the presence of buried conductors, overhead power lines, surface structures and nearby cathodic protection systems. To avoid these interference effects, test location can be moved away to the nearest point where interference is no longer detectable. In some cases where the interference is only from an existing cathodic protection system, that system can be shut down to permit operation of the Geonics instruments. Good correlation has been achieved between the calculated resistances and the actual ground bed resistances of vertical ground beds up to a depth of 90 meters. The field survey technique should be such that a point on the earth is preselected and each measurement is then made keeping that point in the center of the two coils at any coil spacing that is used (see fig.7-6)

R E F E R E N C E C A B LE Rx

Tx

R x S H O R T CA B LE Tx SH O R T CA B LE

RX C OIL

T X C O IL

1 0 m .2 0 ,4 0 m

Figure 7-5

CEN TER NORM AL GRADE

10M 2 0M 40M

C O IL SPA C IN G S

Figure 7-6

Chapter - 8 Anodes
Anodes Classification
Anodes are classified in two general types. 1. Galvanic or Sacrificial Anodes 2. Impressed Current Anodes Galvanic Anodes Galvanic anodes for cathodic protection makes use of materials, which are more reactive than steel and act as an anode when electrically connected to steel (in electrolytes) and thus provide the required current needed for protection. Three metals have the required electrochemical and physical properties to offer a suitable basis for sacrificial anode alloys. These are magnesium, zinc and aluminum. Anodes of alloys based on magnesium are used extensively on land. The higher driving potential makes them more suitable for comparatively high resistivity soils, and in some situations where dilution of seawater with river water gives higher resistivity and consequentially lower output from aluminum or zinc based alloys. Zinc is the traditional sacrificial anode alloy and was first used over 150 years ago by Sir Humphrey Davy for protection of warships. The most widely used alloy is a zinc-aluminum-cadmium composition with limitations on the levels of lead, iron and copper. Zinc and aluminum are commonly used for submarine pipeline protection where bracelet anodes are fitted around the pipe either cast as half or quarter shell or fabricated from anode alloy segments. Magnesium anodes are most effectively used on electrically isolated and coated structures, which have low current demand. The current output of these anode installations is typically much less than that which is obtained from impressed current cathodic protection systems. Their use is limited in low resistivity soils only. As a general guideline, one may assume magnesium anodes to be suitable where soil resistivity is between 1000 to 5000 ohmcm. Zinc anodes are preferred where soil resistivity is less than 1000 ohm-cm. Aluminum anodes are mostly used in aqueous environment particularly seawater. Commercially available magnesium and zinc anodes for soil environment are packaged in cotton bags containing specially prepared low resistivity back fill. The packaged zinc anodes are identical to magnesium anodes. The composition of specially prepared backfill for both magnesium and zinc anodes is: Gypsum (CaSO4) Granular Bentonite Sodium Sulfate 75% 20% 5%

The backfill resistivity is 50 ohm-cm. The function of bentonite is to absorb water and in so doing it expands, thus ensuring good contact between anode and soil which in turn contributes in lowering anode to earth contact resistance. The chemical composition in packaging of magnesium anodes is listed

in Table 8-1A and that of zinc in Table 8-1B

Table 8-1A
% Chemical Composition (H-1 Alloy) Element Grade A Grade B Grade C 5.3-6.7 5.0-7.0 0.15 min 0.15 min 2.5-3.5 2.0-4.0 2.5-3.5 2.0-4.0 0.13 max 0.13 max 0.003ma 0.003max x Fe 0.003 max 0.003ma 0.003max x Others 0.30 max 0.30max 0.30max Magnesium Remainder High Potential Alloy Element Content % Al 0.010 Mn 0.50 to 1.30 Cu 0.02 max Ni 0.001 max Fe 0.03 max Other 0.05 each or 0.3 max Magnesium Remainder Al Mn Zn Si Cu Ni 5.3-6.7 0.15 min 2.5-3.5 2.5-3.5 0.10 max 0.002 max

Nominal Dimensions (Inches Including Backfill) Length Dia 6 6 6.5 6 13.5 6 17 6 19 6.5 30 8 18 10

Nominal Weight (Lb.)

Bare

Packaged

1 3 5 9 17 32 50

3.5 9 14 24 42 70 110

For aqueous environment, H-1 alloy, grade C bare metal anode is recommended.

Table 8-1B
Element Content % MIL-AASTM B-418 18001 TYPE-II ASTM B-418 TYPE-I

Table 8-3 Cast Zinc Anodes Nominal Nominal Weight Dimensions (Lb.) (Inches Including Backfill) Length Dia Bare Packaged 15 5 5 24 30 5 12 48 42 5 18 70 66 5 30 95 36 5 30 70 51 5 45 110 66 5 60 130 The open circuit potential of high potential magnesium anode ranges between 1.75 and 1.77 volts and H-1 alloy has an open circuit potential between 1.53 and 1.55 volts. These potentials are with reference to copper/copper-sulfate half-cell (CSE). The current capacity of these anodes is 500 amp-hrs/lb at 50% efficiency. The theoretical rate of metal consumption is 8.8 lbs/amp-yr while the practical rate of consumption with 50% efficiency is 17 lbs/amp-yr. The zinc anodes are cast from 99.99% purity high-grade zinc. The open circuit potential with reference to CSE is 1.1

Al Cd Fe Pb Cu Zinc

0.1 5.5 0.02 0.007 0.005 max 0.006 max 0.005 max Remainder

0.005 max 0.003 max 0.0014 max 0.003 max 0.002 max Remainder

The most common types and sizes are listed in table 8-2 for cast magnesium anodes and 8-3, for cast zinc anodes. Table 8-2 Cast Magnesium Anodes

volts. The current capacity is 335 amphrs/lb. The theoretical rate of metal consumption is approximately 26 lbs/amp-yr. The practical rate of consumption at 90% efficiency is lbs/amp-yr.

The most common size is 0.84 in diameter, 24 feet long extruded over 1/8 steel core.

Impressed Current Anodes

An impressed current anode can be any metal or alloy buried in the ground and connected to the positive terminal of a DC current source. The current generated by the DC power source is discharged by the anode into the earth thus, dissolving the anode material.

Extruded Galvanic Ribbon

The ribbon anodes (Figure 8-1) have a small cross sectional area and are available in coils of any desired length. The anode material (magnesium or zinc) is extruded over 1/8-inch steel core.

Graphite Anode
Graphite anodes (Figure 8-2) manufactured from particles petroleum coke. are of

Figure 8-1
On a pound per pound basis the extruded ribbon shape anodes provide much larger surface area, which reduces its resistance to earth when buried. This allows these shapes to deliver a greater amount of current per weight than their cast magnesium or zinc counterparts thus enabling their use in relatively higher soil resistivities. Zinc ribbon has been used successfully to protect some flow lines in interior Sindh where soil resistivity ranged between 4000 to 6000 ohm-cm. Rod Shape Anode Galvanic rods are usually 1 in diameter in any specified length. These anodes are also extruded over 1/8-inch steel core. Similar to galvanic ribbon anode these also provide lower resistance to earth as compared to cast metal counterparts.

Figure 8-2
Process from coke to an almost pure 99.9% graphitic carbon anode involves many steps and can take as long as 16 weeks. Graphite anodes are available in two types; the regular anode and the NA type anode. The NA type anode receives an overall impregnation of hot linseed oil in a vacuum chamber. This special treatment makes it exceptionally resistant to oxygen attack and water absorption. It is well suited for use in severe environments, including saltwater. These anodes were widely used in the Gulf States and the USA in the 1950s and 1960s. By 1970s, however, their use began to decline because of increasing cost and also because of the development of more economical and durable materials. To assure high percentage of carbon, the rods are repeatedly heated at temperatures in excess of 2600 C and

then cooled. This reduces anodic consumption rate. In buried soil, the consumption rate varies between 0.4 and 2.0 lb./amp-yr depending upon exposure and operating conditions. Typical specifications for a 3 x 60 long graphite anode are given below: The anodes are to be made of finely ground-impregnated graphite National Carbon or A.G.R. equivalent. The anode shall be 3 inch in diameter by 60 inches long. The standard anode to be furnished with a 5-foot No. 8 A.W.G. 7 stranded 7/64-inch high molecular weight polyethylene (HMWPE) insulated copper wire attached. Lead wire electrical connection anode shall be anchored in a cavity no less than 4 inches in depth and no more than inches off center. A minimum of 1 inch of exposed wire shall be covered with hot lead. The remainder of the wire is to be surrounded with an insulating compound of either Ozite B or No Void C and retained in place with a 1 inch threaded plastic plug. The anode shall be treated with linseed oil in its entirety and be classified as a Type NA Graphite Anode by National Carbon. Anode lead wire shall be able to withstand a pull test of 400 pounds for 5 minutes. Either an epoxy or a heat shrinkable cap shall be used as an additional moisture seal.

High Silicon Chromium Cast Iron

These anodes contain 14.75 percent silicon and 3.25 to 5% chromium. They are available in two shapes; solid and tubular rods. The tubular shape has the advantage of providing greater surface area thus permitting any generated gases to be distributed over a larger area. In the tubular design the wire connection is made in the center of the anode, thus eliminating the problem of end-effect consumption. These anodes gained worldwide acceptance in the 1970s and are still popular in the industry. . Size and design feature varies for the particular job, but primarily, the standard anodes are 60 inches long and from 1 inch to 3 inch in diameter. The standard anodes are supplied with a 5 feet No. 8 A.W.G. 7-strand 7/64-inch high molecular weight polyethylene (HMWPE) insulated copper wire attached. Anodes to lead wire connections are sealed with sealing compound, epoxy caps, epoxy encapsulation or heat shrink sleeves.

Anode specifications
Size and design feature varies for the particular job, but primarily, the standard anodes are 60 inches long and from 1 inch to 3 inch in diameter. Typical specifications for the High Silicon Cast Iron solid rod type anodes are given below: The standard anode to be furnished with a 5 feet No. 8 A.W.G. 7-strand 7/64-inch high molecular weight polyethylene

(HMWPE) insulated copper wire attached. The anode is to be cast with a cored hole that has an inverse taper at the bottom. Cored hole is to be inches in diameter by 3 inches long for connections under 2 inches, and 1 inches in diameter by 3 inches long for connections over 2 inches. The cored hole will be thoroughly cleaned before wire is inserted. Cable insulation is to be removed for a minimum of 1 inch. Pour molten 14% telluriumantimonial lead around the pretinned cable, previously inserted in the cored opening. The bottom of the hole is to be filled 1 inch deep with molten lead and caulked lightly. The annular space above the lead is to be filled with Ozite B or No Void and retained in place with two polyethylene compression washers. Either an epoxy or a heat shrinkable cap must be used as an additional moisture seal.

scrap steel are usually welded together in lengths of several hundred feet and buried with or without carbonaceous backfill. Without carbonaceous backfill, the service life of the anode will be dependant on the total steel weight used. Consumption rate of steel is 20lbs per amp per year. However, with carbonaceous backfill the service life can be extended considerably since current will be discharged through the coke breeze backfill, which has a consumption rate of 1 lb per amp per year. Except for temporary or experimental anodes, scrap steel is not commonly used today essentially because of its high rate of consumption (without coke backfill) and due to the availability of other longer life and more economical materials. Nonetheless, when properly designed and used in combination with carbonaceous backfill the life of the scrap steel anode can be extended reasonably long to justify its use particularly when a company using it has a stockpile of scrap available. Figure 8-3A below shows a typical fabrication of a scrap steel anode, which has been successfully used in an oil facility in Northern Pakistan. This anode was designed for Orient Petroleum Inc. and was fabricated from 6 diameter scrap pipe welded together to give 175 feet length. The pipe was slotted at bottom every 25 feet and water filling risers were installed at both ends. This allowed watering the ground bed during dry seasons when the grounded resistance tends to increase.

Scrap Steel Anode

Perhaps the earliest impressed current cathodic protection systems used only scrap steel as the anode material. This kind of anode can be fabricated from any scrap metal shapes such as drill pipe, scrap pipe, H-beams etc. Pieces of

2" DIA. PIPE FOR WATERING GROUNDBED

To Suit

To Requirement

1/2" WIDE ASPHALT PAINT

SCRAP PIPE 8" PIPE CAP

175 FEET

25 Ft.

PIPE CAP

1" DIA PERFORATION

Figure 8-3A

Figure 8-3B

To assure steel continuity during the design life, half-inch wide asphalt strip was painted along its entire length. Although, this reduced the active surface area to some extent, it nevertheless, assured electrical continuity by preventing corrosion under the painted surface. Another scrap steel anode configuration is shown in figure 8-3 B (above). This

shape resembles a standard cast iron or graphite anode with center tap connection. It can be successfully used in boreholes surrounded by coke breeze Mixed Metal Oxide (MMO) Anode The MMO anodes are titanium tubes titanium solid rods or copper clad titanium rods with mixed metal oxide coating applied over it. The mixed metal

oxide is a crystalline, electrically conductive coating that activates the titanium and enables it to function as an anode. When applied on titanium, the coating has an extremely low consumption rate, measured in terms of milligrams per year. As a result of this low consumption rate, the substrate metal dimensions remain nearly constant during the life of the anode. Despite a thin mixed metal oxide coating, lifetimes from 15 to 20 years can be obtained. This is possible due to the low consumption rate of the mixed metal oxide coating at the recommended operating current densities. By varying the current output of the anode, longer or shorter lifetimes of the anode result. The limiting factor is the DC voltage at the anode to electrolyte interface, which must not exceed 12 volts else rapid failure of anode will result. These anodes are available in various shapes, sizes and configurations. Two are shown below (Figure 8-4) .

Solid Rod Anodes These are solid rod titanium substrate coated with mixed metal oxide. These anodes are small, light weight and can operate at current densities much higher than conventional anodes (10 amp/sft2) Although various sizes are available, the most commonly used size is 0.125 x 96 with a 14 amp current rating. Tubular Anodes These are tubular rods of titanium substrate, which are coated with mixed metal oxide catalyst. Basically, these are similar to solid rod anodes with the exception that by hollow configuration a much greater surface area results. The most commonly used size is 0.75x48 with a 45 amp current rating. Expanded Mesh Anode These anodes are suitable for protection of reinforced concrete. The anodes are composed of expanded titanium mesh strips, which are coated with mixed metal oxide catalyst. The mixed metal oxide catalyst makes the anode extremely conductive and is the means for transferring electrical current from titanium to the surrounding electrolyte. The anode can be operated at a maximum current density of 20 mA/ft2-.. Ribbon Anodes Ribbon anodes are composed of titanium ribbon substrate coated with mixed metal oxide (Figure 8-5).

H IG H P U R IT Y TITA N IU M CLA D D IN G

S O LID C O P PE R A C T IV A T IO N ROD H I G H P U R I T YC O A T I N G T I T A N IU M SO LID R O D

Figure 8-4

Platinized Anode
Under anodic condition platinum is an excellent corrosion resistant material that can pass current in all electrolytes without forming an insulating film. A very thin film of platinum is clad over either titanium or niobium, which in turn is clad over copper rod as the substrate because of its high electrical conductivity. Platinum is the ideal permanent impressed current anode material. It is one of the most noble metals and in practically all environments forms a thin invisible film, which is electrically very conductive. In addition, the exchange current densities of most anodic reactions on the Pt surface are greater than on other anode materials. Due to its high cost, platinum is applied as a thin coating (1-5 mm) on metallic substrates such as titanium, niobium and tantalum. Platinized titanium is often used in marine environments. To avoid the dissolution of titanium at unplatinized locations on the surface, the operating voltage of the anode is limited by the anodic breakdown potential of titanium, which is in the range of 9 to 12 V in the presence of chlorides. Hence the safe maximum recommended operating voltage of platinized titanium anodes is 8 volts in seawater. For cathodic protection systems where operating voltages are expected to be relatively high, niobium and tantalum based anodes are generally selected. This is because these two substrates have anodic breakdown potentials greater than 100V in chloride containing electrolytes. The consumption rate of platinized anodes is approximately 8 mg per amp-yr. The rate of platinum consumption has been found to accelerate in the presence of AC current ripples. Most wastage was

2 .5 " .6 2 5 "

FA B R IC A T E D FR O M H IG H P U R ITY TITA N IU M SH E ET SP O T W E LD ED TY P 4 PE R S TR IP

1 2 "

B A R E TIT A N IU M C R O S S P IE CE 0 .0 4 " X 0 .5 "

Figure 8-5 Because an oxidizing film naturally activates the titanium substrate, the ribbon anode remains dimensionally stable over a long period of time. These anodes are particularly suited for the protection of soil side of storage tank bottoms. Multi lengths of ribbon are installed in parallel underneath the tank bottom with up to 1 meter spacing. Conductor bars establish electrical continuity between all ribbons and the power feed cable provides connection to the positive terminal of the power source (rectifier).
CON DU CTOR BAR

POW ER FEED

A N O D E R IB B O N 0 .0 2 5 " T H I C K 0 .2 5 " W I D E

Figure 8-6

observed to occur with AC frequencies of less than 50 Hz. The repeated oxidation/reduction processes result in the formation of a brownish layer of platinum oxide. To avoid the occurrence of this phenomenon, a three phase fullwave rectification is recommended. The consumption rate of platinized anodes is also adversely affected by the presence of organic impurities such as sugar and diesel fuel. Platinized titanium anodes are ideally used in the salt water or seawater environment where the CP system can operate at low voltages.

recoating, while staying in compliance with CP regulations. The Anodeflex system has five basic components as shown in Figure 8-6.

Figure 8-6
The basic system components as shown in the above figure are: A copper conductor, which serves as a low-resistance bus bar that delivers the required current over considerable distance without substantial longitudinal voltage drop. Special conductive polymer that seals the conductor from chemical attack, yet allows current to flow from the conductor to the environment all along its length. High-performance coke breeze, which serves as the active matrix for the anodic reactions. A fabric jacket that holds the coke breeze in place around the anode cable. This jacket is designed to resist electrochemical attack, yet allow current from the anode to flow to the surrounding soil. A tough, porous, nonconductive braided jacket, which enhances resistance to abrasion and prevents the fabric from being damaged.

Magnetite Anode
Magnetite is a cheap and naturally occurring material. It is a nontoxic oxide. Due to its brittleness, the anode is cast as a hollow cylinder and closed at one end. The inner surface is then copper plated and the cylinder is filled with polystyrene. Epoxy resin is used to fill any remaining space. The anode cable is soldered to the copper plate. Magnetite anodes have been successfully used in the cathodic protection of buried structures and those immersed in seawater. The maximum operating current density is 11.5 A/m2 and the anode consumption rate is approximately from 1 to 4 gm per ampyr depending upon the environmental and operating conditions.

Anodeflex
Anodeflex cables have been used successfully as long continuous anode to extend the effective lives of pipeline coating systems. Some pipeline operators have used Anodeflex systems to provide a cost-effective alternative to

Anodeflex has a current discharge capacity of 16 milliamperes per linear foot. The two primary applications for Anodeflex are the protection of buried metal structures such as pipelines and tanks by continuous impressed current anode. This system is particularly suited for poorly coated pipelines and is perhaps a much cheaper alternative to refurbishing extended length of pipeline coating. Conventional ground beds have performed very well on pipelines with effective coatings. However, as coatings deteriorate the effective protection distance of these discrete anodes rapidly decreases, and on poorly coated pipelines the effective protection distance may only be as long as 100m. Most current under such circumstances is directed to the part of the pipe nearest the ground bed resulting in overprotection and subsequent accelerated localized coating disbondment. Anodeflex being a continuous anode, all the way along the pipeline, is able to provide a much better current distribution along the entire length of the pipeline. It is therefore an ideal coating rehabilitation method, which can be installed at a fraction of the cost of recoating, and allows for the pipeline to remain in full operation.

the anode on which oxidation reaction occurs, thus preserving the actual anode consumption. Particle size and shape are very important when specifying a backfill material. Both parameters determine the contact area between anode and earth whilst influencing the porosity of the column, which is important for gas ventilation. A general-purpose coke breeze for use in shallow horizontal and vertical ground beds has a resistivity ranging between 35 and 50 ohm-cm. For deep well applications a special calcined petroleum coke breeze is available which has a resistivity of 15 ohm-cm or less. Some of the most commonly used backfill materials manufactured by Loresco are described below. Loresco Type SW This type of coke breeze is suitable for impressed current surface ground beds. It is also suitable for canisterized anodes and semi deep impressed current systems. It can be poured dry. Because of its round particle shape it does not require tamping because of its ability to go to full density with simple pouring. The bulk density of type SW is 54 pounds per cubic foot with porosity of 56.7%. The particle size ranges from 1mm to 12mm. Because of its wettable surface characteristics, it can be freely poured directly into water or light mud without sacrificing system integrity due to poorly compacted carbon. Settling time is almost instantaneous. Loresco Type SWK It is specifically designed for impressed current surface and containerized anodes. It has particle sizes ranging from

Carbonaceous Backfill
Types of materials for backfill use include coke breeze, calcined petroleum coke and natural graphite. When compacted around an impressed current anode, it serves triple purpose a) It increases the effective size of the anode b) reduces the anode to earth resistance and c) it becomes the outer surface of

0.004 to 0.5 inch. SWK is heavy and sinks readily in water or light mud. It can be installed by pouring around the anodes and tamping is not necessary. The particles exhibit a hard round shape and are composed of almost solid carbon. The bulk density is 70 pounds per cubic foot and the porosity is 44%. Its low resistivity enables intimate anode contact and assures that most electrolytic discharge will occur at the backfill periphery. Loresco Type DW-1 This is a carbon backfill with particles ranging between 0.004 inch to 0.25 inch. Its bulk density is 74 pounds per cubic foot and sinks readily in water and light mud. The fixed carbon content of DW-1 is over 90%. Being a sized and predominantly round material, it may be installed by either pumping or pouring. Approximately seven gallons of water per one hundred pounds of backfill should be utilized when pumping.

complicated. However, if the components that make up the rectifier are individually examined, and an understanding is gained of these, the unit as a whole will likewise be simplified. The main power train of a rectifier is the transformer and the rectifier stacks. These two components alone could provide the DC power for the cathodic protection system, but the other components found within the cabinet perform useful function also. Lightning arresters are used on the input and output to protect the rectifier from component failure due to surges caused by high-tension transient voltages. Circuit breakers are provided at the AC input turn the rectifier on and off, and to provide overload protection. The transformer changes the input line voltage to a usable level. The stack converts AC to DC. The meters and shunt provide output voltage and current readouts. The configuration of diodes in the single-phase bridge circuit is said to have 4 legs (Figure 8-7).

D.C. Power Sources

Conventional Transformer/Rectifier
The cathodic protection rectifier is a device that converts, or rectifies alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). Unless filtering is used to smooth out the rate of flow, the DC that results from a single phase rectified will actually be a series of pulses, each starting from zero, rising to a peak, and dropping again to zero. DC meters read the average value rather than the Peak or RMS value. A standard cathodic protection rectifier is basically a simple device, although, upon first glance at its schematic or the rectifier itself, it may appear quite

Figure 8-7

The current must pass through two legs of the circuit in series. First it goes out to the load through one leg, and then it returns through another. Thus at a given instant the losses in the bridge are twice those of each conducting legs. The three-phase bridge having 6 legs instead of 4 is the most common circuit, for rectifiers operated from three phase AC power lines (Figure 8-8).

rectifiers deliver pulsed current which consists of square pulses of high voltages (typically 300 to 320 volts DC) at high frequency ranging from 1 kHz to 5 kHz. The continuous current out put of conventional rectifiers is usually accompanied with very low voltages. Because of the low voltage the distance of current through along the line is limited unless a pipeline is very well coated. In contrast, the high output voltage of pulse rectifier is able to spread its current to much greater distance along a pipeline or to much deeper depth along a well casing. This advantage makes them particularly suitable for protection of poorly coated pipelines and deep well casing.

Theory behind the pulsed systems Figure 8-8

Its functions are much like the three single-phase bridges except that each bridge shares a pair of diodes with the other bridges. The three-phase bridge has only 4.5% AC ripple in its output. Thus it is a very efficient rectifying circuit. The transformer rectifiers are available with various AC input (110 to 440 V) and DC output (5 A to 400 A). These units are either air-cooled or oil cooled. Cathodic Protection has been used to mitigate corrosion for many years. Sufficient direct electrical current (DC) is caused to flow from the soil to the surface of the structure. The DC current mitigates corrosion by electrochemically reducing any corrosive oxygen molecules as well as by reducing hydrogen ions that may be adsorbed on the surface of the structure in contact with the soil. As additional molecules and ions diffuse from the soil and become adsorbed onto the steel surface, they are also reduced by the continuously flowing direct current. However, there are certain drawbacks to conventional cathodic protection. Current flows in the ground continuously in a relatively large threedimensional envelope. If there are other foreign metallic structures buried in the soil within the current envelope, damage in terms of metal loss will very likely occur to the foreign structures. Also, the

Pulse Rectifier
Unlike conventional cathodic protection rectifiers which provide current which is often filtered for smooth waveform, pulsed current cathodic protection

"throw", or distance down the pipeline or a well casing, that can be protected, is limited by the driving force (voltage) of the rectifier. The corrosive oxygen molecules and hydrogen ions, adsorbed on the surface of the buried structure, are electrochemically reduced within microseconds after the application of cathodic current. Before the corrosion reactions can begin again, additional molecules and ions must diffuse to the surface of the structure from the surrounding soil and become adsorbed. The destructive diffusion and adsorption processes are orders of magnitude slower than the protective reduction process, particularly when a high pulsating voltages applied cathodic protection is driving the ions. With Pulse Cathodic Protection the corrosive molecules and ions are electrochemically reduced with very short duration but very high current pulses. Since throw is a function of current magnitude, the very high pulsed currents result in greatly improved throw down the length of the structure. Because of the natural electrical characteristics of the structure/anode system, the greatly improved high current throw is further enhanced by the inductive and capacitive redistribution of that current. Also, the very short duration pulses are separated by relatively long "off" intervals. The pulse voltage is applied for less than 20% of the total time. Thus, the continuous current envelope and the resulting interference on foreign structures are greatly reduced.

Solar Power Unit

Solar power system converts some of the sunlight energy striking on the photovoltaic cells directly into DC current. These cells are primarily made of silicon, which is the second most abundant element found on earth. Silicon in combination with some other elements exhibits electrical properties in the presence of sunlight. Direct current results when electrons are set in motion by the sunlight as a result of the photovoltaic effect. Since there are no moving parts in the system the unit can provide life expectancy of 25 to 30 years with minimal maintenance. The main components of the unit are: Solar Panels Battery Bank Battery Charge Regulator Output Control Unit

An assembled solar unit is shown in Figure 8-9 The solar array is mounted on structure hardware provided by the vendor. The structure must be designed for wind loading in excess of 125 mph. The orientation of the solar array is determined by the long-term historical weather data, seasonal orientation of the sun, as well as the degree of sunshine so that maximum exposure to sunlight is guaranteed. Battery bank size is designed to meet the current requirement of the output control unit and at the same time provide minimum 5 days autonomy so that batteries can continue furnishing current even when there is no direct sunlight. Batteries are shaded from direct sunlight so that temperature extremes are avoided. Maintaining

constant battery temperature reduces the electrolyte consumption and enhances the battery service life. It is recommended that the batteries be installed either in a ventilated brick house or a suitable battery box.

exhibited a good thermoelectric effect and the first thermocouples were produced. Unlike solar units, TEGs do not require batteries. They operate continuously and are equipped to re-ignite automatically in the event of fuel interruption. They are most commonly used in remote areas where the installation of AC power lines or galvanic anode systems are prohibitively expensive or otherwise impractical. Numerous models of TEGs are now available which ranges from 15 watts to 550 watts with operating voltages ranging from 2.5V to 48V. They are ideally suited for remote areas and their operation is unaffected by weather conditions such as rains and storms, Operating temperatures range from -65 C to + 65C. Fuel required for running these units could either be the produced natural gas or liquid fuels such as diesel, kerosene or gasoline. These generators are more efficiently used where gaseous fuels such as propane or butane are available. A typical TEG installation is shown in Figure 8-10

Figure 8-9
Battery charge regulator, as the name implies, is an electronic device, which maintains the battery voltage while charging from the solar array. Output control unit provides the capability of manually or automatically adjusting the battery output current to the requirement imposed by the structure being protected.

Thermoelectric Generator (TEG)

Thomas Seebeck investigated the thermoelectric principle over 135 year ago. He found that by heating a junction of two dissimilar metals, potential difference is created across the terminals and current begins to flow when these terminals are connected together. The use of the thermoelectric principle became practical with the advent of semiconductor technology in the late 1940s. By 1950s semiconductor materials had been developed that

Figure 8-10

Energy Converters (Ormat)

An Ormat unit consists of a combustion system, a vapor generator, a turboalternator an air-cooled condenser and a rectifier. The burner heats the organic liquid in the vapor generator some of it vaporizes and expands through a turbine wheel thus producing power to drive the alternator. The vapor then passes into a

condenser where it is cooled and in so doing, is condensed back into the liquid state and then it is pumped back into the vapor generator, cooling the alternator on its way, and lubricating the bearings. The cycle continues as long as heat is applied to the vapor generator. Because the liquid/vapor stainless steel envelope is sealed, none of the organic fluid is lost in the process. Furthermore, the working fluid is totally immune to climatic conditions outside the sealed envelope.

Chapter 9 Ground bed Resistance

The resistance of a ground bed represents a major component of the total circuit resistance of a CP system. This resistance in turn depends largely on the average resistivity of the earth at the location where the ground bed installation is considered. When selecting a location, a corrosion engineer assures that the ground bed will be electrically remote from the structure being protected, particularly if the structure is a long pipeline. He must also assure that there are no foreign pipelines or buried structures within the ground bed gradient. The minimum distance to remote earth or the boundary of the ground bed gradient can be calculated when the average earth resistivity and the total current discharge by the ground bed are known. Some of the equations that can be used to determine the final ground bed resistance of various configurations are given below: Resistance to earth of a single horizontal anode (Per Parker) Equation-1 Rg = p/2 L * (Ln 4L/d + Ln L/D 2 + 2D/L) Resistance to Earth of a single Vertical Anode (Per Dwight) Equation-2 Rg = ( .159p/)(ln kL/d -1) Correction for Multiple Anodes (Per Peabody) Equation-3 Rgt = (Rg/N)+p/(N S)(ln 0.656 N) Where: Rg=Resistance-to-earth Single Vertical Anode (ohms) of a Rgt=Resistance-to-earth of Anodes in parallel (ohms) Multiple

=Effective soil resistivity (ohm-cm) d=Diameter of anode (cm) D=Depth of burial (cm) N=Number of anodes S=Inter anode spacing (cm) L=Length of anode (cm) K=Depth constant (less than 5meter =4: 5meters or more =8) To demonstrate the use of above equations for calculating ground bed resistance we will consider an installation with following parameters: Soil Resistivity: 1000 ohm-cm Depth of ground bed: cm Configuration: Vertical Anode Required Design life: 20 years Current Requirement: 20 amperes Anode Type: High Silicon Cast Iron, Solid, 3 x 60 Canister: Packaged in coke breeze; canister size 20cm x cm Single Anode Weight: 110 lbs. (without coke breeze) Consumption rate: 2Lb.per Amp/year

Determination of the minimum anode material (total weight) needed is as follows: Total Weight= 20 amps x 20 years x 2 lb./amp/year= 800 lb. Therefore, the minimum number of anodes = 800 lb / 110 lb = say 8 anodes. Having determined the minimum

number of anodes comprising the ground bed, we can now establish its resistance to earth, which can be done as follows: Ground bed resistance of a single vertical anode (using Equation-2), which, taking into consideration the depth factor becomes; Rg = (0.159p/L)(Ln8L/d -1) The Step-by-step calculations is as follows: 0.159p/L = 0.159*1000/213.36 = 0.745 Ln8L/d-1= (Ln (8*213.36/20)) -1 = 3.447 R = .745*3.447 = 2.569 Note that the above-equated resistance is of the anode canister to its surrounding soil. The internal resistance of the anode rod to coke breeze column must also be equated and added to the above-equated resistance. Assuming that the coke breeze resistivity is 50 ohm-cm., the internal resistance can be equated in the same manner as has been done for the anode canister to its surrounding. For a 3 x 60 anode rod in 50 ohm-cm coke breeze amounts to 0.21 ohms. The total resistance of a single anode to earth is therefore, 2.569+0.21=2.78 ohms. Ground bed resistance of 8 anodes in parallel spaced cm apart can now be equated using Equation-3 as follows: .Rgt= (Rg / N)+p/(N S)(Ln 0.656 N) =2.78/8 + [1000/(3.14*8*154.2) (ln (.656*8))] = + ( x 1.66) = ohms For sizing the rectifier, total circuit resistance needs to be determined. This can be done as follows:

Total circuit resistance (Rt) Rt = Rgt + Rc + Rs Where: Rgt=ground bed resistance (0.78, as calculated above) Rc = cable resistance (0.13, from cable data tables) Rs = structure (pipeline) resistance to ground =0.08 (assumed) Substituting the values: Rt = 0.78 + .13 + .08 = ohms say 1 ohm Rectifier voltage (V) = Rt x I + back EMF of anode Substituting the values we get: V = 1 x 20 + 2 = 22 volts minimum. A standard rectifier rated at 25 V 25 Amperes may be specified in this case. It can be seen that the major component of the total circuit resistance is the ground bed resistance. By decreasing this resistance, the total circuit resistance can be considerably reduced thus resulting in lower energy cost of the system. Now suppose that a rectifier is available and it is rated at 10 volts, 25 amperes. In order to use this rectifier one will need to run through the calculations on trial and error basis several times by either increase the number of anodes or increase the interanode spacing or both until the total circuit resistance is equal to or less than the target resistance of the available rectifier which is 10/25 = ohms. Several trial and error calculations produced the following results:

Keeping the inter anode spacing unchanged 20 anodes will be required to attain the target resistance. Keeping the number of anodes unchanged and increasing inter anode spacing 6 times that of originally used will result in attaining the circuit resistance which will meet the target resistance. Both of the above cases are extremes. Increasing the number of anodes will increase the cost of anode material as well as cost of installation. The benefit would be that the system life would become two and a half times that of the requirement. On the other hand, increasing the inter anode spacing will increase the cost of cable as well as the cost of installation without any additional advantage other than savings in energy cost. A happy medium would then be to double the inter anode spacing and increase the number of anodes from 8 to 12. Calculations will show that this configuration results in the final

target resistance, which is, less than 0.4 ohms. Deep-well Anode Vs Shallow Ground Bed A corrosion engineer can choose between either a surface type or a deep well type ground bed. Economic factors and environmental conditions will most likely govern his decision. The deep well type ground beds are much more expensive and less reliable as compared to the surface type ground beds. If area restriction is not a factor and a surface ground bed can be located electrically remote from the protected structure, this would obviously be the preferred choice. On the other hand, a deep well type ground bed may become the only alternative when either the surface soil resistivity is very high precluding installation of a surface ground bed or the area is so congested that a shallow ground bed cannot be effectively made electrically remote. The surface type ground bed is economically cheaper to construct and is more manageable if premature failure of some ground rods do occurs. The failed anode can be conveniently located and replaced. Such a replacement is not possible with a deep well type ground bed.

SEE ENLARGED DETAIL BELOW

ANODE CABLE J.BOX J.BOX SUPPORT GRADE

5FT

MAIN ANODE CABLE ANODE TAILS ANODES

10FT

ENLARGED DETAIL

Figure 9-1
CAST IRON J.BOX COPPER BUS TERMINALS (TYP.11) SHUNT INSULATING SHEET

With the shallow ground bed operating at low current discharge per anode rod, gas blocking is not a problem. A typical surface ground is shown in Figure 9-1. The ground bed shown is composed of 30 canisterized anodes installed in a row with 17 feet end-to-end separation between anodes. Each anode canister is 8 inch in diameter and 84 inch long. The ground bed is further divided in three sections; each section contains 10 anode canisters. Anode lead from each individual anode is brought into a terminating junction box called AJB (Anode cable Junction Box). Each anode lead is connected to the main bus bar via current measuring shunts. These shunts are usually rated 50mV-5A. A typical AJB is shown in Figure 9-2.

CABLE TO T/R POS.

ANODE TAILS

Figure 9-2
Deep Well Ground Bed The advantage of a deep well anode is that being in the low resistivity formation it can be electrically remote at a much less vertical depth than a surface ground bed would be in high surface resistivity soil at a lateral distance. A string of vertical anodes is installed in a deep vertical hole to a depth of 100 meters or more. To determine the depth of the well, earth formation data is often referred to establish static water level as well as the properties of water. String of anodes is suspended in water and coke breeze backfill is used to pack the anodes in the deep well. A basic design of a deep well anode is shown in Figure 9-3.

1 2 " X 1 2 " X 6 " J U N C T IO N B O X 1 0 IN D IA S U R F A C E C A S IN G 2 " C O N D U I T1 " P L A S T I C V E N T P IP E G R A D E LEV E L

E N D O F S U R F A C E C A S IN G

3 6 " M IN IM U M 5'

N O T E S

W A E R L IN E TO P A N O D E

1 " P L A S T IC V E N T P IP E A N O D E C A B LES

S T E E L S U R F A C E C A S IN G S H A L L B E E IT E R P L A S T IC O R S T E E L O PE N H O LE TO P A N O D E S H A LL B E M IN IM U M 5 F E E T B E L O W T H E W A T E R L IN E

5'
O PE N H O LE

O P E N H O L E S H A L L B E F IL L E D W IT H C O K E B R E E Z A F T E R A N O D E S T R I N GA N O D EB C E N T E R I L I Z E R H A S E EN IN S T A L L E D P E R F O R A T E 1 " P L A S T IC V E N T P IP E A T E V E R Y 5 FEE T

S E E D E T A IL "A " A N O D E C E N T E R IL IZ E R A N O D E C A B LES A N O D E

B O TTO A N O D E

1'
D E T A IL - A

Figure 9-3

The basic design incorporates the use of surface steel casing to a depth of approximately 3 feet. Beyond this, the open hole is drilled to the required depth, which depends on the size of the ground bed and the static water level in the hole. Anode string is usually lowered in the hole as a stiff-hookup. That is, the anodes are strapped to a vent pipe with centralizers to keep the string in the center of the hole. After the entire assembly is lowered, the remaining space is then filled with carbonaceous material. The vent pipe fitted with the anode assembly allows gases to escape. Deep well anodes have been installed in dry formations where resistivity is comparatively higher than those locations where formation water is accessible. In such a case, it is essential that the formation resistivity be profiled using soil conductivity measuring instruments, which have the capability of measuring earth conductivity down to 100 meters or more. Once the formation resistivity has been determined, a column of relatively lower resistivity

can be identified for placement of anodes. When backfilling the hole, coke breeze must never be dumped in dry. To prevent bridging, it must always be pumped in mixed with sufficient water to form slurry. The pumping operation utilizes a long hose, which allows start of pumping from bottom. The hose is continually pulled upward as the hole is filled with slurry. A word of caution is that once the pumping starts it must not be stopped for any reason until the backfilling operation has been completed. The disadvantages of a deep well ground bed are its high installation cost and lower reliability. Premature failures are more likely to occur. For instance, if a string of several anodes is suspended, early failure of a single rod can have a cascading effect on the remainder of the anodes. This would not be the case with a surface type ground bed where a failed anode rod can be conveniently located and replaced.

Chapter 10 CP Design Considerations

An appropriate cathodic protection design is that in which the protection current is uniformly distributed over the entire structure being protected and that both, the minimum and maximum protection criteria, are satisfied. A corrosion engineer has to make a decision between the types of systems most suited for his needs. For instance, if the structure is a short pipeline and AC power is not available and a long life system is not the prime consideration then a galvanic (sacrificial) protection system might be the most ideal and economical selection. On the other hand, for a long pipeline with high current demand it might be cost effective to install an impressed current system. Both, the impressed current system (ICCP) and the sacrificial system (SCP) have certain advantages and disadvantages. These are listed below: SCP advantages Low initial cost Provides uniform current Virtually maintenance free Over protection is minimized Interference is negligible No extra land procurement necessary Cannot be used effectively in soil resistivities over 5000 ohm-cm

ICCP advantages Can be designed for 20 or more years of service life Have no soil resistivity restrictions Current demands are not restrictive Cheaper in cost per ampere basis Adjustable to meet increased current requirement High initial cost High maintenance cost High operational cost Can interfere with foreign pipelines Requires land procurement

ICCP disadvantages

SCP disadvantages High cost per ampere basis Not adjustable to compensate for increase in the current demand Not cost effective where current demand is high Short life expectancy

Another major consideration when designing an ICCP system is the selection between a remote and a distributed ground bed system. For long cross-country pipelines where reasonable spread of protection must be achieved the ground bed location has to be electrically remote from the pipeline otherwise the desired spread of protection will not be obtained. On the other hand, closely spaced pipelines within a plant are difficult to protect by remote ground beds because of the shielding effects. This is because the pipelines located on the outer periphery of the plant can pick up most of the current discharged by the remote ground bed and very little will be permitted to reach the inner pipelines. This phenomenon is known as mutual shielding. To overcome such a shielding effect distributed ground bed systems, also known as close anode

systems, is utilized. Single anode rods are usually installed either staggered along or running parallel to the pipeline. The pipe-to anode separation as well as the inter-anode spacing depends on the prevailing soil resistivity and the anticipated current discharge per anode. A single such ground bed (ground rod) has a very limited area of influence, usually 40 to 80 feet. The basic principle of protection is that the earth potential is shifted to a more positive value thus making the structure more negative with respect to its surrounding. This is in contrast to a remote ground bed whose mechanism of protection is shifting the potential of the structure by polarization.

anode. At a certain distance depending on the value of current x and the soil resistivity, a point is reached where the current density is so negligible that no measurable voltage drop in the soil occurs. A similar reaction takes place at the pipe surface. The current flowing to the pipeline at any given location is a very small fraction of the total current discharged by the ground bed. Nevertheless, with the current diverging in the vicinity of the pipeline some voltage gradient develops in the immediate vicinity of the pipeline. If this voltage gradient around the surface of the pipe does not overlap the voltage gradient around the ground bed it is said that the ground bed and the pipeline are electrically remote from each other. Since the mass of earth between these two gradients has no voltage drop and to satisfy the ohms law i.e. E=IR, R has to be zero for E to be zero. It can be reasonably stated that this region of earth is a resistance-less conductor in the system described above. Now consider that a zero resistance conductor exists between the ground bed and the pipeline, the current supplied by the ground bed has the ability to reach any point on the surface of the entire length of the pipeline Irrespective of its total length. The voltage drop in the return path of the current will limit the spread of protection along the pipeline length from a drain point, which is a function of the total return current and the linear resistance of pipeline. The total current of course depends on the quality of pipeline coating. With all conditions equal it can be said that: Greater spread of protection can be achieved on a bigger diameter line than a smaller diameter line.

Electrically Remote Structures

To understand the principle of the remote earth consider that a point anode is discharging x amount of current into the earth and a pipeline is picking up this current as shown in Figure 10-1 below.

G O N BD R U D E

PP I E

V L A EG A I N O T G R DE T C RE T U RN

Figure 10-1
The current flowing through the resistive earth creates a voltage gradient in the soil surrounding the ground bed. It can be seen that the highest current density is in the immediate vicinity of the anode. The lines of current moving away from the ground bed disperse in a much greater volume of earth in all direction thus current per unit volume of earth becomes less and less dense with progressive distance from the point

Greater spread of protection can be achieved on a better qualitycoated line than a poorly coated line.

Cathodic Protection Design Parameters

When designing an ICCP or SCP system a corrosion engineer must seek the following information: Total surface area to protect Coating conductance value Right of way conditions Foreign pipeline crossing that may interfere HT power line crossings that may induce AC on the pipeline Areas of susceptible microbiological activity, which may require additional protection current Resistivity of soil along the ROW Resistivity at prospective locations for a remote ground bed(s) Rivers-crossings, canal crossings, road crossing etc.

best choice as the CP current sources at these locations. If the pipeline coating is reasonably good, locating CP systems at the terminal facilities and/or pumping stations, which are usually at 50kilometer intervals, can protect the entire pipeline and additional systems at intermediate locations are seldom if ever needed. However, if a CP system requirement becomes a necessity at locations where either AC power is nonexistent or its reliability is questionable as would be the case with the WAPADA system having frequent AC power outages, other D.C. power sources such as thermoelectric generators, Ormat energy converters, wind generators or solar power units my be considered. Some pipeline operators in Pakistan have converted their systems from the traditional transformer-rectifiers to other D.C. sources mentioned above for reasons of unreliable AC power. The size of the cathodic protection system depends on the total current requirement. For any given pipeline, the most reliable method of determining current requirement is the use of current drain test, which can be performed if the pipeline already exists. Alternatively, the current requirement can be determined by calculating the surface area to be protected. For this, it is essential that coating conductance be known. If foreign pipeline crossings are anticipated bonding arrangements need to be provided in the CP design. If the pipeline right of way is shared by high-tension power transmission lines or the power lines crossings exists than interference by induced AC needs to be mitigated. This is usually achieved by installation of magnesium or zinc ribbon

Selection of System Types With the above information on hand the corrosion engineer is well equipped and can make the preliminary choice of the type of cathodic system that will be most suitable and cost effective for his company. For instance, if it is a long cross country pipeline it is obvious that the current demand for such a pipeline will be significantly higher and it might be cheaper in the long run to choose an impressed current system rather than a galvanic system. AC power is usually available at terminal facilities and intermediate pumping stations and therefore, transformer-rectifiers are the

at locations where this type interference is suspected. Current Drain Test Such a test requires the simulation of a working cathodic protection installation on a small scale. A suitable DC power source and a temporary ground bed are the pre-requisite for such a test. The power source for this test can be a battery charger, a DC generator, a welding machine or even 12V automotive batteries. If the CP system being planned will utilize transformerrectifier(s) it is best to use a portable transformer-rectifier to carry out the current drain test, as this will simulate the actual system conditions. Use of other pure DC power sources can lead to under estimation. This is because the converted DC is never pure and includes AC ripples thus making this current less efficient than the pure DC. For the temporary ground bed, a number of steel rods can be driven in the ground to serve this purpose. It is necessary that such a ground bed is located at sufficient distance away from the pipeline as well as any other buried metallic structure in the vicinity. As a rule of thumb a minimum distance of 300 feet must be provided between the ground bed and the pipeline. An existing steel structure, which is isolated from the pipeline and is electrically remote, can be used as a temporary ground bed. The negative terminal of the power source is connected to the pipeline and the positive terminal connection is made to the ground bed thus a working cathodic protection system is simulated. If the section of pipe under test originates at a terminal facility it is

important that the pipeline be electrically isolated from the plant piping. The applied current in this case will be drained from only one direction of the pipeline. On the other hand if the current drain test setup is located somewhere along the pipeline the current will be drained from both sides of the line. The test begins by draining an estimated value of current followed by measurement of resulting pipe-to-soil potentials at the drain point. If this potential is not in the range of 1.2V and 1.5V, the applied current can be adjusted until the potentials attain a value between the aforesaid range of potentials. The pipeline is then surveyed along the line in one direction and PSP recorded at reasonable interval until the point of minimum protection level is reached. This then is the maximum distance of pipeline that can be protected from a single drain point in one direction. It is always advisable to repeat the test at several other locations along the pipeline, particularly if the conditions such as pipe size and soil resistivity change.

Examples of C.P. System Designs

To design a cathodic protection system, one has to determine the type and size of the structure and whether or not the structure is coated and if coated, the type and quality of coating. For instance, if a coating is applied over the surface of a poorly cleaned and primed structure then it is obvious that the resultant quality of coating will be substandard. The current required to protect a given coated structure depends largely on the quality of its coating.

If the structure is an existing one, the current requirement may be determined by current drain test as described in the previous section For a pipeline, which is yet to be built, the current requirement can be calculated. For this purposes, one has to pre-assume the current density value. His presumption will be based upon his past experience with similar coatings. As a rule of thumb this value may be chosen from Table 10-1

Diameter 8 (0.203 m) Length of pipeline 50 Km Natural Potential =0.6V Maximum Drain Point =1.1V Minimum change in potential at far end to be not less than 250 mV Coating resistance = 10,000 ohm/Ft2

From Table 10-1 the appropriate current density is 0.25 mA/m2. We can now proceed calculations as follows: with the

Table 10-1
Coating Resistance Ohms/Ft2
Bare steel 10,000 50,000 100,000 250,000 500,000 1,000,000 5,000,000 10,000.000 50,000,000

mA/ m2
10 0.25 0.05 0.025 0.010 0.005 0.0025 0.0005 0.00025 0.00005

Total surface area of the pipeline =L=3.14 x .203 x 50000 = 31400 m2. Total current required=31400 * 0.25 = mA The above-calculated current value is an estimated minimum requirement, which is based on an assumed current density value. It is advisable to make some allowances for aging of coating and future expansions. Although, the future expansion as well as the coating degradation over a period of time is unpredictable, the calculated current requirement is often increased by some factor, which is usually based on our experience under similar circumstances. A suggested value over a period of 20 years is 3 times the initial calculated current. Therefore, we should design the system for a capacity not less than 7850 x 3 = 23550 mA or 24 amperes. Now that the total system design current has been established, we need to determine whether or not the entire line can be protected from a single drain point located at the beginning of line where AC power is available. This can

or using a value, which has successfully been applied on other similar pipelines in the same general area. Having done this, the total surface area of the pipeline can be calculated which then is multiplied by the predetermined current density value to obtain the total current requirement. We will now examine various different structures and go through step-by-step calculation procedures, which are the essential parts of a CP system design.

Example-1:
Impressed Current System for a Cross Country Pipeline Consider now an example of the cathodic protection design for a crosscountry pipeline, which is yet to be built and the parameters are:

be done using the voltage attenuation equation given below: Attenuation Equation:
Ex = o/Cosh ( x L) Volts

Where: Ex = potential of pipeline at far end Eo = maximum potential at the drain point
=

Next come the selection and the type of anodes for the ground bed. This is an engineering decision based on several factors such as material availability, past experience with certain materials etc. For these installations we will choose high-silicon-cast Iron, which will be 2 diameter and 60 inch long and is packaged in 8 x 84 coke breeze filled sheet metal canisters. For maximum operating efficiency of the chosen anode the current discharge has to be limited to 1 amp/ft2 of the anode surface area. Thus, current from each anode in the example we are considering will be limited to 2.5 amperes. Since we are designing a system to produce maximum 24 amperes, the total minimum number of anodes required will be 24/2.5 = or say 10 anodes. Each anode weighs 44 pounds. The total anode material then is 44 x 10 = 440 pounds. The anode consumption rate usually varies between 0.25 to 2 lbs./amp/year. Considering worst case scenario the life in years of 440 pound of anode material at 24 amperes output will be 440/(24*2) = 9.17 years. Since our system has to be designed for 20 years, the minimum number of anodes will then become (9.17/10) x 20 = say 18 anodes. On the basis of two CP stations as was ascertained earlier, two ground beds of 9 anodes each will have to be designed. Using Dwights equations (Chapter-9) the resistance of each of the two ground beds in 5000 ohm-cm soil is calculated to be 0.70 ohms. If we add to this the various cable resistances the circuit

Rs = unit pipe linear resistance (ohm/m) RL = Coating leakage resistivity (ohm/m) L= length of pipeline in meters x = distance of line to be protected in meters Running through the attenuation calculations the results will show that the potential achieved at the far end of the line (50 Km from drain point) is 0.699 volts, which does not satisfy the minimum criterion of protection. Subsequent trial and error calculations determine that the maximum spread of protection achievable is only 25 Km where the potential achieved is 0.888 V, which satisfy the protection criterion. From the above exercise of trial and error calculations we now know that two options are available. Option one is to install two CP stations; one at the beginning of the line and the other at the far end of the line. Option two is to locate the CP system in the middle of the pipeline if AC power is conveniently available. Assuming that either there is no AC power available or an un attended CP station is not desired at the mid-point, we will go through the exercise of designing CP stations at each end of the line having current capacity of 12 amperes per station.

attenuation constant = (Rs/RL) 0.5

resistance will approximately be 0.80 ohms. Although each CP station will be required to provide 12 amperes, we will choose 15 amperes unit at each of the two locations. The minimum driving voltage will be E=IR or 15 x 0.80 = volts. To overcome the back EMF of the anode, we will increase the driving voltage by adding 2 volts resulting in a minimum 12-volt unit. 15 V - 15 A is a standard equipment and this should be selected as our power source.

Example-2:
Plant Piping ICCP System Let us now consider a piping systems within a plant which comprises of multilines running in complex configurations, such as, lines in parallel which often crisscross each other. Some paralleling lines may be spaced very close together resulting in mutual shielding from the protective current. These lines are seldom if ever electrically insulated from other metallic structures such as bare or poorly coated foundation steel structures, buried vessels, storage tank bottoms and, most importantly, copper grounding system which is often used for electrical equipment. Under these circumstances, unless the potential of all these poorly coated and bare structures are shifted to meet the minimum criterion of protection, the coated pipelines cannot be protected. For all the structures other than the coated pipelines it could require thousands of times more current needed for depressing their potentials in comparison with the well-coated pipelines. As can be seen in Table 10-1 (above), bare copper would require 10 to

15 thousand times more current than a well-coated pipeline. Almost all of the current discharged from a remote ground bed would therefore, tend to be taken up by the poorly coated foundation steel and copper grounding system. Thus, fraction of the total current reaching the piping system may not be enough for its protection. One might argue in favor of increasing the size of the cathodic protection system in order to protect all structures simultaneously. This can result in a huge system that would not be a practical solution to the problem. The distance to remote earth increases with increased current discharge by the ground bed and the space limitation within a plant facility may become a limiting factor. Although a deep well ground bed installed deep enough in low resistivity formation may over come this problem and result in a truly remote ground bed the problem of mutual shielding will remain which may restrict protection current to reach all surfaces of the pipelines. A distributed ground bed, when properly designed and installed, can protect an entire piping network within a plant facility most effectively without undue wastage of energy. The word distributed ground bed refers to ground rods installed in close proximity of the pipelines. As stated previously, a remote ground bed protects a steel structure by shifting its native (corrosion) potential more negative in relation to its environment while a close ground bed shifts the potential of the surrounding environment in the positive direction with respect to the steel structure. For the design of a distributed ground bed cathodic protection system, the most vital information that a corrosion

engineer requires is the average resistivity and piping layout information. Determination of the size of system requirement is based on equating the influence area of each ground rod in its surrounding soil, the allowable current discharge limit of the type of selected anode and the total footage of piping network. Most commonly used anodes such as 2 x 60 high-silicon-cast-iron have a limit of 2.5 amperes per anode. For example lets assume that a total length of the piping network is 5000 meters and the average soil resistivity at pipeline depth is 2000 ohm-cm. The selected anode is high silicon cast Iron 2 x 60 long. The anode in question has a total surface equal to 2.6 ft2 so current per anode will be limited to approximately 2.5 amperes. The next step is to determine, by voltage gradient calculations, the influence area of a single anode operating at 2.5 amperes. The equation to do this is the Rudenburg equation, which is as follows:
. 8p 0 Vx = 0 3 I P y i lg o
1 0

earth potential change will be +700 mV. By repeating the calculations distance C can also be determined where the earth potential changes will be +350 mV (Figure 10-2) These distances are: Distance O = 22 feet Distance C = 87 feet.
L

22FT

87FT

A N O D E LO C A TIO N

L =2

8 7- 2 2=1 6 8 f t

Figure 10-2
If we select a point, which is 22 feet lateral to the pipeline and using this point draw a circle with radium of 87 feet, the circle will enclose the section (L) of the pipeline falling within the influence area of the anode rod. By using simple geometric calculations, the length of the section L can be calculated to be 168 feet. Natural potential of pipe being 600 mV the potential of pipe at point C will shift to 600 + 1200 = 1800 mV and that at the extreme ends of the pipeline enclosed by the circle will shift to 600 + 300 = 900 mV. Therefore, using anode spacing equal to 168 feet the total number of anodes

y +

y x

2 ) +x

Where: VX = Voltage change in soil at distance x I = Current discharge per anode = 2.5 = Soil resistivity = 2000 x = Distance in feet from the anode y = Length of anode in feet Assuming that the natural potential of the pipe is 500mV, by using the above equation under the given parameters, a specific distance from the ground rod to the pipeline can be calculated where the

required for 5000 feet of pipe length = 5000/168 = or 30 anodes. The total current will be 30 x 2.5 = 75 amperes. To determine the driving voltage of the power source the resistance of 30 anodes spaced 168 feet apart can be calculated using equations (1) and (3) given in chapter 9, as was done in the previous example. 30 anodes under the above circumstances will have a net resistance equal to 0.18 ohms. Adding cable resistance the total circuit resistance will be approximately 0.2 ohms. Minimum driving voltage required will be total circuit resistance times current plus back EMF of the anodes which is calculated as; 0.2 x 75 +2 =17volts. A standard transformer/rectifier rated at 25v-75A can be effectively used in this instance. A section of a typical design of oil processing plant piping is shown in Figure 10-3. Anode cable junction boxes are provided in this design so that 5 to 10 anodes may be grouped together for monitoring purposes. These individual groups can then be interlinked via a main header cable connected to the positive terminal of the power source

parallel to the various lines and the anodes are directly connected to this header cable. The anodes may be installed vertically or horizontally. Typical details of such anode installations are shown in Figure 10-4 and 10-5

G RA D E LE V E L P O S IT IV E D C H E A D ER C AB LE

G RA V EL, O R T E M P E D E AR T H B A C K FILL A N O D E LE A D W IR E S P LIE C D T O H EA D E R C A B LE

2 " X 6 0 " H IG H S ILIC O N C A S T IR O N A N O D E

1 '-6"

1 2'

5'

C AR B O N A C E O U S B A C KF ILL

1'-6" 1'

Figure 10-4

G R A D E LE V EL P O S I TIVE D C H E A D E R C AB L E

G R A VE L , O R TE M PE D E AR TH B AC K FILL AN O D E LE A D W IR E SP LIE C D TO H E A D ER C A BL E

1 '- 6"

2 " X 6 0" H IG H S I LIC O N C A ST IR O N A N O D E

12'

5'

C A R B O N A C E O U S BA C K F ILL

1 '- 6" 1'

Figure 10-5
R O A D
SKIM POND

V612
1 6 M M P V C /P V C

V605

D IS T R IB U T ED AN O D E G RO UN D BED ANO DE C ABLE JU N C T IO N B O X

Both horizontal and vertical anodes are shown imbedded in coke breeze backfill. Canisterized anodes are available prepacked in specified coke breeze backfill. Using these anodes can eliminate the need for coke imbedding at the installation site.

COMPRESSOR

Figure 10-3
There are cases where the above grade junction boxes are not practical. In such cases, a main header cable is ploughed

Example-3a:
Sacrificial System for a Pipeline using magnesium anodes Assume that a well-coated pipeline, which is electrically isolated from all

other steel structures, needs to be cathodically protected using a sacrificial system. The given parameters are as follows: Pipeline Length = 12000 meters Pipeline Diameter= 8 Coating Resistance = 10000 ohm/m2 Average soil resistivity = 1000 ohm-cm Following are the design calculations: Surface area = 3.14 x 8/39.6 x 12000 = m2 Using current density 0.25 mA/m2 the required current = 0.25*3172= mA or say 2 amperes. The life of a single 17 lbs. Magnesium Anode operating at 2 ampere @ 50% efficiency (Eff) and a utilization factor (uf) of 85% can be calculated using the following equation: 0.116*Eff*uf x Anode Weight / Current in amperes The life of a single magnesium anode will therefore be: .116*0.5*0.85 * 17/2 = years The number of anodes required for 10 years service life will then be 10/0.419 = or say 24 anodes. System configuration can be two groups of 12 anodes per group. First group may be located at km2.5 and the second group at km 7.5. Since the total current is 2 amperes, current output per ground bed will be 1 ampere. The driving potential of the anode is the open circuit potential of anode minus polarized potential of

pipeline, i.e., 1.75-.0.85 = volts. Therefore, each ground beds maximum target resistance shall not exceed 0.9/1 = 0.9 ohms. Using equations (1) and (2) of chapter-9 the resistance of group of 12 anodes spaced 5 feet apart is 0.87 ohms which is below the maximum target resistance.

Example-3b:
Sacrificial System for a Pipeline using zinc anodes For the same pipeline under similar conditions as discussed in example 3a and for the purpose of running a cost comparison between magnesium and zinc, we will go through the design calculations using zinc packaged anode. The surface area to protect is m2 and the required current is 2 amperes. Using zinc anode weighing 30 lb the life of a single anode will be: 0.0424 * anode weight * eff * uf/current or 0.0424*30*.9*.85/2 = 0.49 years. The number of anodes required for 10 years life will be 10/0.49 = say 20 anodes. If we adopt the same design configuration as was done in example 3a, that is, 2 groups of anodes (each group consisting of 10 anodes); one group installed km 2.5 and the other at km 7.5. The resistance of a single ground bed (10 anodes spaced 10 feet apart in 1000 ohm-cm soil) = 0.48 ohm.

The open circuit potential of zinc anode which 1.1 V therefore, the driving potential will be 1.1 0.85 = . Current deliverable by one ground bed is E/R =I = 0.25/0.48 = 0.52 amps. Since the required current from each group is 1 amp it is obvious that the number of anodes need to be increased so that the ground bed resistance is lowered enough to provide the desired current. By trial and error calculations it is determined that a minimum number of anodes per group will have to be 22 in order to satisfy the design current requirement. Cost Comparison zinc vs. magnesium Assuming that the cost of zinc anode (30lb bare metal weight) is Rs.10, 000 per anode and the cost of magnesium anode (17lb bare metal weight) is Rs. 7000 per anode; the total cost of 44 zinc anodes is Rs. 440,000 and the cost of 24 magnesium anodes is 168000. The above cost analysis is based on a design life of 10 years. Since the number of zinc anodes had to be increased in order to lower the ground bed resistance the design life of zinc will be 26 years. Let us now assume that the required design life is 25 years. The cost of magnesium anode system will be 2.5 times the cost calculated for 10 year design i.e., it will be Rs. 168000 x 2.5 = while the cost of zinc remains the same i.e. 440000. In both cases it can be seen that using magnesium system is economical than using zinc system.

Example-4:
Internal Protection of Water Storage As an example assume that a water storage tank, which is 30 feet in diameter and is 20 feet high, requires a cathodic protection system to protect the inner shell and bottom plate. If the tank shell internal and bottom internal surfaces are bare or poorly coated the current required for cathodic protection will range between 1 mA to 2 mA per square foot. With good quality coating the current requirement may range between 0.5 mA/ft2 down to 0.1 mA/ft2. For this example lets assume that the internal surfaces are epoxy coated and it is estimated that the current requirement will be 0.5mA/ft2. The surfaces that are to be protected are: Bottom:(/4)*Dia2 = (3.14/4) x 302 = ft2 Shell *Dia*height = 3.14 x 30 x 20 = ft2 Total surface area to protect = 706.5 + 1884 = say 2590 ft2 Current required to protect = 0.5 x 2590 = mA

For this low current requirement, magnesium anodes are considered the most economical choice. Similar to the calculations shown in example-3, the calculated weight of magnesium material required in this case for 10 years of service life will be 260 kg. Suppose that we use anodes weighing 40kg each the total number of anodes required will be or say 6 anodes For optimum steel-to-water potential profile and best possible current

distribution and the recommended distance from anode or anode strings to shell is one-half the distance between two adjacent anode strings. This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 10-6.
A N O D E STR IN G R

0.464 x 15 = feet. The angle between strings will be 120 .

Example 5:
External Tank Bottom ICCP In this example, let us consider a terminal facility having 6 storage tanks. Each of these tanks is 40 feet in diameter and there is no PVC containment sheet underneath. Furthermore, extensive copper grounding system for each tank exists, which is typical of installations throughout Pakistan. It is also estimated that 50 square feet of copper grounding is associated with each tank. With the above assumptions, we can proceed with the design calculations as follows: The surface Area of a single tank to be protected is: Bottom: (/4) D2 = 3.14/4 x 402 = ft2 Assuming required current density to be 1 mA/ft2, the required current for the tank bottom will be 1.3 amperes. Assuming 20mA/ft2 as the required current density for copper, the current requirement for the grounding system will be 0.2 x 50 = 10 amperes. Total design current for 6 tank bottoms is 6 x (1.3+10) = say 60 amperes. If we choose 3 x 60 silicon anodes with maximum current limit of 2 amperes per anode, the minimum number of anodes required will be 60/2 or 30 anodes, that is, 5 anodes per tank. The total weight of anodes (110 lb per anodes) is 3300. The life expectancy at a

1/2 1/2
D R-

2D

AN O D E S TR IN G

TA N K SH ELL

R= Tank Radius D= Distance, Anode String to Tank Shell 2D = Distance between anode strings = Angle subtended by two anode strings

Figure 10-6

Table 10-2 lists computed factors which when multiplied by the tank radius determine the distances from tank shell to the anode strings for any given number of strings from 2 to 18.

Table 10-2
N
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

D
.500 R .464 R .414 R .371 R .333 R .304 R .277 R .255 R .236 R 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

D
.229 R .206 R .193 R .182 R .172 R .163 R .155 R .148 R

N= Number of Anode Strings D= Distance Tank Shell to Anode String In our example the total number of strings are 3 (two anodes per string). The distance from shell to each string is

consumption rate of 2 lb per amp/yr will be 3300/(2 * 60) = 27 years. The system can be configured in such a way that 5 anodes per tank are evenly distributed around the periphery of each tank. A header cable can be used for each tank to which all 5 anodes are connected. Finally, the 5 header cables (one from each tank) may be routed into a main anode cable junction box located outside the tank farm in a non-hazardous area. The suggested vertical depth of each anode is 10 feet from top of the anode to tank bottom level. For potential monitoring a permanent reference electrode can be installed 2 feet below and in the center of each tank bottom (see figure 10-7)

tolerate 0.5 ohms external resistance can be safely specified in this example. Impressed Current System using grid anode In this example, we will consider a single storage tank being built over a PVC containment sheet. It is obvious that in this case the anode has to be located very close to the bottom and over the containment sheet. The state-ofthe-art technology is the use of mixed metal oxide ribbon anode in a grid shape so that even current distribution is achieved. Once again we will consider a tank with diameter meters (40 feet). The PVC containment sheet is usually provided 0.8 meters below the bottom of the tank. The assumed design current density in this case is 20 milliamperes per square meter. At this current density the required current can be determined by multiplying the total surface area of the tank bottom by the assumed current density. In our example, the total design current is: r2 x 20/1000= 3.14 x 6.1852 x .20/1000 = amperes. If we use the anode ribbon with dimensions 6.35mm wide 0.63mm thick then as per the anode vendor the current discharge per linear meter must be limited to 30 mA/m to realize 20 years of service. At the aforesaid current density value the minimum length of anode ribbon that will be required to satisfy the design current will be 2.4 x 1000/30 = meters. Allowing for the anode cord end spacing (Ce) from the tank periphery to be 0.5 meters. The length of the center cord (Cc) then become 11.19 meters.

4 "X 6 " U T IL IT Y B O X

T E R M IN A L P O S T P H E N O L IC S H E E T

TANK

T E S T S T A T IO N GRADE LEVEL TEST LEAD REFERENC E ELECTR ODE

T A N K F O U N D A T IO N

Figure 10-7
Assuming 1000 ohm-cm soil, the resistance of 30 vertical anodes as per equations given in chapter-9 will be approximating 0.2 ohms. A standard T/R with a rating of 50V-100A, which can

Having determined the length of the center cord, the total number of cords at inter-cord spacing (Cs) equal to 1 meter on either side of tank can be calculated as follows: Adjacent Cord length on both sides of the center cord

Total Length

98.72 TABLE 10-3

Installation of these cords under the tank bottom is illustrated in Figure 10-8. To determine the total resistance of the ground bed in our example, it can be estimated by calculating the resistance of each individual anode length as per Dwights modified equation and then equating the overall resistance in a similar manner as you would for a number of resistors in parallel as was discussed in chapter-1.

=4 x

{ [ ((Tank D ia/2

2 - Ce) ) } - Cs ]

=4 x

{ [ ((12.1 9/2

2 -0.5 )) } -1 ]

= 22.02

The above-equated length is the total length of two cords adjacent to the center cord length. In other words the individual length of each of the two cords will be11.01 meters. Remaining cord lengths can be determined repeating the above calculation steps. Remember that for each consecutive cord, the value of (Cs) will be increased by 1 as this will be the distance of that cord from the center cord. In our example, the total number of cords and the length of each individual cord are shown in Table 10-3 From this table it can be seen that the total number of cords amount to 11 and the total length is 98.72 meters. Cord No 1 (center cord) 2 + 2 3 + 3 4 + 4 5 + 5 6 + 6 Both halves of the tank (meters) 11.19 22.02 20.91 18.90 15.65 10.05

TA N K B O TT O M A N O D E C O R D

P O S IT IV E C A B L E TO C O N D U C T O R B A R S

T / R

Figure 10-8
Assuming that the backfill sand has a resistivity of 100,000 ohm-cm the total combined resistance or all cords in our case will be 18.69 ohms. For inter-linking all anode lengths in a sort of mesh shape, titanium conductor bars are recommended, Usual dimensions of such bars are 12.7mm x 0.9mm. The number of such bars used may be from 3 to 5.

Transformer/rectifier can be sized taking into consideration the current requirement and the overall resistance of the ground bed as has been demonstrated earlier in other cases earlier.

Example 6:
Well Casing Cathodic Protection The current requirement for cathodic protection of a well casing is usually determined by E-log-I method. It is essential that a person whose experience and qualifications are such that enable him to analyze and interpret data accurately when this test is conducted.

This test requires simulation of a prototype cathodic protection system comprising of a DC power source and a temporary ground bed. For the DC power source a portable rectifier, welding machine or automotive 12-volt batteries can be used. Few steel rods driven in the ground can be used as a temporary ground bed. The location of the temporary ground bed must be such that it is electrically remote from the well casing preferably at the anticipated permanent ground bed location. Figure 10-9 describes the layout of the test setup.

V A R IA B L E R E S IS T O R V OLTMETE R O N -O F F S W IT C H

SHUNT

+ BATTERY

W IRE VO LTM ETER

REM OTE H A L F-C E LL G ROUN D BED C A SI N G

Figure 10-9
Having completed the test setup, natural potential of the well casing is measured and recorded against the half-cell (CuCuSO4). It is important that the location of the half-cell is electrically remote from the well casing, the temporary ground bed and any other buried metallic structure in the vicinity. Impressing incremental small amount of current over incremental time period begins the test. Casing-to-remote electrode readings are recorded immediately after interrupting the applied current (instant off potentials)

after the end of each time increment. Current is then increased by one increment and test repeated until conclusive results are obtained. If a well casing under test has a flow line tied into it, it must be assured that it is electrically isolated from the wellhead. If a partial short is suspected the current drained from the flow line side must be monitored and compensated by increasing the test current so that the net incremental current drain from the well casing is maintained.

Current and time increment suggested by NACE (RP0186) is 0.1A for 2 to 3 minutes. For deeper wells, which may require exceptionally high current for protection, the incremental current may be increased to .2 amps maintaining the 2-minute incremental time cycle. The data is plotted simultaneously on a semi logarithmic chart. Figure 10-10 is an example of an actual current drain test data plot of a test carried out on a well casing in Northern Pakistan.

865 860 855 850 845 840 835 830 825 820 815 810 1

CHART NO.1 (E-log-I: RATANA WELL #3)

Feb.26,2001

23 ampers 17 amperes

10

100

The person conducting the test continually plots the data on a semi logarithmic paper at the end of each time interval. It will be observed that at the beginning of the test, plot continues almost in straight line and then a point is reached where the plot begins to curve upward for some time after which it

begins to continue in a straight-line segment called the Tafel segment. Test must continue until a well-defined Tafel segment is attained. The interpretation of the curve is dependant on the person conducting the test. The minimum required current is usually taken as that current value which lies at

the intersection point of the two extrapolated straight lines as shown in the above figure. This current in our example is 17 amperes. A more reliable value is that which lies at the base of the Tafel segment (23 amperes in this case). The E-log-I also establishes criteria of protection for the specific well tested. In our example, 0.825 (casing potential at the end of the test) is the minimum criterion of protection when the half-cell is located at the exact point where it was placed during the test. The other criterion is the minimum current drain established by the test, which in this case is 23 amperes. The later criterion may be

relied upon only during the first 3 to 5 years. Once the design current requirement has been established, the next step is to design the ground bed and select the permanent DC power source. As shown in earlier examples, the ground bed design can be achieved by using the equations given in chapter-9. If AC power is available, the best power source is the transformer rectifier. The alternative power sources are thermoelectric generators or solar power units.

Chapter - 11 Criteria of Protection

Laboratory tests had shown that cathodic protection becomes effective when the cathodes are polarized electro-negatively to the open-circuit potential of the anodes. The most negative potential ever reported by anyone did not exceed more negative than 800mV with reference to Cu/CuSO4 electrode. Based on this value and adding a safety margin, Corrosion engineer throughout the world adopted 850mV as the minimum negative potential to achieve effective Cathodic protection. The selection of this potential has understandably been open to conjecture and speculation, as has the manner in which the potential is measured. Because of these criteria issues, it took years to revise NACE Standard RP0169 Control of External Corrosion on Under-ground or Submerged Metallic Piping System. When a steel structure is placed under cathodic protection there must be some means to verify the adequacy of protection afforded. Use of any one or more of the criteria given in the NACE standard RP0169 may be used. These criteria are as follows: set up in which the steel becomes the anode and current begins to flow from steel to copper. Consequently the potential of steel begins to shift towards positive direction (anodic polarization) and does not represent the true natural potential and hence the 100-mV shift criterion cannot be applied in such cases. However, the 100mV shift criterion can be applied to cross-country pipelines where the true natural potential (baseline data) is on records and CP current can be interrupted under conditions that there are no stray currents affecting the measured potentials. Furthermore, it needs to be assured that any or all metallic bonds to other lines, grounding cells and galvanic anodes are disconnected when instant off potential survey is conducted.

Minimum 850mV with Cathodic Protection Applied

Minimum potential of -0.85 volts measured with reference to CSE when cathodic protection is applied may be taken as effective protection. However, it is cautioned that IR drops other than those across the pipe-to-soil interface and the coating must be considered. The IR drop results from the flow of the cathodic protection current through the soil resistance and introduces error in the measured values of potentials. Such an error is highly unpredictable and varies from environment to environment. Furthermore, when near a ground bed the anode gradient effect adds to the error. Such errors may not be significant when surveys are done on cross-country lines protected by remote ground beds but can be grave when readings are

Instant-off 100mV Shift

When the potential of a structure shifts 100mV in the negative direction adequate protection has been achieved. This criterion requires that the cathodic protection current is interrupted and potentials measured instantaneously. Also, the true natural potentials of the structure under investigation must be known. Often, within a plant facility, the buried piping cannot be isolated from the electrical copper grounding systems. Under this condition a corrosion cell is

taken within a plant with numerous buried pipelines. This is because the current density in such areas is much higher than the current density along a well-coated cross-country pipeline. Higher soil resistivities further aggravate this situation. A corrosion engineer must evaluate the magnitude of IR drop and establish his own criteria of protection in such cases.

reversed and it will subtract from the negative potential reading and makes the structure appear poorly protected than it really is. This problem magnifies in high soil resistivities. It is difficult if not impossible to interrupt cathodic protection current on structures protected with sacrificial anodes. Also, in cases where current interruption is possible, there may be other sources of current at that location such as those from nearby cathodic protection systems, stray currents or telluric currents.

Minimum 850mV with CP Current interrupted.

Minimum polarization of 0.850mV (reference to CSE) when current flowing in earth surrounding the pipe is zero indicates effective CP. Although the applicability of this criterion in the case of cross-country pipelines is satisfactory it may not be applicable to plant piping. The reason being that the current flowing in the earth does not become zero. As soon as the CP current source is turned off, a reverse current begins to flow from the buried pipelines to the electrical grounding system (copper). To summarize the above, it can be stated that IR drop through soil is perhaps the single most important factor when current is flowing, which must be considered when applying any one of the criteria mentioned above. As already mentioned, it introduces significant error in the measurements. On a structure with its cathodic protection energized the polarity of IR drop is such that it adds to the negative potentials thus the structure appears to be better protected than it really is. Conversely, when the current direction reverses i.e. away from the structure, as might be the case with a structure coupled with copper grounding system, the IR drop at current interruption will have its polarity

Cathodic Protection Coupons

Cathodic protection coupons, sometimes called instant off sensors, have been developed and are gaining wide spread acceptance, as a means to make instant off potential measurements under virtually all conditions provided that such sensors are not affected by the anode gradients of nearby ground beds.

Maximum Allowable Potentials

Different operators use various upper limits such as 1.15, 1.17, 1.2 and 2.5 volts etc. The upper limit cannot be a single value standardized under all environments when current is flowing. Only when an instant-off potential is measurable with absolute certainty that no stray currents are present, an upper limit of 1.2 volts may be set as a valid limit.

Monitoring Techniques
The importance of proper monitoring techniques can never be over emphasized. Often, once a cathodic protection system has been designed and constructed, operators begin to believe

that their troubles are over. System designer usually provides an operating manual giving certain guidelines for monitoring and unless the persons responsible for monitoring are not sufficiently trained, the results can be drastic. An oil producing company in Northern Pakistan began experiencing corrosion problems on a facility only 5 years old. Potentials had routinely been monitored by in-house electricians and reported each month to the engineering manager who felt relieved by simply viewing the results, which seemingly had always met the minimum criterion of protection. It was only after leaks had begun to spring that the company called in a CP consultant who found that 90% of the buried pipelines were inadequately protected. Excessive soil IR drops and the influence of ground bed gradients had mostly been responsible for producing erroneous data indicative of adequate protection while the structures were not actually protected. It is highly imperative that a suitable monitoring and maintenance program must exist and that the persons responsible must be provided sufficient training so that accurate data can be collected without which early signs of emerging problems cannot be recognized and rectified. It must be understood that corrosion is never reversible and proper corrosion prevention is of utmost importance. For proper operation of a system it is most essential that a trained corrosion technician should assume the responsibility of routine monitoring and a qualified corrosion engineer be responsible for analyzing the results of the monitored data, diagnose system deficiencies if any and determine corrective course of action on a regular basis.

In the Oil and Gas industry, owners of huge installations can and often establish in-house Corrosion Control departments headed by qualified corrosion engineers. This, however, is not feasible when the size of the installation is such that a full time Corrosion Department cannot be justified. In such cases it is advisable to engage consulting firms who specialize in monitoring, data analysis, and recognition of system deficiencies needed to prevent impending failures.

Basic Instruments Used in Monitoring

The basic essential equipment needed for routine potential monitoring is a DC voltmeter; digital or analog, which is used in combination with and a standard half-cell, usually a copper/copper sulfate electrode. Voltmeter The voltmeter has a terminal marked - or COM for connection to pipeline test lead and a terminal marked + for connection to reference electrode. Figure 11-1 shows a digital meter, which is most commonly used for structure to soil potential measurements.

L.C. D IS PLA Y

0 .0 0 5

F U N CTIO N BU TTO N S

SE LECTO R 2 0A TER M
A mA +

4 00m A TER M CO M M O N TE RM

P O S. TER M

Figure 11-1 Some instruments are auto ranging and the most appropriate scale is automatically selected. Those, which have manual voltage-range selectors,

require that the voltage range chosen must be such that the voltage being measured lies on the upper half of the scale. For example, 800mV measurement will be more accurate on the one-volt full-scale range than it would be on the 10-volt range. An instrument, whether digital or analog, draws some current when connected between a half-cell and the pipeline. The direction of this current is from the positive half-cell through the instrument to the pipeline as shown in Figure 11-2.
IN STR U M EN T TEST LEAD S P O S . H A L F -C E L L

CU R R EN T FLO W

N EG . P IPE

Figure 11-2
The resulting current flow introduces two possible sources of error in the reading. First, while a voltmeter correctly indicates the potential difference across its terminals, the current that flows through the instruments (a voltmeter is essentially an ammeter) introduces an IR drop in the rest of the circuit, which is not included in the reading. For example, if the resistance of the external circuit (pipe, lead wires, soil and electrode) is one-fourth the resistance of the meter, then the meter will read only four-fifths of the total potential; the error will be 20%. A second source of error is that the passage of current through the circuit may

polarize the reference electrode. It is highly important that any current flow through the instrument be kept at minimum possible value other wise an error in reading cannot be avoided. For this reason, the instruments used must have high input impedance in a digital meter or high input resistance in a moving coil analog instrument. The minimum value recommended is 1 Megohms. Precision analog instruments are often provided with variable input resistance (impedance) selectable by a selector switch ranging from 1 Meg-ohm per volt to 200 Meg-ohm per volt. The benefit of high input impedance (or resistance) is minimization of error in the measurements when the external circuit resistance is high (such as when the half-cell is placed over dry soil). To illustrate, assume that at a location where PSP is being measured, the external resistance is 5 ohms for example. If an instrument with 100ohms/per volt input impedance is used and the measured value is 800mV, it will have to be corrected by multiplying with the correction factor given below: =( + R)/ Where: = Correction factor = Input impedance R = External circuit resistance. In the case of the above example, the correction factor is 100+5/100 = and the measured value after correction is 1.05 * 800 = mV. Those instruments, which have the provision of input impedance range selection such as mentioned earlier, can improve the measurement accuracy. To do this, measurements are made starting with the lowest impedance range selection and then the range is gradually increased until two consecutive readings show no change.

By constant use in field or rugged handling, the instruments accuracy can be impaired. It is a good practice to calibrate the instrument against a known good instrument at least once every 6 months. Reference Electrodes A reference electrode is a stable halfcell, which is used to measure the potential of other electrodes (a buried pipeline for instance). The desirable properties of a standard reference electrode are: Easily maintainable Easy to use in field work and/or laboratory work Does not polarize when measuring potential of another electrode Resists contamination or contaminate whats being measured Portability Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) The SHE is the universal reference for reporting relative half-cell potentials. It is a type of gas electrode and was widely used in early studies as a reference electrode, and as an indicator electrode for the determination of pH values. The SHE could be used as either an anode or cathode depending upon the nature of the half-cell it is used with. The SHE consists of a platinum electrode immersed in a solution with a hydrogen ion concentration of 1.00M. The platinum electrode is made of a small square of platinum foil, which is platinized (known as platinum black). Hydrogen gas, at a pressure of 1 atmosphere, is bubbled around the platinum electrode. The platinum black serves as a large surface area for the reaction to take place, and the stream of

hydrogen keeps the solution saturated at the electrode site with respect to the gas. Silver/Silver Chloride Electrode This is by far the most common reference type used in aqueous environment today because it is simple, inexpensive, very stable and non-toxic. It is mainly used with saturated potassium chloride electrolyte, but can be used with lower concentrations such as 1 M potassium chloride. Note that changing the electrolyte concentration changes the potential. Silver chloride is slightly soluble in strong potassium chloride solutions, so it is sometimes recommended that potassium chloride be saturated with silver chloride to avoid stripping the silver chloride off the silver wire. The silver-silver chloride electrodes simplicity of fabrication and fundamental ruggedness makes it a good candidate for many industrial applications where the electrochemical potential has to be measured or controlled. It is widely used in aqueous medium for potential measurements of submerged structures or water storage tank internals. Copper Sulfate Electrode (CSE) The most commonly used reference electrode for on-shore (land) buried structures is the copper/copper sulfate (CuCuSO4) that is also known as copper sulfate electrode (CSE). Such electrodes are available in various sizes. The one shown below in Figure 11-3 is a 6 long standard half-cell. It comprises of a plastic tube with a top cap through which the copper rod of high purity is immersed in saturated copper sulfate solution. The porous plug at the bottom is made of treated wood, which remains

moist and provides low resistance contact to the soil.

+

M A STER CELL

FIELD CELL

PLA S TIC PLU G CO PPER RO D CuSO 4 S O LU TIO N

Figure 11-4
The negative lead of the voltmeter is connected to the shop half-cell (master) and the positive lead of the meter is connected to the field cell. Change in potential 5mV or less, as read on the voltmeter, is considered permissible. Any change greater than 5mV (plus or minus) requires that the field half-cell be rectified. To do this, remove the copper rod by unscrewing the top cap and clean the rod with sandpaper. Never use emery paper for this purpose as the metal particles can imbed on the copper rod and change its solution potential. Next, dump all of the copper sulfate solution and fill the tube with freshly prepared solution using distilled water and high purity copper sulfate crystal. To assure that the solution is saturated, enough crystals are used so that there always remain excess crystals at the bottom of the tube. Having done this, recheck the field cell against the shop cell. If the change in potential still remains high, the porous plug may have been contaminated during field usage and therefore, must be replaced.

EXCESS

PLA S TIC TUBE PORO US PLUG

CRYSTALS

Figure 11-3
Care of CSE Electrode The validity of pipe-to-soil potential measurements are always linked to the integrity or validity of the reference half-cell such as the copper/copper sulfate electrode. It is therefore imperative that the half-cell being used is maintained in good condition by frequent calibration against a known accurate half-cell. To do this, it is a good practice to keep an unused half-cell called Shop half-cell in the office or laboratory for calibrating purposes. The field half-cell should be checked or calibrated against the shop half-cell at a regular frequency that depends on the frequency of the usage of the field halfcell itself. The calibration setup is diagrammatically shown in Figure 11-4. As shown in this figure, both, the shop half-cell and the field half-cell are contacted with each other back-to-back with their bottom wooden plugs reasonably moistened.

Cathodic protection Monitoring

Cathodic protection monitoring divided in two different categories. 1. Long Term Monitoring is

2. Routine Monitoring .

Long Term Monitoring

The most conclusive method of monitoring the performance of a corrosion control system is to: 1. Examine and keep accurate records of corrosion failures and leaks. 2. Use of corrosion coupons as a means of determining the effectiveness of cathodic protection Leak Records The leak frequency is plotted on a semilog graph sheet as cumulative leaks vs.

time in years. If a plot of cumulative leaks vs. time in years shows an exponential rise, this then is an indicator that the mitigation system installed is not providing protection. On the other hand if the plotted curve becomes parallel to the X-axis this then is an indicator that the mitigation system has provide hundred percent protections. A plot in between these two curves represents partial protection. Figure 11-5 shows typical cumulative leaks vs. years.

Cum ulative Leak Chart 1000

Number of Cumulative Leaks

No CP Applied
100

Partial Protection

Adequate Protection Achieved

10

1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Years

Figure 11-5
Corrosion Coupons

Corrosion coupons are another long term monitoring technique by which the adequacy of the installed CP system can be determined. The sites for installation of the coupons should include each of the known conditions found on the subject structure. In the case of such subjects as tank bottoms etc. this is relatively easy to establish, but with pipelines this may not be so simple. Soil samples should be taken, as the pipeline is constructed, and analyzed to determine their aggressiveness. Coupons should be placed at locations of most, least and average corrosion activity. Their position must be clearly marked, as the operative who is required to recover the coupon may not be the same as the operative who installed it. The site must be chosen carefully and must have good access and secure from third party interference. Twice as many coupons should be placed as are expected to be recovered, as there will be considerable wastage during the period of the test, which can last for many years. During recovery the whole coupon and its backfill should be taken to the laboratory in a sealed plastic container. If this is recovered in a stagnant area under water, then the whole coupon and surrounding backfill should be recovered anaerobically. Submerging a plastic bag in the surrounding water, transferring the coupon in a handful of its surrounding electrolyte, and sealing the bag while still submerged can achieve this. The bag should be labeled to this effect so that it can be examined anaerobically in the laboratory to determine the presence of anaerobic bacteria and weight loss if any of the coupon. No or insignificant

weight loss of the coupon will confirm that the cathodic protection has been effective in preventing corrosion.

Routine Monitoring
The frequency of monitoring differs with each pipeline or plant operator. It usually ranges from monthly to annual basis. Where large piping networks are involved and systems in general are monitored on annual basis, it is always advisable to short list critical areas for keeping under surveillance on quarterly or bi-annual basis. The monitoring procedure should be tailored to fit the needs of individual operators but must include as minimum the following items: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. DC Power Sources Ground beds Multiple drain points. Effectiveness of insulating flanges Structure-to-soil potentials. Magnesium anode installations, if any, along the pipeline. Bonding stations at foreign pipeline crossing. Storage tank bottoms

Transformer/Rectifier Monitoring Transformer/rectifiers are the DC power sources, which provide the required DC current for cathodic protection of structures being protected. It is essential that these units continue to operate uninterrupted. It can only be possible if these units are inspected routinely by CP inspectors. When each rectifier site is visited, the inspector is provided with a checklist of items that needs to be checked and recorded. A suggested format of the checklist is:

Date Visited: Equipment Number: Location: Structure Protected: DC output (volts & amps) as read on Panel Meters: DC output measured (volts & amps) with portable meters: AC input (volts & amps) Case temperature (Normal, Warm or Hot) Tap settings Oil level Tightness of electrical connections. General condition of equipment.

an efficiency of 75% or better. The method of equating this is: DC Current * DC Volts Eff. % = ------------------------------------------AC Current * AC Volts * 1.3

Solar Power Unit Monitoring During monitoring of solar power units, check and record DC output voltage and current, voltages of all batteries in he battery bank, gravity and level of electrolyte in the batteries, dirty or clean solar panels, charge controller input to battery bank (volts and amps). Ground beds Monitoring If a ground bed is of the type using multiple ground rods installed in such a manner that each lead from each individual ground rod is terminated in an anode cable junction box, the monitoring personnel must check and record millivolts drop across each shunt. Figure 11-7 is a typical format for recording the data.
Anod e No 1 2 3 4 5 Shunt Rating 50mV 10A 50mV 10A 50mV 10A 50mV 10A 50mV 10A mV 25 22 23 21 19 Amps 5 4.4 4.6 4.2 3.8

A typical rectifier unit is shown in Figure 11-6.

T/R CCB

SHUNT

DC

PAVEMENT

DC AC

T R A N SFO R M E R / R E C TIFIER

Figure 11-6
The above monitoring data should be compared with the previous monitored data. Significant changes in the DC current and voltage values can be helpful in predicting impending failure of the system. The efficiency of a transformer/rectifier can be approximated by the ratio of the DC output wattage to the AC input wattage. A good transformer/rectifier operating at near capacity should show

Figure 11-7
In addition, determine the ground bed resistance and record. This can be done by dividing the rectifier voltage by the rectifier current and then subtracting from it the estimated cable resistance. A second and more appropriate method of doing this is by measuring the ground bed on potential E1 and ground bed off potential E2 with reference to a remote half-cell. The resistance of ground bed in this case will be E1 E2 ground bed current.

Multi Drain Point Junction Box Monitoring If a power source of the cathodic protection is draining current from more than one structure then a current control device is usually used to distribute the total source current to various structures. The current control device is simply a junction box with several current measuring shunts and current control variable resistors. A typical 3-circuit current control box is shown in Figure 11-8

Insulating Flange/Joint Monitoring This item simply requires measuring potentials on either side of the flanges without shifting the location of the halfcell. Alternatively, potential drop across insulating flanges may be measured using a voltmeter. The potential drop across the flange faces will equal the difference in potentials that are measured on either side of the flange. A healthy difference (say 50mV or more) is indicative of satisfactory flange insulation Pipe-to-Soil Potentials (PSP) Monitoring

V A R IA B LE R E SIS TG O R S CO PPER BUS SH UN T

C ABLES

TO T/R NEG. FR O M STR U CT UR E "A " FR O M S T R U CTU R E "B " FROM STRU CTURE "C"

Figure 11-8
The current control junction box in this example is splitting the main T/R current to three (3) different structures. The main terminal of the junction box is connected to the negative terminal of the power source. Individual drain leads from each structure are connected to the main terminal via variable resistors and current measuring shunts in series. Monitoring of this device shall include: Current flow through each circuit Tightness of terminals General condition of the box

Structure-to-Soil potential measurements are made at all available test stations, valve assemblies, foreign pipeline crossing bonding stations, magnesium installations and insulating flanges etc. The negative terminal of the DC voltmeter is connected to the structure and the positive terminal of the meter is connected to the half-cell. When measuring potentials of a Cathodically protected pipeline, care must be exercised so that the placement of halfcell is directly over the line. If the halfcell is not placed directly over the pipeline, reproducible results are not possible particularly for those pipelines, which have poor coatings, and the current density is high. For reproducible results it is a good practice to mark the spot for half-cell placement so that when ever readings are repeated the electrode locations is not changed. One way of achieving this is by permanently driving 1 diameter and 12 long PVC tubes in the ground near each test post so that the top end of the tube remains an inch or so above grade for visibility.

It is very important that the half-cell contact with earth is made in moist soil. It will be frequently necessary to wet the soil before a reading can be taken. Each reading that is recorded must be a stable reading on the voltmeter. If meter fluctuates this is an indication of a high resistance contact, which could either be between the earth and the half-cell or between the measuring instruments test lead and the pipeline test lead. A high resistance contact of the meters negative lead to an above ground structure is not uncommon. Unless the

steel surface is thoroughly cleaned a good contact is not possible. During routine monitoring the pipe-tosoil potential measurements are made at each test station from the beginning to the end of the pipeline. A typical test station with a PVC tube designating the permanent location for the reference cell placement is shown in Figure 11-9. Positive of the meter is always connected to the half-cell while the negative of the meter is connected to the pipeline test lead.

CP TEST STATION

TERMINAL POST

12"
GRADE

2" X 12" PVC TUBE

6mm WIRE

BURIED PIPE

Figure 11-9
If an analog meter is being used the needle will move upscale which is an indication that the measurement polarity is correct. A downscale movement of the needle will be an indication of reverse polarity of the protection system, which must be immediately rectified. If a digital meter is being used instead of the analog and the leads are connected as described above, no sign or + sign on the display screen indicates that the reading has the correct polarity. On the other hand, if a - sign precedes the readout it is an indication of a reading which is comparable to the downscale movement of the needle of an analog meter. Some corrosion engineers prefer to reverse the instruments test leads when using a digital multimeter (negative lead connection to half-cell and positive lead connection the structure). With this arrangement, a negative sigh precedes the measured value. This arrangement cannot be used when readings are taken with an analog meters. Sometimes, pipe-to-soil potentials are measured on the pipelines, which are not cathodically protected. Such surveys are intended to locate hot spots; anodic areas

along a pipeline where local protection could be provided by galvanic anodes. Hot spot areas are those where the pipeto-soil potentials are more negative then the other locations Pipe-to-soil potentials are often measured using remote electrodes. This is particularly true when assessing interference problems at pipeline crossings or when it is desired to determine the characteristic resistance of the pipeline. Care must be exercised to assure a good electrical contact of the base of the halfcell to the earth particularly when PVC

tubes are used as permanent markers for electrode locations. It is a good practice to sufficiently wet down the soil underneath the half-cell to obtain low resistance contact. The PSP data measured at each test station should be recorded on a standard format. A typical data sheet is shown in Figure 11-10, and the plotted data is shown in Figure 11-11.

Pipe-to-Soil Potential T/S No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Cultivated area Asphalt road crossing Line turns towards North Near water canal Foreign pipeline crossing (Bond current 75mA) Dirt road crossing Cultivated area Cultivated area Magnesium anode installation Approach road to well site Line side of insulating flanges near pig launcher Description Line side of insulating flanges near pig receiver (2002) 1.105 1.332 1.255 1.223 1.057 0.899 0.977 1.15 1.155 1.32 1.199 1.007 (2003) 1.127 1.357 1.267 1.257 1.122 0.805 1.11 0.855 0.85 0.8 0.799 0.78

Figure 11-10

P ipe-to-soil P otential P rofile

1.8

Pig Reciever at Gas Plant

Near w ater caba l

Bond to foreign P/L Current 75mA

Magnesium Anode

1.6

1.4

1.2

February 2002

0.8

January 2001
0.6 0.4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 12

Test Station Numbers

Figure 11-11 From the above graph one can observe that the entire section of the pipeline meets the minimum criterion of protection (-850mV). The effect on the pipeline by the crossing line bonding station at T/S-6 with a current drain of 75 mA and the effect of magnesium anode installation at T/S-10. The plot also shows a comparison of the status of cathodic protection with the previous years data. Magnesium Anode Installation Monitoring If magnesium anodes are completely buried installations, then these can be omitted from the monitoring list. On the other hand installations that have potential and current measuring facilities (shunts and test leads) then the potential and current should be measured and recorded. Bonding station Monitoring Bonding station is a device, which connects the protected pipeline to a crossing foreign pipeline through a current measuring shunt and a variable resistor, or rheostat, which permits controlling the bond current. A typical bonding station is shown in Figure 1112. The bond current flowing through the shunt is usually set to the minimum value required for the prevention of interference. This is done at the time of initial system commissioning or when changes in the system operation occur. Otherwise, bond current once adjusted seldom requires readjustment and should not be changed during routine monitoring unless there is an evidence of interference being present.

BUS BAR V A R IA B LE R ESISTER

SHUNT

meter is connected to the surface of the tank shell. The reading thus obtained reflects the level of protection at the center of the tank bottom. Additional readings are taken around the tank by placing a portable reference cell near the tank skirt. Usually four locations (North, East, South and West) are designated for the portable reference cell by inserting PVC tubes in the ground in the same manner as was described in the pipeline monitoring section above.

TEST LEA D CU RREN T LEAD

PR O TECTED PIP ELIN E F O R E IG N P IP E L IN E

Figure 11-12
As shown in the above figure two leads are routed into the bond box from each pipeline and are connected together through a current measuring shunt and a variable resistor. Another set of two leads, one from each pipeline, is provided which facilitate connection to both pipelines for potential measurements. The bond current is determined by measuring the millivolts drop across the shunt. Potentials of each line at the crossing point are measured against a reference cell placed directly over the line being tested. Storage Tanks Monitoring Remote ground beds seldom protect soil side of the storage tank bottoms. Either anode grids underneath the bottoms or rod type anodes installed vertically around the peripheries of the tanks are utilized for protection. Permanent reference electrodes are often used which are placed under and near the center of the tank bottom. Tank to soil potentials are measured by connecting the positive lead of the meter to the reference cell lead provided inside the test station. The negative lead of the

Chapter 12 Some Unusual Problems

Parallel Buried line
Two or more lines closely spaced and paralleling each are difficult to monitor individually. These lines are usually not isolated from each other. When a reference electrode is placed over such lines it is almost impossible to determine the protection level of each individual line. This is because the reference electrode is looking at several lines simultaneously and the potential reading on the meter is not the true potential of the pipeline over which the electrode is supposedly placed but rather the reading is a mixed potential of two or more lines. To overcome this problem, PVC tubes have been used, one for each line, in such a manner that the bottom of the tube is an inch or two above each line. The upper ends of the tubes are extended two to three inches above the grade level. A typical example is shown in Figure 12-1 electrically shielded from the surrounding soil and since there will be virtually zero current flowing in the column of soil enclosed by the tube and if the soil is sufficiently wet the reading obtained will be similar to that of hollow tube.

Induced AC
When pipelines are located in ROW (right-of-way) which is commonly shared with high voltage AC transmission line(s) interference on pipelines because of induced AC voltage is a real and serious one, which can place both personnel safety and pipeline integrity at risk. It can be potentially life threatening for operations personnel to touch the pipeline or appurtenances. In addition, pipe corrosion also can result from AC discharge. This type of corrosion may not be serious where the induced Ac voltages are low (such as at locations where high voltage AC power lines cross a buried pipeline) but can be of concern with high AC current discharge, which usually is the case when pipelines and power lines parallel for some distance. Corrosion due to AC current is one hundred times less than the equivalent DC current. To lower the induced AC interference effects on the pipelines, the primary method is by reducing the pipeline resistance to earth. This can be accomplished by installing copper ground grids in areas of peak induced AC voltages. These grids when connected to pipelines through DC decoupling devices will provide low resistance path to the discharge of AC

NORMAL GRADE PVC TUBES

PIPES

Figure 12-1
The tubes may be left hollow or filled with native soil. If the tube remains hollow it will allow the half-cell to be dropped down directly over the pipe being monitored. A soil filled tube will also produce the same result because the column of soil in each tube is

current and block the DC current thus the cathodic protection remains unaffected. Alternatively, zinc ribbon anodes can be installed paralleling the pipeline in the regions of peak induced AC voltages.

Figure 12-2
This device blocks DC current under low DC voltages that are normally encountered in cathodic protection systems but permits AC current under high AC voltages to pass across it to the plant grounding system. Zinc Ground Cell Zinc grounding cell is another decoupling device. It can transfer high voltage AC charges from one side of the flange to the other side while blocking the DC current. In addition to this, it provides some galvanic protection as well. A typical installation of a zincearthing cell is shown in Figure 12-3.
C AD W ELD C O N N E C T IO N
IN S U LA T IN G JO IN T

DC Decoupling Devices
According to the pipeline safety code, an insulating device may not be installed in an area where combustible atmosphere is anticipated unless precautions are taken to prevent arching. Induced AC due to high-tension power lines crossing the pipeline or sharing the same right-ofway represents safety hazards. Lightning due to storm activity, fault currents and other transients can develop very high voltages across the insulating flanges, which can spark and ignite the combustible atmosphere. Installation of devices across the insulating flanges, which allow the AC current to flow in both directions and stop or substantially reduce the DC current, are specified in NACE standard RP-0177-95. Such devices are referred to as DC Decoupling device. These devices are also known as cathodic protection isolators. Such devices effectively blocks the protective D.C. current needed for cathodic protection while providing a grounding path for; A.C. fault currents, lightning, induced A.C., power switching surge currents or any other electrical disturbance. The result is Personnel and Equipment is safely protected against shock hazards. Spark Gap Spark gap is a decoupling device, which is installed directly across the insulating flanges using angle brackets as shown in Figure 12-2

GRAD E LEVEL
C O N N E CT IN G LE A D S

3 F T M IN .

1 .4 " X 1 .4 " X 6 0 Z N .R O D 1" SP ACER 1" W ID E S TR A P

Figure 12-3
The zinc-earthing cell is made up of two zinc anodes, which are separated by 1 non-conducting spacers. These anodes are 1.4 x 1.4 60 long and are packaged in cotton bag filled with low resistivity backfill. Polarization Cells. The polarization cell also known as the Kirk cell named after its inventor is essentially an electro-chemical switch that will block the low voltage DC current but will safely bond a cathodically protected structure to an

effective ground for induced lightning and fault currents.

AC,

A polarization cell consists of the following components: Multiple pairs of 300 series stainless steel plates. An electrolyte composed of 30 percent KOH and water. A thin layer of oil (approximately inch deep on top of the electrolyte to act as a seal for the electrolyte. A battery jar with an open top to contain the above referred cell elements. A combination lid and terminal board with positive venting facilities. The lid and battery jar do not lock in place but are held down by the weight of the lid, terminals, bus bars and plates. A bolted bus bar connecting each plate of like polarity with its common terminal affixed to the terminal board by terminal nut.

increased interest in buried coupons for cathodic protection monitoring purposes seems to have been stimulated by the 1992 revision of the criteria in NACE Standard RP 0169-92 which emphasized consideration of IR drop for valid compliance with the 850 mV potential criteria. A cathodic protection coupon is a piece of metal, which is electrically bonded to the structure through an interruptible connection in a test station. The coupon is usually made of the same type of metal as the structure but is located very close to a permanent reference electrode. The separation between the coupon and the reference electrode must always be kept at minimum or it may be directly attached to the reference electrode with a thin film insulator between the two. The surface area of the coupon exposed to soil must be kept to a minimum and should never be more than 1 in2 so that it attains same level of polarization as the structure to which it is bonded with minimal current wastage. Normal measurements are made with the coupon electrically bonded to the structure. For an IR drop free measurements the potential of the coupon is measured instantaneously upon breaking the bond connection. When CP coupons are placed close the pipe, that is, in the same environmental conditions, their assessment of the adequacy of cathodic protection improves. Several companies in the United States have adopted the coupon technology as a valid method of monitoring their systems. When electrically connected to the pipe, the coupon becomes a part of the cathodic protection circuit and requires current to protect the surface area of the

Cathodic Protection Coupons

The use of CP coupons is gaining wide spread acceptance abroad as well as in Pakistan as a monitoring tool to correct for the IR drop in the measured potential when the interruption of CP power sources is not practical. IR drop component is a significant error factor, which is the result of current flow through resistive soil. The earliest reference to the use of coupons to monitor cathodic protection systems appears to be a brief mention in the famous 1967 book by Peabody. Coupons had been used to monitor cathodic protection systems in Europe since 1960. Most of these coupons were installed since about 1975. The

coupon. If adequate current is available to protect the coupon, which is sized to represent a large pipe-coating defect, this then verifies that sufficient current is also available to protect the pipe at that location. Coupons are not a good choice for those pipelines, which have superb coating, and the cathodic protection current density is in the order of microamperes. Besides, the IR drop error in such cases is insignificant because of very low current density. A typical arrangement of CP coupon installation is shown in Figure 12-5.
" O N " / " O FF " SW IT C H

Install a sufficient number of coupons to adequately monitor the cathodic protection system. Use older or aged steel of a grade similar to the structure's steel. Coupons manufactured from new steel should remain disconnected from the structure and permitted to corrode freely for a period of one or two months. Install the coupon at the same depth as the structure and about 1 foot from the structure. The coupon material, mill scale, polished steel all determine the coupon's potential and could cause distortion in the readings. Coupons must be placed outside the gradient of any existing ground beds.

# 1 0 LE A D S F R O M CO U PO N

TEXT BO X
GR ADE LEVEL

R E FE R EN C E C EL L T EST LE AD

# 10 LE A D S FR O M P I P EL IN E P I PE
P ER MA N E N T R E FER EN C E C E LL

C OU PO N

Pipeline Casings Figure 12-5

Advantages of Using Coupons IR free potentials are obtained without interrupting multiple CP power sources. IR free potentials are obtained on buried structures protected by galvanic anodes. Depolarization testing may be performed without de-energizing the CP system. Pipeline casings are installed under paved road crossings and railroad crossings. Spacers fabricated from nonconductive materials are installed so that carrier pipe remains in the center of the casing as well as insulated from the casing. Sufficient number of spacers is used to prevent sag. Both ends of the casing are provided with seals so that water or earth material ingress within the casing/carrier annulus is prevented. Vent pipes are usually provided at both ends of the casing. Carrier pipe remains protected from corrosion as long as moisture or dirt (electrolyte) does not get into the casing. If end seals fail and moisture, dirt or both enter the casing and carrier pipe remains electrically insulated from the casing, it receives some degree of cathodic protection. The mechanism of

Sound Engineering Practices for the Use of Coupons are: Place the coupon in the same environment as the pipeline

protection is that casing picks up current on its external surface and this current then flow from the internal surface of the casing through the electrolyte within the casing onto to the surface of carrier pipe. The internal surface of the casing becomes a secondary anode and begins to corrode. Cases have been reported where not only the end seals failed but also casing to carrier pipe short developed. In such cases shielded corrosion of carrier pipes results because any current picked by the casing returns to the CP source via the metallic contact between the casing and carrier pipe. By measuring on/off potentials with the half-cell placed very close to the casing surface can determine if any one of the two above-described problems exist. If there is no change in the on/off potentials this confirms that there is no contact between the casing and carrier pipe and the end seals are good. On the other hand, if failure is indicated a corrosion engineer has to determine whether the short is electrolytic or metallic. An electrolytic short is not as serious as the metallic short. The carrier pipes are comparatively much better coated than the casings. In the case of electrolytic short (current flowing through the internal electrolyte) the current picked up by the casing is of very small magnitude and the protection of pipe outside the casing on both ends is not affected. In the case of a direct metallic short, the casing will behave like a very big coating holiday thus greatly affecting the protection of pipe on both sides of the casing length. If direct contact between the carrier pipe and casing is suspected, this can be verified by conducting close interval

on/off potentials with the cp source interrupted. The point over the line where the change in potential is least is usually the point where direct contact exists. If carrier pipe is poorly coated and the soil resistivity is very low then this method may not be successful in locating the short. The close interval survey over a rail road crossing is relatively easy because half-cell contact to earth can be established with ease. Such a survey over paved road crossing is difficult but can be done by placing jute bags over the entire length of the crossing and then liberally wetting the pavement The second method, which requires excavating the entire length of the sleeved crossing, can locate the sleeve to carrier pipe contact accurately. This method requires setting up a test circuit as shown in Figure 12-6

mV METER B
A M M ET E R

CURRENT FLOW B C B CASING

A CAR RIER PIPE

Figure 12-6 Suppose the point of contact is at B. The current flow in the sleeve will be from point A to point B. It will then transfer to carrier pipe and will flow from B to C. The point B can be located by measuring IR drop in the sleeve as follows: 1. Connect battery positive terminal at point A

2. Connect mV meters positive lead at A 3. Move the lead from the negative terminal of the meter along the sleeve from A towards B by measuring IR drop in the sleeve at 1-foot interval. The IR drop will keep increasing until the point of contact is reached. Beyond this point, there will be no further increase in the total measured IR drop. A third method by which the location of short can be estimated requires installation of two pairs of test leads on the sleeve and one additional test lead on the carrier pipe as shown in Figure 12-7

lead. Flow a measured value of current I. 3. Measure voltage drop (E2) across the inner test lead of sleeve. **** 4. Calculate resistance of sleeve using ohms law: R = (E2-E1)/I. 5. Now connect the positive terminal of the battery to the casing and the negative terminal of the battery to the pipe and flow the same quantity of current I that was used in setp-2 above 6. Measure voltage drop across the inner test leads of the sleeve (E3). 7. The distance of the casing short from the positive end of the casing is E3/ (I *R). Example: Casing length Casing Dia E1 E2 E2 E1 Resistance/ft E3 =100 ft =20 =0.12mV =3.80mV =3.68mV =3.68*10^-6 =0.002V

Figure 12.7 The procedure is as follows: 1. Before connecting battery, measure the mV across the span of sleeve (E1) using the inner test leads. Note polarity. 2. Connect 12V battery and an ammeter in series to the outer test leads. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive test

E3/I*R = .002/10*0.00000368 =54 feet Interference Structures such as a pipelines or storage tanks, which are not part of a cathodic protection system (foreign structures) but are located in close proximity of a ground bed protecting a given structure (protected line) can be affected or interfered by the cathodic protection system and experience accelerated corrosion.

This is due to the fact that the ground bed current flowing through the earth can be picked up by the foreign structure at some point near or in the vicinity of the ground bed. This current, in order to return to the CP source, has to leave the foreign structure at some point where the resistance to flow of current is the least.
FO R EIG N LIN E

The interference testing is done by measuring on/off potentials at suspected locations. An increase in potential in the negative direction when the current is turned off indicates the presence of interference effects. A typical example of interference testing is illustrated in Table 12-1.

Table 12-1.
Ser
A CCELERA TED CO R R O SIO N TANK A RR O W S IN D ICA TE BOTTOM D IRECTIO N O F CURRENT FLOW

Location (2) South Side of Tank North Side of Tank Foreign Line opposite Tank Foreign Line at Pipe Crossing Point

Millivolts (Neg. Vs. CSE)

(3) T/R off -650 -650 -700 (4) T/R on -890 -450 -900 (5) mV 240 (more neg) 200 (less neg) 200 (more neg) 200 (less neg)

Remarks
(6) Protection Corroding Protection

(1) 1

PROTECTED LINE

- +
T/R

GROUN DBED

2 3

Figure 12-7
As shown in Figure 12-7, a storage tank and a foreign pipeline, which are not part of the CP system, are in the influence area of the ground bed of the CP system. As a result, the tank bottom picks up part of the current at a location close to the ground bed (South side of the tank in this case). In order for this current to return to the source, the North side of the tank discharges this current into the surrounding soil. Similarly the foreign pipeline picks up some of the CP current from its surrounding soil and discharges it at a location where it crosses the protected pipeline. Accelerated corrosion results at the surfaces of the structure where current discharge into the soil. Serious corrosion damage can occur with currents in the order of milliamps if this current is concentrated at a small spots such as a coating defect.

-700

-500

Corroding

Column 2 represents the locations shown in Figure 12-6. Columns 3 & 4 are on/off potentials while column 5 lists the change in the on/off potentials. With the CP current turned on, a more negative potential change corresponds to current pickup by the structure while a less negative potential change represents current discharge. It is advisable to conduct interference testing by using a close reference electrode as well as a remote electrode. The use of remote electrode is particularly recommended in areas of high soil resistivity. Readings recorded with a close electrode may not give a true indication of the presence or severity of interference. For instance, if the close reference electrode is affected by the negative gradient of the protected

structure the pipe-to-soil potential measured on the foreign structure may appear to be less negative than it really is. Therefore, when the current is stopped and the negative earth gradient vanishes, the true potential of the foreign pipeline may change to more negative value even when there actually is no interference present. The remote electrode will be free of such anomalies. Interference mitigation procedure is covered in Chapter 14.

joints. These devices were discussed earlier in this chapter. Ways and means of such grounding will be discussed later on in this chapter. Monitoring of an insulating flange requires that potentials be measured on either side of the flanges. A reasonable potential difference across the insulating flanges is an indication of good electrical isolation. If it is suspected that the insulating flanges are not working properly and it is either completely or partially defective, test procedures described in Chapter-14 can be used to trouble shoot this.

Insulating flanges
Insulating flanges are devices, which are installed in lines to provide electrical isolation. This is desirable when a long line is being protected by a system located inside a plant facility. Without adequate electrical isolation from the plant structure the pipeline would be shorted to the plant grounding system and most of the protection current will be absorbed by the plant structure and protection of the long line will become impossible. It is essential that insulating flanges be 100% effective for CP system to function properly. When an insulating flange set is installed there always is an electrical shock hazard associated with it. Lightning strikes during storm activities, pipelines crossing high-tension power lines, pipelines sharing same right-of-way as the high-tension lines, are all sources of induced AC voltages on the pipeline. These voltages must be grounded without affecting the cathodic protection system. The most common methods used for grounding the induced AC voltages include installation of zinc grounding cells or the solid state decoupling devices directly across the insulating

Chapter 13 Special Surveys

Coating Evaluation Surveys
Coatings are applied to buried metallic structures as a first line of defense against corrosion. Cathodic protection (CP) is applied as a backup to compensate for the coating defects. Coating deterioration begins from the time the pipelines are buried. External corrosion is recognized as the greatest single cause of pipeline failure. It is a fact that a vast majority of pipeline leaks occur as a result of external corrosion, which is often due to extensive damage to the pipeline coatings leading to ineffective cathodic protection at these defect areas. A perfectly coated pipe will not corrode, however a perfectly coated pipe is only a myth. All buried coating systems degrade with time and will have holes, discontinuity or defects that will allow corrosion to take place. True as it may be that the cathodic protection is capable of compensating for the coating degradation but that too has a limit. Excessive CP current can be detrimental to the pipe. The corrosion engineer responsible for the pipeline integrity must therefore achieve a fine balance between effective protection and acceptable current consumption. If the current becomes excessive or the cathodic protection is ineffective, the pipeline must be surveyed to search for the major faults in order to refurbish coating. Engaging in an extensive coating re-conditioning program without adequate methods of detecting the coating faults (holidays) can be very expensive. Several techniques are available that can detect coating faults and aid in evaluation of coating condition. Some of these techniques are as follows: Close Interval Pipe-to-Soil Potential Survey (CIPS) Pearson Holiday Survey C-Scan DCVG (Direct Current Voltage Gradient) PCM (Pipe Current Mapping)

Close Interval Pipe-to-Soil Potential Survey (CIPS) CIPS technique has been in use for decades. On most pipelines CP test stations exist at each kilometer interval. In CIPS the operator establishes an electrical connection to the pipeline through a CP test station by means of a trailing wire. This coated copper wire unwinds from a spool as the operator walks the length of the pipeline. The pipeline potentials are measured with reference to a standard electrode at ground level, positioned directly over the pipeline. Although the interval between measurements can be any distance the most common and practical interval for cross-country lines is 25 feet and for those lines within a plant a 5 to 10 feet interval is recommended. The readings are recorded at each interval against the distance traversed. At the end of the day data is plotted as PSP vs. distance. An actual data plot is shown in Figure 13-1. The spikes or sudden drop in the negative potentials identifies coating defects. All defects found in this manner needs to be prioritized in such a fashion that the most serious ones are

reconditioned on a high priority basis. Figure 13-2 is a tabulation of areas of

coating defects along with the assigned priorities.

CIPS: FLOWLINE D6-LS SURVEY FROM WELL HEAD TO FENCE VALVE

1250

SHEET 2 OF 2

1150

1050 MILLIVOLTS

950

850

750 CONTINUATION FROM WELL HEAD 650 230 235 240 250 255 265 270 275 290 295 300 310 315 325 330 335 350 355 360 370 375 385 395 225 245 260 280 285 305 320 340 345 365 380 390 DISTANCE IN FEET 400 FENCE VALVE

Figure 13-1
SER. NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 FEET FROM START 235-240 270-300 315-330 335-360 380-385 395 POTENTIA LCHANGE (mV) 41 149 153 70 65 17 PRIORITY I I I III I IV REMARKS BELOW MINIMUM BELOW MINIMUM BELOW MINIMUM ABOVE MINIMUM BELOW MINIMUM ABOVE MINIMUM

Figure 13-2

The basis of assigning priorities is as follows: Priority I: All coating defects, which are in the sections of a pipeline not receiving adequate protection irrespective of the intensity of potential change. Priority-II: Coating defects with potential change in excess of 100 mV. Priority-III: Coating defects with potential change ranging between 50mV and 100mV. Priority-IV: Coating defects potential change less than 50mV with

the line current is unidirectional, its effect on the reading will be in a uniform manner either subtractive or additive depending on the direction of the line current. Pearson Holiday Survey Dr. John M. Pearson developed the instrument and the survey technique in the1950s. The instrument comprises of two parts; a signal receiver and an oscillator type signal generator. The signal generator is connected between the pipeline and a temporary ground placed about 100 to 200 feet away from the pipeline. The output signal voltage is variable from 2.5 volts to 100 volts. The signal is injected starting from the lowest voltage. It is then gradually increased until sufficient energy is transferred from the oscillator to the pipeline A team of two operators walks in tandem over the pipeline separated by 20 feet from each other. Both operators shoes are equipped with steel cleats, which serve as contact to the earth. The cleats are terminated by cable connections to a receiver. The potential difference picked up by the cleats of both operators is amplified in the receiver that is usually carried by the trailing operator. Signal strength increases as a holiday is approached and reaches a peak level as soon as the front operator is over it. At this point the front operator marks the location with a peg and continues walking again. The signal receiver registers another peak in the signal strength when the trailing operator reaches the pegged location. To confirm

The advantage of CIPS, in addition to identifying coating faults, is its usefulness of providing detailed status of protection level along the pipeline that no other coating survey technique has the ability to do. The measured potentials at permanent test stations represents protection status of only a small fraction of the total pipeline length. One proposed rule of thumb estimates that the measured potential is associated with a relatively short length of pipeline, which is about 4 times the depth of pipeline burial. The Close Interval Potential Survey (CIPS) technique provides detailed assessment of the CP effectiveness over the entire length of the pipeline, in between the permanent test stations. It may be argued that the validity of the CIPS data is questionable as IR drops in the pipeline increases progressively with length traversed. Considering that the steps between readings are short distances the change in the IR drop from one step of the reading to the next will be so insignificant that its effect on the reading will be minimal. Besides, since

that it is the trailing operator who is over the coating defect and not the lead operator who might be on another coating defect, the trailing operator moves away laterally. In so doing, if the signal strength drops, the location of coating defect is confirmed. Although this technique cannot truly quantify the severity of the defect it however, is much faster than all other techniques and chances of skipping a holiday are much less. C-Scan C-Scan, a coating evaluation technique, comprises of a signal generator and a detector unit. The generator unit is connected between the pipeline and a temporary ground and produces a constant AC signal, which passes along the pipe (see Figure 13-3).

signal. Such a low resistance path could arise from incorrectly applied coating, mechanical damage to the wrap before during or after application or decay of the wrap due to soil stresses etc. Because the resistance of such a path is likely to be several orders of magnitude less than the resistance of the undamaged coating the resultant loss of current even from a single small fault of a few square millimeters can usually be detected by a significant increase in the apparent rate of current decline along the length of the pipeline. The detector unit measures the electromagnetic field radiating from the pipeline and uses this to locate the pipeline, determine the depth of the pipe and the residual strength of the signal current at the observation point. This data is stored in the memory of the detector units computer and is used to compute and store attenuation rates between any two given observation points. At the end of the survey the complete record of the survey (with time and date) can be printed out to make available a permanent record. This technique being more cumbersome than the other survey methods, has not gained wide spread acceptance. DCVG (Direct Current Voltage Gradient) This being among the most recent coating evaluation techniques is gaining widespread acceptance in the industry. It utilizes interrupted DC current signal. The technique involves the interruption of CP current source to apply an identifiable signal to the pipeline. This is normally at 1 Hz frequency (1/3rd second off 2/3rd second on). Alternatively, output current from galvanic anodes or a

Figure 13-3
The applied Ac signal traversing through the coated pipeline decreases gradually with increasing distance from the signal injection point. If the wrapping has a uniform thickness and has no holidays, the strength of the AC signal current will decline logarithmically. The rate of decline will be dependant primarily on the electrical resistivity of the coating. If there is a low resistance electrical path from the pipe direct to the soil there will be a substantial increase in the rate of loss of

temporary impressed current system may be interrupted. Signal strengths (difference between on and off potentials) are measured at all test points. Voltage gradients are set up in the region of the defects due to current flowing through resistive soil. An operator traversing the pipeline with a pair of probes and a highly sensitive voltmeter detects these gradients. A pulsing signal is indicated by the voltmeter at a 1Hz frequency normally when the operator is within 3 to 10 meters of the defect. The strongest signal is noted when one probe is immediately above the defect. Instrumentation polarity indicates the defect direction as it changes its polarity when the operator has walked past the epicenter. Once the gradient epicenter proximity has been determined, nulling along equi-potential gradients will rapidly locate the defect center, which can then be pegged. An IR drop to remote earth is measured by summing up a series of lateral voltage drops (See Figure 13-5).

The exact location of the defect can be located by moving probes either along the equi-potential lines or across the gradient line. Null will be indicated on the meter when the probes are parallel to the equi-potential lines and maximum voltage will be registered when across the gradient line as shown in Figure 13-6

N u l n o t e d w h e n p r o b e s p la c e d a lo n g e q u i- v o lt a g e g r a d ie n t D e fe c t s lo c a te d a t r ig h t a n g le s t h r u c e n t r e
A
mV

D EF EC T
mV

m V

PIPE

A
mV

V O LTA G E G R A D IE N T

P r o b e s c r o s s in g v o l t a g e g r a d ie n t lin e s a t r ig h t a n g le s w ill a t t a in m a x im u m m e t e r d e f le c t io n D e f e c t lie s a lo n g s t r a ig h t lin e th ru p ro b e s .

Figure 13-6 Miscellaneous other Surveys

Miscellaneous surveys, which are not the part of either routine monitoring surveys or pipeline coating integrity surveys, are often carried out. These, most commonly, involve interference detection, line current measurements, structure-to-earth resistance tests and hot spot surveys Interference Detection Interference is defined as an adverse effect on a structure, which is not part of a cathodic protection system but is in the vicinity of structures cathodically protected. The interfered structure picks up current at some point and receives protection at that location. In order that the circuit is completed, the current must return to the source. The interference

PROBE PLACEMEN T
V5

VO LTAGE GR ADIENT O L/R E Over the line to rem ote earth voltage drop = V1+ V2+ V3+V 4+V5

V1 V2

V3

V4

PIPE

Figure 13-5
This overline to remote earth voltage drop is used to obtain a benchmark factor (percentage IR) by equating as follows: Overline to Remote Earth IR X 100 %IR = ------------------------------------------------Signal Strength

current is therefore, forced to leave that structure at some other point. Since there is no metallic contact between the cathodically protected structure and the interfered structure, the return current finds its way from the interfered structure through the earth and back on to the protected structure. The point where this current leaves the structure and enters the earth, accelerated corrosion occurs. When interference is suspected on any structure, the detection method requires a current interrupted survey. Pipe-to-soil potential measurements are made both, with current on and current off (instantaneous off). When the potential becomes more negative with current off then interference is confirmed. The survey can be repeated on all suspected structures. Mitigation of interference is discussed in detail in the Trouble Shooting Chapter-14 Current Interrupted Survey In order to obtain a better indication of the "true" pipe-to-soil potential, the IR error in the potential readings associated with CP current flow through the soil has to be minimized. This is achieved by interrupting CP current flow for an instant-off potential measurement. In practice, this means that all sources of significant CP current need to be interrupted synchronously. Typically, the current output from several influencing rectifiers (and also foreign sources of current) needs to be interrupted synchronously. The selection of a suitable interruption time-cycle for the IR free potential measurements is debatable. In practice, the current-off cycle is usually between two to three seconds while the currenton cycle can be 10 to 30 seconds. A

longer current-on cycle is desirable to prevent progressive decay of polarization. While monitoring pipe-to-soil potential with the current cycling, it is important to distinguish between the off potential and on potential. It is not entirely true that the less negative potential is the current off measurement because an interfered structure will behave differently. Therefore, the person conducting the survey pays particular attention on the duration of cycles. A longer cycle is the on potential and the shorter cycle is the off potential. Line Current Measurement. Method-1: Suppose a pipeline has a current drain point somewhere in the middle of the line and it is required to determine the current distribution in the upstream and down stream sections of the line. The facility required to do this is a three-wire test station shown in Figure 13-7
A B C

GRADE LEVEL

TO T/ R C U R R EN T F LO W AB BC P IPE

Figure 13-7
If two equal spans in a section of pipe are selected on either side of a drain point, the ratio of the millivolts drop caused by the magnitude of the total current drain will be related to the ratio of the current flow in both sections. Consider two equal spans AB & BC (usually 100 to 200 feet) as shown in the diagram (figure 13-7) the total current drain is say 30 amperes (I) and the voltage drop in section AB is 5 mV

(mV1) and in section BC is 7 mV (mV2) The split of current can be calculated as follows: Current flowing in the left span AB = mV1 * I / (mV1+mV2) =5*30/(5+7) =12.5 amps Current flowing in the right span BC = mV2 * I / (mV1+mV2) =7*30/(5+7) =17.5 amps Method-2: Now suppose that it is required to determine the line current at a point somewhere in the middle of the line other than a drain point. Also, suppose that the resistance of line per foot is not known. The facility for line current measurement in this case will be as shown Figure 13-8.

assume this voltage drop (mV1) is +15mV. Positive sign indicates that the direction of current flow is from terminal D to terminal C. Now connect the positive terminal of a 12V battery in series with a current measuring shunt and a rheostat to terminal A and connect the negative of the battery to terminal B. Adjust current to 10 amp and measure voltage drop across terminals C and D. Lets assume that this drop (mV2) is +50mV. Current flowing through the pipe span can now be calculated as follows: The net change or mV = mV2-mV1 = 50-15 =35 mV = 0.035V Since the amount of current that caused the above change was 10 amperes. Therefore, the resistance of the pipe span is E/I = 0.035/10 = 0.0035 ohms Now that the pipe span resistance is known, the current flowing through this span is E/R =0.015/ 0.0035 = 4.3 amps. Method-3: If the weight per foot and steel density is known (which can be obtained from pipe data tables) then a span having a specific resistance value such as 0.001 ohms can be determined. Such a fixed resistance length of span will simplify field calculations, because the value of mV drop across the span will equal the current in amperes through that span. The test facility in this case can then be a two-wire test station installed across a specific length of the pipeline, which will have a resistance value equal to 0.001 ohm. Assuming steel density of 489 pounds per cubic foot and steel resistivity of 18

TES T STATIO N

TES T LEA D S PIPE

Figure 13-8
By flowing a known amount of current through terminals A and B the resistance of the span across terminals C and D can be determined. Once this is done simple ohms law can determine the line current. To practically demonstrate this we can proceed with the following steps of measurements and calculations. Connect negative of meter to terminal C and positive of meter to terminal D and measure voltage drop. Lets

michrohm-cm the equation to determine the pipe resistance in micro-ohms per foot is: R = 289.1 weight per foot in lbs. Now suppose that we have a buried pipeline the diameter of which is 12. From the pipe data table its weight per linear foot is 49.6 pounds. Therefore, R = 289.098 49.6 = micro-ohm per liner foot. Resistances per foot of various diameter pipelines are shown in Table-13-2. This table is based on steel resistivity of 18 micro-ohm.

(In)

(Inches)

(Pounds)

Per foot (Microhms)

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32

2.375 4.5 6.625 8.625 10.75 12.75 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32

0.154 0.237 0.28 0.322 0.365 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.375

3.65 10.8 19 28.6 50.5 49.6 54.6 62.6 70.6 78.6 86.6 94.6 102.6 110.6 118.7 126.6

79.205 26.769 15.216 10.108 5.725 5.829 5.295 4.618 4.095 3.678 3.338 3.056 2.818 2.614 2.436 2.284

Table 13-2
Pipe Dia. (In) Pipe O.D.

Wall Thickness

Weight foot

The required length in feet for a section of pipe of any diameter is then 0.001/ (value in column 51000000) that will produce resistance of that section equal per Resistance to 0.001 ohms.

Troubleshooting

Chapter 14

Interference Mitigation For mitigation of interference effects on a structure, it is a simple mater of providing a metallic path for the current to return to the source. Installing a cable bond between the structure being interfered and the protected structure accomplish this. This is called interference bonding station. A typical interference bonding station is shown in Figure 14-4
CO PPER LEADS FO REIG N LIN E

poorly coated structure, may produce very little change in potential as compared to high resistivity soil in combination with good coating. In the event that the installation of a resistance bond between the two lines is not practical it may be possible to alleviate the harmful effect of interference by installing galvanic anodes on the foreign structure at the point of current discharge. This type of remedial action, however, will require frequent monitoring and replacement of the mitigation system. Testing Effectiveness of Insulating Flanges When the measured potential across the flange faces shows 300 mV or more, it will indicate an effective isolation. A zero potential difference means a completely shorted insulation. Any other potential value higher than zero but less than 300 mV requires testing for the isolation efficiency of the insulating flanges. Any one of the following test procedures may be used to test the flanges. Procedure-1: This procedure is simple to use and requires an instrument specifically designed for this purpose known as the Insulation Tester designed by Gas Electronics. The principle of this instrument is based on the application of a radio signal, which instead of being induced in the pipe travels along its surface and permits detection of even very low DC resistance levels. When performing an isolation test, oscillators in the meter transmit the radio frequency signals through the metal probe placed on one side of the flanges. If effective isolation is present, the second metal probe contact on the opposite side of the

TAN K BO TTO M

V A R IA B LE R E S IS T O R

T/R

P R O T E C T E D L IN E

Figure 14-4
Having installed the resistance bonds as shown in the above diagram, the bond current is adjusted while constantly monitoring on and off potentials of the interfered structure with reference to a remote half-cell (usually 10 to 20 feet away from the protected pipeline or structure). The required value of bond current is established at a point where the difference between the on and the off potential of the interfered structure is either zero or just few millivolts in the positive direction when current is stopped. Some might argue that 20mV change in either direction is acceptable. This would be a fallacy as it is not the change in potential, alone which is detrimental, but the magnitude of current density at the coating holidays on the interfered structure. For any given magnitude of current, low resistivity soil in combination with

flanges will detect a strong radio signal. A weak signal indicates the presence of an electrical short. Procedure-2: This procedure requires an ordinary magnetic compass, a 12-volt auto battery, a variable resistor, a current measuring shunt and a pair of connecting leads. Figure 14-5 describes the procedures.
BA T T E RY

face and read deflection D3. Call the change between D1 and D3 as D2. If deflections D2 and D3 are in the same direction from deflection D1 then a dead-short insulation is indicated. A good insulation will make the deflection D3 equal to deflection D1 (or may slightly reverse the direction). Also, if D1 is equal to D2 then the insulation is dead short. Percentage of partial defect can be estimated as follows: % Defect = (D2/ D1) * 100 Procedure 3: This procedure is known as Swing Test. It requires a 12-volt battery, current measuring shunt, a variable resistor and some test leads. Using a temporary ground, a steel rod driven not too far from the insulating flanges, battery current is applied to one side of the flanges and the potential shift with reference to a remote half-cell is measured and recorded on both sides as P1 (the side on which the current is applied) and P2 (the opposite side). The applied current should be adjusted to produce a minimum of 300-mV shift on the side where the current is applied. If P2 is zero or becomes less negative (which usually happens if the reference electrode is not remote), it indicates that the insulation is 100% effective. If P2 is 20% of P1 (or less), the flange insulation may be considered having slight leakage but acceptable. In the event of P2 being more than 20% of P1, the insulating kit should be considered for replacement. If P1 and P2 are equal then the insulating flanges are completely shorted. All three procedures described above determine the overall efficiency of the insulating flanges. One needs to identify whether the defective component is bolt insulation or the insulating gasket. It is much easier to replace defective stud

T E S T L EA D S SH U N T

P IP E IN S .FL AN GE

CO M PA SS

Figure 14-5
Set up the battery, connecting leads, variable resistor and shunt as shown in the above figure. Before making connection to the flange, place the compass on the pipe and record its deflection from magnetic North in degrees. We will call this deflection D1 Now connect the battery between the pipe section and the side of the flange, which is towards compass. Adjust current from 1 to 5 amperes depending on the size of the pipe; larger pipe diameter requiring higher current. Make sure that there is no grounded structure such as pipe supports or lateral lines between the flange and the point on the line where the current leads are connected. Also, assure sufficient distance between the compass and any portion of current test leads so that the magnetic flux around the current lead will not affect the compass (10 to 15 feet is sufficient). Now read the second deflection D2 of the compass and note the change in deflection between D1 and D2 and call it D1 in degrees. Now shift the battery lead connection from the previous flange face to opposite flange

bolt insulation. Replacement of gasket requires line, plant or well shutdown. The stud bolt insulation can be very conveniently checked by a simple ohmmeter connected between the stud bolt and the body of the flange. Good stud bolt insulation will show very high or infinite resistance. If all stud bolts are found good in an insulating flange, which is known to be defective, it can be assumed that the culprit component is the insulating gasket.

V1 V2 R = ---------I If over a period of time, the resistance of the ground bed to earth indicates increasing trends, check the current discharge of each ground rod comprising the ground bed. This is usually done by measuring the shunt current of individual anode rods in the anode cable junction box. The inoperative anode rods will show zero current discharge. If in the case that an anode cable junction box does not exist then the anode to soil potentials are measured at each known anode rod location. The potential data when plotted will show potential spikes where anodes have failed. A typical plot is .
ANODE GRADIENT PROFILE
7

Ground bed Performance

The total circuit resistance, which can be determined by the DC power source output, constitutes mostly of the resistance of ground bed to earth plus the net resistance of all cables in the circuit. The major component of course is the ground bed resistance. If a comparison of the previous and present total circuit resistance indicates an increasing trend it may be viewed as an impending ground bed failure. It is a good practice to maintain a monthly record of ground bed resistance. The ground bed resistance is the total circuit resistance less cable resistance or it may be determined by electrical test method as described below: With a remote electrode, about 500 feet from the ground bed, measure the ground to soil voltage (V1) while the ground bed is energized. Without moving the electrode, measure the instant off potential of the ground bed (V2). Measure the total current (I) discharged by the ground bed. The ground bed resistance (R) to earth can now be calculated as follows: -

VOLTS

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

ANODE NUM BERS

Figure 14-6
The above potential profile has identified anode rod number 4 as inoperative or discharging very little current. Impressed Current System Failure When a CP system failure occurs, it generally manifests it self in two different ways, which are: 1. DC voltage and DC current are zero 2. There is DC voltage but no current

Before commencing the troubleshooting procedure, make certain that the AC input voltage is correct and that the panel meters are functioning. This can be done by verification by a portable multimeter. In the case of zero DC voltage and current, the problem lies within the transformer/rectifier unit, which a corrosion technician is not capable of diagnosing the fault, and repair it in the field. Experienced electrical technicians are required to troubleshoot and perform the necessary repairs. Suppose that the power source indicate voltage is present and current has dropped to zero. Evidently, one of the circuit components is open. The components of impressed current system are: Main Anode Cable Main Cathode Cable Anode Cable Junction Box Cathode Cable Junction Box

Next, visually check inside the AJB and CJB for burnt or open connections. Having verified that all visible cable connections are satisfactory, identify whether the problem is on the negative side of the circuit or the positive side. To do this, perform the following simple steps.
1 Set DC power source output voltage to minimum by changing transformers taps settings. 2 Using a heavy jumper cable, ground the positive terminal of the power source. If current flow is indicated go to step-4, otherwise go to step-3. 3 Using a heavy jumper cable, ground the negative terminal of the power source. If current flow is indicated go to step-5, else go to step-7 4 Reset power source voltage to normal. At anode cable junction box (AJB), disconnect main anode cable at point C and measure voltage to ground with the T/R switched on. If nearly the same voltage appears as shown on the panel voltmeter of the T/R, go to setp-5, else go to step-6. 5 At the drain cable junction box check cable to ground voltage. If voltage is nearly equal to T/R voltage then the drain cable connection to pipelines has failed otherwise the there is a break in the negative cable from the T/R to the junction box. For cable break location go to step-8. 6 There is apparently a break in the cable between points B & C. Follow the cable break location procedure as per step-8 7 Although highly improbable, both, the negative and positive cables have failed. Follow the cable break detection procedure to detect cable breaks in both cables as per step-8.

The schematic of the circuit is as shown in Figure 14-7

C

T/R

A JB

- + A B D
CJB

P IPE

Figure 14-7

8 Disconnect the faulty cable at the T/R terminal. Connect Pearson signal generator between the cable and the ground. Adjust signal strength to maximum possible. Walk over the cable with Pearson signal receiver. The break is indicated at the location where the signal strength suddenly drops.

be conveniently excavated, and fault repaired. Short Circuit Although it is highly improbable for a short circuit in the DC cables to occur but in the event it does happen it will blow the DC fuse. The probable locations where this can happen are: 1. Negative cable(s) inside conduits 2. Positive cable at Pipeline crossings To locate the point of short a signal receiver such as that used with the Pearson Instrument is required. Simply turn the DC power source on at low setting where it will not blow the fuse. Now trace the DC signal on negative and positive cables. The point of short circuit is indicated beyond which the signal stops suddenly.

Possibility often exists that even the best equipment may fail to detect cable breaks accurately. For instance, if a buried cable runs parallel to a pipeline or other buried cables for that matter, the signal strength received will not drop appreciably even when the operator reaches the fault area. If this happens, the location of cable break can only be narrowed down by digging test holes as shown in figure 14-8
VOLTMETER AJB CABLE ISOLATED AT AJB

T.R

A HALF-CELL

Figure 14-8
A voltmeter reading between the cable at the T/R terminal and a reference cell placed over the grade at the T/R location (Point A) will show a value very nearly equal to T/R terminal voltage. By moving the test equipment (voltmeter and half-cell) at point B the voltage between the cable at that point and a half-cell over the grade is repeated. If the reading at point B is equal or nearly equal to that measured at point A, the section of cable between point A & B is good and fault lies somewhere between point B & C. By repeating the above test steps over the section containing the fault, the location of break can be narrowed down to a reasonable distance, which can then

Glossary of Terms
Acid embrittlement: hydrogen embrittlement induced in metals by acid.

Active metal A metal being corroded Active potential. The potential of a corroding metal Adsorption. The surface retention by a solid or liquid of solid, liquid, or gas molecules Aeration. Exposure to the action of air. Aeration Cell oxygen concentration cell; created by differences in dissolved oxygen at two points different points on the metal. Alkaline. Having pH greater than 7. Ammeter. An instrument which measures the magnitude of current flow. Anaerobic Absence of air.

Anion An ion (or radical) having a negative charge

Anode The electrode at which undergoes oxidation reaction or corrosion circuit.

Anode corrosion efficiency Ratio of actual to theoretical corrosion based on the total current flow calculated by Faradays law from the quantity of electricity that has passed.

Anodic polarization Shift in potential of the anode towards noble end (more positive) as a result of current flow. Anodic reaction. oxidation process as given as shown by the example Me -> Me(+n) + n(e-). Anodizing. Forming a coating on a metal surface by oxidation; often applied to aluminum.

Anolyte electrolyte surrounding the anode in a electrolytic cell. Aqueous. A solution that is made by using water as a solvent. Atmospheric corrosion. Corrosion resulting by contact with the atmosphere containing water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur, oxygen etc. .

Bimetallic corrosion Corrosion resulting from dissimilar metal contact in an electrolyte.

Biological corrosion

Deterioration of metals due to the action of microorganisms activity. Bituminous coating Coal tar or asphalt-based coating. Calcareous coating or deposit. A layer formation of a mixture of calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide on the metal surface as result of cathodic protection Cathode. The electrode in an electrolyte cell where reduction reaction takes place. Cathodic disbondment. Detachment of coating from the metal surface as a result of application of cathodic protection. Cathodic inhibitor. A chemical substance that reduces the rate of the cathodic reaction Cathodic polarization. Change in potential of the cathode in the negative direction as a result of current. Cathodic protection. An electrical method of preventing the corrosion rate of buried or submerged metallic structures such. Electrical current is made to flow through the soil and onto the pipeline, causing chemical changes to occur at the pipe/soil interface . Cathodic reaction. A reduction reaction equivalent to a transfer of negative charge from the electronic to the ionic conductor.

Catholyte. The electrolyte surrounding the cathode of an electrolytic cell Cation. Positively charged ions moving through the electrolyte towards the cathode. Cavitation. The formation and collapse of numerous voids/cavities in a liquid subjected to intense pressure changes which produces pitting on a steel surface..

Cavitation damage. Loss of metal as a result of the cavitation action Corrosion Cell. An anode and a cathode immersed in an electrolyte and having an external metallic circuit, which permits the flow of current Concentration cell. An electrolytic cell in which the anode and cathode are electrodes of the same material or two different areas of the same metal which are exposed different concentrations of the electrolyte Concentration polarization. Polarization of a cell resulting from changes in the concentrations of electrolyte due to passage of current.

Continuity bond. A metallic connection establishing electrical continuity between two different metal structires. Corrosion. electrochemical reaction between a metal and its environment which alters the property of metal

Corrosion-erosion. Corrosion resulting from the abrasive action of fast moving stream. Corrosion potential (Ecorr) The natural potential of a metal is also called its corrosion potential

Corrosion product. Chemical deposits resulting from corrosion.

Corrosion rate. Corrosion loss of a metal per unit of time..

Corrosion resistance. Metals ability to withstand corrosion Corrosivity. Tendency of an environment to cause corrosion Couple. Two dissimilar metals exposed to electrolyte Crevice corrosion. Corrosion of metal under conditions of oxygen starvation as a result of metal being covered by non conducting material such as a flange face surface covered by a non metallic

Current. Transfer of electric charge per unit time. Current density. Magnitude of current flow per unit area expressed as mA/sqft or mA/sq cm

Deep ground bed. Anodes installed vertically in deep holes often filled by carbonaceous backfill materialS Depolarization. Shift in potential in the positive direction resulting from physical or chemical means Depolarizer. A substance that produces depolarization.

Differential aeration cell. A corrosion cell resulting from different concentrations of oxygen Disbondment Detachment of coating from the coated pipe surface

Drainage. Return of the current picked up by the protected structure through a metallic conductor to the current source. Faraday's law. (1) The quantity of any material liberated by the flow of current in electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passed (2) The materials librated at the electrodes by the same quantity of electricity are proportional to the equivalent weights of the substances concerned.

Film. A thin layer of material Foreign structure. Any metallic structure that is not part of the cathodic protection system

Free corrosion potential. Natural potential of a metal in electrolyte Galvanic Corrosion Corrosion resulting due to the coupling of dissimilar metals in an electrolyte Galvanic anode. Any metal having more negative electrode potential than the structure being Galvanic cell. A corrosion cell in which two dissimilar metals immersed in an electrolyte are in contact with each Galvanic corrosion. Corrosion of the more electronegative metal in a galvanic cell Galvanic couple. See galvanic cell

Galvanic couple potential. Average potential of both electrodes in a galvanic cell Galvanic series. Metals and alloys arranged in a list in accordance with their activity or natural state potentials Galvanize. A process of coating the metal surface with zinc General corrosion. Corrosion that is distributed uniformly over the surface of metal Ground bed. Buried metallic object which is connected to the positive terminal of a power source that is used for cathodic protect of steel structures.

Half cell. An electrode used for measuring the potential of a buried steel structures. It is usually a copper rod immersed in a nonmetallic tub filled with copper/copper sulfate

Holidays. Discontinuities in coating allowing base metal to come in contact with its surrounding Hydrogen overvoltage. Overvoltage that results with the liberation of hydrogen gas in a cathodic protection system. Impingement corrosion. Corrosion that results due to impingement of a high-velocity flow of gas or liquid Impressed current. Cathodic protection current supplied by a power source as opposed the galvanic anodes. Industrial atmosphere. An atmosphere contaminated with industrial gases, compounds fly ash and Inert anode. An anode that does not dissolver or dissolve insignificantly when subjected to electrolysis

Ion. Electrically charged

Local cell. Corrosion cells on a buried or immersed metal surface resulting from inhomogeneous conditions Localized corrosion. Corrosion that results due to formation of local cells Long-line current. Current flowing from the anodic area to cathodic area considerably separated on a long structures

Metal ion concentration cell A corrosion cell formed because of difference in metal ion concentration Mill scale. The oxide layer formed during fabrication of metals. Mixed potential. Potential of two or more different metals in contact with each other Open-circuit potential. The potential of metallic object when current flow is not involved Oxidation.

A chemical reaction valance increased due to loss of electrons.

Oxidized steel surface. Formation of thin layer of corrosion products on the surface of steel Oxygen concentration cell. A galvanic cell resulting from difference in oxygen concentration between two locations; Passivation. Change from more reactive state to less reactive state. Passive-active cell. A corrosion cell formation on the same surface of metal with one point on the surface is in active state and the other point is in the passive state

Patina. Green color corrosion product formed on the surface of copper and its alloys when exposed to the environment. pH. acidity or alkalinity of a solution; Values below pH 7 indicates acidity and values above 7 indicates basicity. Pitting. Localized corrosion confined to small surface area Ratio of the depth of the deepest pit resulting from corrosion divided by the average penetration as calculated from weight loss.

Polarization. a) Formation of hydrogen film on the surface of metal under cathodic protection. b) Change in the open circuit potential of a metal as a result of current flow. Polarization curve. A plot of current density versus electrode potential. Protective potential. Minimum potential at which the corrosion of metal is mitigated

Reduction. A chemical reaction in which gain of electrons take place Reference electrode. A half-cell, which resists polarization

Rust. Corrosion product adhering to the surface of steel

Sacrificial protection. Cathodic protection which utilizes active metals as anode

Stray current.

Current coming on to a metallic structure from the surrounding electrolyte, which is not supplied by the intended cathodic protection system Stray-current corrosion.

Corrosion resulting due to stray current discharge from the metallic structure into the surrounding electrolyte .
Uniform corrosion Corrosion which is distributed evenly over the metallic surface on a long pipeline