July 2011 Master of Computer Application (MCA) Semester 3 MC0075 Computer Networks 4 Credits (Book ID: B0813 &

p; B0814) Answer all Questions Assignment Set 1 (60 Marks) Each Question carries TEN Marks

1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of synchronous and asynchronous transmission. Ans A) Synchronous & Asynchronous transmission: Synchronous Transmission: Synchronous is any type of communication in which the parties communicating are "live" or present in the same space and time. A chat room where both parties must be at their computer, connected to the Internet, and using software to communicate in the chat room protocols is a synchronous method of communication. E-mail is an example of an asynchronous mode of communication where one party can send a note to another person and the recipient need not be online to receive the e-mail. Synchronous mode of transmissions are illustrated in figure.

Figure: Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmissions The two ends of a link are synchronized, by carrying the transmitters clock information along with data. Bytes are transmitted continuously, if there are gaps then inserts idle bytes as padding

Advantage: -This reduces overhead bits -It overcomes the two main deficiencies of the asynchronous method, that of inefficiency error detection. and lack of

Disadvantage: -For correct operation the receiver must start to sample the line at the correct instant Application: -Used in high speed transmission example: HDLC

Asynchronous transmission: Asynchronous refers to processes that proceed independently of each other until one process needs to "interrupt" the other process with a request. Using the client- server model, the server handles many asynchronous requests from its many clients. The client is often able to proceed with other work or must wait on the service requested from the server.

Figure : Asynchronous Transmissions

Asynchronous mode of transmissions is illustrated in figure. Here a Start and Stop signal is necessary before and after the character. Start signal is of same length as information bit. Stop signal is usually 1, 1.5 or 2 times the length of the information signal. Advantage: -The character is self contained & Transmitter and receiver need not be synchronized Transmitting and receiving clocks are independent of each other Disadvantage: - Overhead of start and stop bits False recognition of these bits due to noise on the channel

Application: -If channel is reliable, then suitable for high speed else low speed transmission Most common use is in the ASCII terminals

2. Describe the ISO-OSI reference model and discuss the importance of every layer. Ans : The OSI Reference Model: This reference model is proposed by International standard organization (ISO) as a first step towards standardization of the protocols used in various layers in 1983 by Day and Zimmermann. This model is called Open system Interconnection (OSI) reference model. It is referred OSI as it deals with connection open systems. That is the systems are open for communication with other systems. It consists of seven layers.

Layers of OSI Model : The principles that were applied to arrive at 7 layers: 1. A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed. 2. Each layer should perform a well defined task. 3. The function of each layer should define internationally standardized protocols. 4. Layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interface. 5. The number of layers should not be high or too small.

Figure : ISO - OSI Reference Model The ISO-OSI reference model is as shown in figure. As such this model is not a network architecture as it does not specify exact services and protocols. It just tells what each layer should do and where it lies. The bottom most layer is referred as physical layer. ISO has produced standards for each layers and are published separately. Each layer of the ISO-OSI reference model are discussed below: 1. Physical Layer This layer is the bottom most layer that is concerned with transmitting raw bits over the communication channel (physical medium). The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is received by other side as a 1 bit, and not as a 0 bit. It performs direct transmission of logical information that is digital bit streams into physical phenomena in the form of electronic pulses. Modulators/demodulators are used at this layer. The design issue here largely deals with mechanical, electrical, and procedural interfaces, and the physical transmission medium, which lies below this physical layer. In particular, it defines the relationship between a device and a physical medium. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, and cable specifications. Hubs, repeaters, network adapters and Host Bus Adapters (HBAs used in Storage Area Networks) are physical-layer devices. The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are: Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium. Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared among multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow control. Modulation, is a technique of conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel. These are signals operating over the physical cabling (such as copper and fiber optic) or over a radio link. Parallel SCSI buses operate in this layer. Various physical-layer Ethernet standards are also in this layer; Ethernet incorporates both this

layer and the data-link layer. The same applies to other local-area networks, such as Token ring, FDDI, and IEEE 802.11, as well as personal area networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4. 2. Data Link Layer : The Data Link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical layer. That is it makes sure that the message indeed reach the other end without corruption or without signal distortion and noise. It accomplishes this task by having the sender break the input data up into the frames called data frames. The DLL of transmitter, then transmits the frames sequentially, and processes acknowledgement frames sent back by the receiver. After processing acknowledgement frame, may be the transmitter needs to re-transmit a copy of the frame. So therefore the DLL at receiver is required to detect duplications of frames. The best known example of this is Ethernet. This layer manages the interaction of devices with a shared medium. Other examples of data link protocols are HDLC and ADCCP for point-to-point or packet-switched networks and Aloha for local area networks. On IEEE 802 local area networks, and some non-IEEE 802 networks such as FDDI, this layer may be split into a Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. It arranges bits from the physical layer into logical chunks of data, known as frames. This is the layer at which the bridges and switches operate. Connectivity is provided only among locally attached network nodes forming layer 2 domains for unicast or broadcast forwarding .Other protocols may be imposed on the data frames to create tunnels and logically separated layer 2 forwarding domain. The data link layer might implement a sliding window flow control and acknowledgment mechanism to provide reliable delivery of frames; that is the case for SDLC and HDLC, and derivatives of HDLC such as LAPB and LAPD. In modern practice, only error detection, not flow control using sliding window, is present in modern data link protocols such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), and, on local area networks, the IEEE 802.2 LLC layer is not used for most protocols on Ethernet, and, on other local area networks, its flow control and acknowledgment mechanisms are rarely used. Sliding window flow control and acknowledgment is used at the transport layers by protocols such as TCP. 3. Network Layer The Network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source to a destination via one or more networks while maintaining the quality of service requested by the Transport layer. The Network layer performs network routing functions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery errors. Routers operate at this layer sending data throughout the extended network and making the Internet possible. This is a logical addressing scheme values are chosen by the network engineer. The addressing scheme is hierarchical. The best known example of a layer 3 protocol is the Internet Protocol (IP). Perhaps its easier to visualize this layer as managing the sequence of human carriers taking a letter from the sender to the local post office, trucks that carry sacks of mail to other post offices or airports, airplanes that carry airmail between major cities, trucks that distribute mail sacks in a city, and carriers that take a letter to its destinations. Think of fragmentation as splitting a large document into smaller envelopes for shipping, or, in the case of the network layer, splitting an application or transport record into packets. The major tasks of network layer are listed It controls routes for individual message through the actual topology. Finds the best route. Finds alternate routes. It accomplishes buffering and deadlock handling. 4. Transport Layer : The Transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable data transfer while relieving the upper layers of it. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/de-segmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state and connection oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail. The best known example of a layer 4 protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).The transport layer is the layer that converts messages into TCP segments or User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP), etc. packets. Perhaps an easy way to visualize the Transport Layer is to compare it with a Post Office, which deals with the dispatch and

classification of mail and parcels sent. Do remember, however, that a post office manages the outer envelope of mail. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic Presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBMs SNA or Novells IPX over an IP network, or end-to-end encryption with IP security (IP sec). While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete frames or packets to deliver to an end point. The major tasks of Transport layer are listed below: -It locates the other party - It creates a transport pipe between both end-users. - It breaks the message into packets and reassembles them at the destination. - It applies flow control to the packet stream. 5. Session Layer : The Session layer controls the dialogues/connections (sessions) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for either full-duplex or half-duplex operation, and establishes check pointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for "graceful close" of sessions, which is a property of TCP, and also for session check pointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet protocols suite. The major tasks of session layer are listed: -It is responsible for the relation between two end-users. -It maintains the integrity and controls the data exchanged between the end-users. -The end-users are aware of each other when the relation is established (synchronization). -It uses naming and addressing to identify a particular user. -It makes sure that the lower layer guarantees delivering the message (flow control). 6. Presentation Layer : The Presentation layer transforms the data to provide a standard interface for the Application layer. MIME encoding, data encryption and similar manipulation of the presentation are done at this layer to present the data as a service or protocol developer sees fit. Examples of this layer are converting an EBCDICcoded text file to an ASCII-coded file, or serializing objects and other data structures into and out of XML. The major tasks of presentation layer are listed below : -It translates the language used by the application layer. - It makes the users as independent as possible, and then they can concentrate on conversation. 7. Application Layer (end users) The application layer is the seventh level of the seven-layer OSI model. It interfaces directly to the users and performs common application services for the application processes. It also issues requests to the presentation layer. Note carefully that this layer provides services to user-defined application processes, and not to the end user. For example, it defines a file transfer protocol, but the end user must go through an application process to invoke file transfer. The OSI model does not include human interfaces. The common application services sub layer provides functional elements including the Remote Operations Service Element (comparable to Internet Remote Procedure Call), Association Control, and Transaction Processing (according to the ACID requirements). Above the common application service sub layer are

functions meaningful to user application programs, such as messaging (X.400), directory (X.500), file transfer (FTAM), virtual terminal (VTAM), and batch job manipulation (JTAM).

3. Explain the following with respect to Data Communications: A) Fourier analysis C) Maximum data rate of a channel Ans A : Fourier analysis : In 19 century, the French mathematician Fourier proved that any periodic function of time g (t) with period T can be constructed by summing a number of cosines and sines.
th

B) Band limited signals

Where f=1/T is the fundamental frequency, and are the sine and cosine amplitudes of th the n harmonics. Such decomposition is called a Fourier series. 2. Band limited signals : Consider the signal given in figure(a). Figure shows the signal that is the ASCII representation of the character b which consists of the bit pattern 01100010 along with its harmonics.

Figure: (a) A binary signal (b-e) Successive approximation of original signal Any transmission facility cannot pass all the harmonics and hence few of the harmonics are diminished and distorted. The bandwidth is restricted to low frequencies consisting of 1, 2, 4, and 8 harmonics and then transmitted. Figure 3.1(b) to 3.1(e) shows the spectra and reconstructed functions for these bandlimited signals. Limiting the bandwidth limits the data rate even for perfect channels. However complex coding schemes that use several voltage levels do exist and can achieve higher data rates.

3. Maximum data rate of a channel In 1924, H. Nyquist realized the existence of the fundamental limit and derived the equation expressing the maximum data for a finite bandwidth noiseless channel. In 1948, Claude Shannon carried Nyquist

work further and extended it to the case of a channel subject to random noise. In communications, it is not really the amount of noise that concerns us, but rather the amount of noise compared to the level of the desired signal. That is, it is the ratio of signal to noise power that is important, rather than the noise power alone. This Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR), usually expressed in decibel (dB), is one of the most important specifications of any communication system. The decibel is a logarithmic unit used for comparisons of power levels or voltage levels. In order to understand the implication of dB, it is important to know that a sound level of zero dB corresponds to the threshold of hearing, which is the smallest sound that can be heard. A normal speech conversation would measure about 60 dB. If an arbitrary signal is passed through the Low pass filter of bandwidth H, the filtered signal can be completely reconstructed by making only 2H samples per second. Sampling the line faster than 2H per second is pointless. If the signal consists of V discrete levels, then Nyquist theorem states that, for a noiseless channel Maximum data rate = 2H.lo g 2(V)bits per second. (3.2)For a noisy channel with bandwidth is again H , knowing signal to noise ratio S /N , the maximum data rate according to Shannon is given as Maximum data rate = H lo g 2(1+S /N) bits per second. (3.3)

4. Explain what all facilities FTP offers beyond the transfer function? Ans : FTP features

FTP offers many facilities beyond the transfer function itself. Interactive Access: It provides an interactive interface that allows humans to easily interact with remote servers. For example: A user can ask for listing of all files in a directory on a remote machine. Also a client usually responds to the input help by showing the user information about possible commands that can be invoked. Format (Representation) Specification: FTP allows the client to specify the type of format of stored data. For example: the user can specify whether a file contains text or binary integers and whether a text files use ASCII or EBCDIC character sets. Authentication Control: FTP requires clients to authorize themselves by sending a login name and password to the server before requesting file transfers. The server refuses access to clients that cannot supply a valid login and password.

5. What is the use of IDENTIFIER and SEQUENCE NUMBER fields of echo request and echo reply message? Explain. Ans : Echo Request and Echo Reply message format : The echo request contains an optional data area. The echo reply contains the copy of the data sent in the request message. The format for the echo request and echo reply is as shown in figure.

Figure : echo request and echo reply message format The field OPTIONAL DATA is a variable length that contains data to be returned to the original sender. An echo reply always returns exactly the same data as ws to receive in the request. Field IDENTIFIER and SEQUENCE NUMBER are used by the sender to match replies to requests. he value of the TYPE field specifies whether it is echo request when equal to 8 or echo reply when equal to 0.

6. In what conditions is ARP protocol used? Explain

Ans : ARP protocol In computer networking, the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is the standard method for finding a hosts hardware address when only its network layer address is known. ARP is primarily used to translate IP addresses to Ethernet MAC addresses. It is also used for IP over other LAN technologies, such as Token Ring, FDDI, or IEEE 802.11, and for IP over ATM. ARP is used in four cases of two hosts communicating: 1. When two hosts are on the same network and one desires to send a packet to the other 2. When two hosts are on different networks and must use a gateway/router to reach the other host 3. When a router needs to forward a packet for one host through another router 4. When a router needs to forward a packet from one host to the destination host on the same network The first case is used when two hosts are on the same physical network. That is, they can directly communicate without going through a router. The last three cases are the most used over the Internet as two computers on the internet are typically separated by more than 3 hops. Imagine computer A sends a packet to computer D and there are two routers, B & C, between them. Case 2 covers A sending to B; case 3 covers B sending to C; and case 4 covers C sending to D. ARP is defined in RFC 826. It is a current Internet Standard, STD 37.

July 2011 Master of Computer Application (MCA) Semester 3 MC0075 Computer Networks 4 Credits (Book ID: B0813 & B0814) Assignment Set 2 (60 Marks) Answer all Questions Each Question carries TEN Marks

1. Discuss the physical description of the different transmission mediums. Ans : Transmission medium :: Transmission media: Transmission media is the physical path between the transmitter and receiver. It can be guided or unguided. Guided & Unguided Transmission medium Guided media provides a guided (by a solid medium) path for propagation of signals such as twisted pairs, coaxial cables, optical fibers etc.Unguided media employ an antenna for transmitting through air, vacuum or water. This form of transmission is referred to as wireless transmission. For example Broadcast radio, satellite etc. Selection of transmission Media depends on the characteristics and quality of data transmission are in turn determined by characteristics of the medium and signal. For guided media the medium itself in determining the limitations of transmission. For Unguided media BW of the signal produced at the transmitting antenna is more important than characteristics of the transmission characteristics. In general, signals at lower frequencies are omni directional (all directions) and at higher frequencies are directional (focused). The key concern in design of data transmission system is Data Rate and Distance: The greater the data rate and distance, the better. Number of factors used to determine data rate and distance Bandwidth: Greater the BW of the signal, the higher data rate can be achieved. Transmission impairment: these limit the distance Twisted pair suffers more impairment than coaxial cable which in turn suffers more than optical fiber. Interference: overlapping frequency bands can distort/wipeout a signal. It is more concern for unguided media than guided. For guided it can be caused due to nearby cables. Proper shielding of cables can minimize this problem.

 Number of receivers: A point to pint links are used or shared link is used with multiple attachments are used. In shared link each attachment introduces some attenuation and distortion on the line limiting the distance and/or data rate. For guided the transmission capacity depends on data rate or BW and depends critically on the distance (whether medium is p-p or multipoint) Twisted pair They are least expensive and most widely used. They are easier to work with but limited in terms of data rate and distance. Physical Description

Figure 5.1: (a) CAT 3 UTP and (b) CAT 5 UTP It consists of two insulated cu wires arranged in regular spiral pattern as shown in figure 5.1. Wire pair acts like a communication link. Usually numbers of these pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath into a cable. Twisting tends to decrease the crosstalk. On long distance links, the twist length typically varies from 5-15 cm. The thickness of wires may be 0.4-0.9mm. Over long distance, cables may contain hundreds of pairs. It is most common for both analog and digital signals. Commonly used in telephone network and is the workhouse for communication within buildings. Example: Individual residential telephone or in an office building. These were designed to support voice traffic using analog signaling. However it can handle digital data traffic at modest data rates. It is also commonly used for digital signaling with the use of a digital switch or digital PBX with data rate of 64kbps commonly. It is for LAN supporting PCs with commonly 10Mbps (now a days may 1Gbps also is possible). For long distance Twisted pair with 4Mbps or more is used. Transmission characteristics Twisted pair can be used for both analog and digital transmission. For analog signals, amplifiers are required about every 5-6km. For digital transmission (analog and digital signals), repeaters are required every 2-3kms. Attention is very strong function of frequency. Other impairments are also severe for twisted pair. It is susceptible to interference and noise. Impulse noise can also intrude easily. Application as LAN Cables Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP) which is typically 1mm thick with a minimum number of twist per foot. Twisting reduces electrical interference. They run several kilometers without amplifications, repeaters are needed. They are used for transmitting either analog or digital signals. There are different categories of UTPs that are used they are: CAT3 Cable: They are less expensive. It consists of 4 pairs grouped in plastic sheet to protect the wires. They are mostly used in office buildings. Bandwidth of 16 to 100 MHz signals can be handled

 CAT5 Cable: They are similar to CAT3, but are with more twists/cm. They have less crosstalk and provide better quality over long distance. They are suitable for high speed computer communication. Bandwidth 16 to 100 MHz signals can be handled. CAT6 & CAT7 Cable: They are still more improved version than CAT 5. They are suitable for higher bandwidth of 250MHz and 600MHz Coaxial Cable Coaxial cable has traditionally been an important part of the long distance telephone network. Today, it faces increasing competition from optical fiber, terrestrial microwave, and satellite. Using frequencydivision multiplexing (FDM), a coaxial cable can carry over 10,000 voice channels simultaneously. Physical Description

Figure 5.2: Coaxial cable Coaxial cable, like twisted pair, consists of two conductors, but constructed differently to permit it to operate over a wider range frequency. It consists of hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner wire conductor. The inner conductor is held in place by either regularly spaced insulating rings or a solid dielectric material. The outer conductor is covered with jacket or shield. The physical description is illustrated in figure 5.2. A single coaxial cable has a diameter of from 1 to 2.5cm. Because of its shielded, concentric construction, coaxial cable is much less susceptible to interference and crosstalk than twisted pair. Coaxial cable can be used over long distances and support more stations on a shared line than twisted pair. Coaxial cable is perhaps the most versatile transmission medium and is enjoying widespread use in a wide variety of applications. The most important of these are used in television distribution and Long-distance telephone transmission. Also they find applications in Short-run computer system links and Local area networks. Coaxial cable is spreading rapidly as a means of distributing TV signals to individual homes-cable TV. From its modest beginnings as Community Antenna Television (CATV), designed to provide service to remote areas, cable TV will eventually reach almost as many homes and offices as the telephone. A cable TV system can carry dozens or even hundreds of TV channels at ranges up to a few tens of kilometers. Coaxial cable is also commonly used for short range connections between devices. Using digital signaling, coaxial cable can be used to provide high-speed I/O channels on computer systems. Transmission Characteristics Coaxial cable is used to transmit both analog and digital signals. Coaxial cable has frequency characteristics that are superior to those of twisted pair, and can hence be used effectively at higher frequencies and data rates. Because of its shielded, concentric construction, coaxial cable is much less susceptible to interference and crosstalk than twisted pair. The principal constraints on performance are attenuation, thermal noise, and inter-modulation noise. The latter is present only when several channels (FDM) or frequency bands are in use on the cable. For longdistance transmission of analog signals, amplifiers are needed every few kilometers, with closer spacing, required if higher frequencies are used. The usable spectrum for analog signaling extended to about 500MHz. For digital signaling, repeaters are needed every kilometer or so, with closer spacing needed for higher data rates.

Application as LAN Cables Co-axial Cable has better shielding than twisted pairs and can span longer distance at higher speeds. There are two types of coaxial cable that are used in LAN and are illustrated in figure 5.3 Thick coax: They are used for Ethernets but are difficult to work with and are expensive. It has greater degree of noise immunity and is strong. It requires vampire tap and a drop cable to connect to the network. Thin coax: They are easier to work and less expensive. It carries signal over shorter distance and is preferred over thick coax as it needs simple BNC connector. They are flexible, cheaper, soft and idle for office cabling.

Figure 5.3: Thin and Thick coaxial cable Optical Fiber A optical fiber is a thin, flexible medium capable of guiding an optical ray. Total internal reflection is the basic principle on which the transmission of data takes place through fibers. . If the angle of incidence is sufficiently large, then the light in the fiber will reflect repeatedly in the interface between the materials. The fiber need not be straight but can conduct light even when bent.

Figure 5.4: Total internal reflection Physical Description

Figure 5.5: (a) Side view of a single fiber (b) view of sheath with three fibers An optical fiber has a cylindrical shape and consists of three concentric sections; the core, the cladding and the jacket. The core is the inner most sections and consists of one or more very thin strands, or fibers, made of glass or plastic and is as shown in Figure 5.5. The core has a diameter in the range of 8 to 100mm. Each fiber is surrounded by its own cladding, a glass or plastic coating that has optical properties different from those of the core. Various glasses and plastics can be used to make optical fibers. The lowest losses have been obtained using fibers of ultra-pure fused silica. Ultra pure fiber is difficult to manufacture; higher loss multi component glass fibers are more economical and still provide

good performance. Plastic fiber is even less costly and can be used for short-haul links, for which moderately high losses are acceptable. The interface between the core and cladding acts as a reflector to confine light that would otherwise escape the core. The outermost layer, surrounding one or a bundle of cladded fibers, is the jacket. The jacket is composed of plastic and other material layered to protect against moisture, abrasion, crushing and other environmental dangers. One of the most significant technological breakthroughs in data transmission has been the development of practical fiber optic communication systems. Optical fiber already enjoys considerable use in long-distance telecommunications, and its use in military applications is growing. The continuing improvements in performance and decline in prices, together with the inherent advantages of optical fiber, have made it increasingly attractive for LAN. Transmission Characteristics Optical fiber transmits a signal encoded beam of light by means of total internal reflection. Total internal reflection can occur in any transparent medium that has a higher index of refraction than the surrounding medium. The principle is described in Figure 5.4. In effect, the optical fiber acts as a waveguide for frequencies in the range of about 1014 to 1015 Hz, this covers portions of infrared and visible spectra. Light from a source enters the cylindrical glass or plastic core. Rays at shallow angles are reflected and propagated along the fiber; other rays are absorbed by the surrounding material. This form of propagation is called Step-index multimode referring to the variety of angles that will reflect. With multimedia transmission, multiple propagation paths exist, each with a different path length and hence time to traverse the fiber. This causes signal elements (light pulses) to spread out in time, which limits the rate at which data can be accurately received. In other words, the need to leave spacing between the pulses limits data rate. This type of fiber is best suited for transmission over very short distances. When the fiber core radius is reduced, fewer angles will reflect. By reducing the radius of the core to the order of a wavelength, only a single angle or mode can pass: the axial ray. This single mode propagation provides superior performance for the following reason, because there is a single transmission path with single mode transmission. The distortion found in multimode cannot occur. Singlemode is typically used for long distance applications, including telephone and cable television. Finally, by varying the index of refraction of the core, a third type of transmission, known a graded index multimode, is possible. This type is intermediate between the other two in characteristics. The higher refractive index at the center makes the light rays moving down the axis advance more slowly than those curves helically because of the graded index, reducing its travel distance. The shortened path and higher speed allows light at the periphery to arrive at a receiver at about the same time as the straight rays in the core axis. Graded index fibers are often used in LANs. Applications The advantages of optical fiber over twisted pair and coaxial cable become more compelling as the demand for all types of information (voice, data, image and video) increases. Five basic categories of applications have become important for optical fiber, they are Long-haul trunks, Metropolitan trunks, Rural exchange trunks, Subscriber loops, and Local area networks. Long-haul transmission: It is becoming increasingly common in the telephone network. Long-haul routes average about 1500kms in length and offer higher capacity (typically 20,000 to 60,000 voice channels). These systems compete economically with microwave. Undersea optical fiber cables have also enjoyed increasing use.

Metropolitan trunking: These circuits have an average length of 12km and may have as many as 1,00,000 voice channels in a trunk group. Most facilities are installed in underground conduits and are repeater-less, joining telephone exchange in a metropolitan or city area. Included in this category are routes that link long haul microwave facilities that terminate at a city perimeter to the main telephone exchange building downtown. Rural exchange trunks: These have circuit lengths ranging from 40 to 60km and link towns and villages. In the United States, they often connect the exchanges of different telephone companies. Most of these systems have fewer than 5000 voice channels. The technology used in these applications competes with microwave facilities. Subscriber loop circuits: These are fibers that run directly from the central exchange to a subscriber. These facilities are beginning to displace twisted pair and coaxial cable links as the telephone networks evolve into full service networks capable of handling not only voice and data, but also image and video. Application as LAN Cable Standards have been developed and products introduced for optical fiber networks that have a total capacity of 100Mbps to 1 Gbps. Recent Achievable bandwidth is in excess of 50,000Gbps i.e 50Tbps but Current limit is 10Gbps. It can support hundreds or even thousands of stations in a large office building of a complex of buildings. Comparison of fiber optics and copper wire The following characteristics distinguish optical fiber from twisted pair or coaxial cable: Greater capacity: The potential bandwidth, and hence data rate, of optical fiber is immense, data rates of hundred of Gbps over tens of kilometers have been demonstrated. Compare this to the practical maximum of hundreds of Mbps over about 1km for coaxial cable and just a few Mbps over 1km or up to 100Mbps to 1Gbps over a few tens of meters for twisted pair. Smaller size and lighter weight: Optical fibers are considerably thinner than coaxial cable or bundled twisted pair cable at lest an order of magnitude thinner for comparable information transmission capacity. For cramped conduits in buildings and underground along public rights-of-way, the advantage of small size is considerable. The corresponding reduction in weight reduces structural support requirements. Lower attenuation: Attenuation is significantly lower for optical fiber than for coaxial cable or twisted pair and is constant over a wide range. Electromagnetic Isolation: Optical fiber systems are not affected by external electromagnetic fields. Thus the systems are not vulnerable to interference, impulses noise or crosstalk. By the same token, fibers do not radiate energy,

so there is little interference with other equipment and there is a high degree of security from eavesdropping. In addition, fiber is inherently difficult to tap. Greater repeater spacing: Fewer repeaters mean lower cost and fewer sources of error. The performance of optical fiber systems from this point of view has been steadily improving. Repeater spacing in the tens of kilometers for optical fiber is common, and repeater spacing of hundreds of kilometers have been demonstrated. Coaxial and twisted pair systems generally have repeaters every few kilometers.

2. Describe the following Medium Access Control Sub Layers Multiple access protocols: A) Pure ALOHA B) Slotted ALOHA Ans : Pure ALOHA or Unslotted ALOHA: The ALOHA network was created at the University of Hawaii in 1970 under the leadership of Norman Abramson. The Aloha protocol is an OSI layer 2 protocol for LAN networks with broadcast topology.

The first version of the protocol was basic: If you have data to send, send the data If the message collides with another transmission, try resending later

Figure: Pure ALOHA

Figure: Vulnerable period for the node: frame The Aloha protocol is an OSI layer 2 protocol used for LAN. A user is assumed to be always in two states: typing or waiting. The station transmits a frame and checks the channel to see f it was successful. If so the user sees the reply and continues to type. If the frame transmission is not successful, the user waits and retransmits the frame over and over until it has been successfully sent.

Let the frame time denote the amount of time needed to transmit the standard fixed length frame. We assume the there are infinite users and generate the new frames according Poisson distribution with the mean N frames per frame time. So if N>1 the users are generating the frames at higher rate than the channel can handle. Hence all frames will suffer collision. Hence the range for N is 0<N<1 If N>1 there is collisions and hence retransmission frames are also added with the new frames for transmissions. Let us consider the probability of k transmission attempts per frame time. Here the transmission of frames includes the new frames as well as the frames that are given for retransmission. This total traffic is also poisoned with the mean G per frame time. That is

At low load: N is approximately =0, there will be few collisions. Hence few retransmissions that is G=N At high load: N >>1, many retransmissions and hence G>N. Under all loads: throughput S is just the offered load G times the probability of successful transmission P0 The probability that k frames are generated during a given frame time is given by Poisson distribution

So the probability of zero frames is just . The basic throughput calculation follows a Poisson distribution with an average number of arrivals of 2G arrivals per two frame time. Therefore, the lambda parameter in the Poisson distribution becomes 2G. Hence Hence the throughput We get for G = 0.5 resulting in a maximum throughput of 0.184, i.e. 18.4%. Pure Aloha had a maximum throughput of about 18.4%. This means that about 81.6% of the total available bandwidth was essentially wasted due to losses from packet collisions.

Slotted or Impure ALOHA An improvement to the original Aloha protocol was Slotted Aloha. It is in 1972, Roberts published a method to double the throughput of an pure ALOHA by uses discrete timeslots. His proposal was to divide the time into discrete slots corresponding to one frame time. This approach requires the users to agree to the frame boundaries. To achieve synchronization one special station emits a pip at the start of

each interval similar to a clock. Thus the capacity of slotted ALOHA increased to the maximum throughput of 36.8%. The throughput for pure and slotted ALOHA system is as shown in figure 7.5. A station can send only at the beginning of a timeslot, and thus collisions are reduced. In this case, the average number of aggregate arrivals is G arrivals per 2X seconds. This leverages the lambda parameter to be G. The maximum throughput is reached for G = 1.

Figure: Throughput versus offered load traffic. With Slotted Aloha, a centralized clock sent out small clock tick packets to the outlying stations. Outlying stations were only allowed to send their packets immediately after receiving a clock tick. If there is only one station with a packet to send, this guarantees that there will never be a collision for that packet. On the other hand if there are two stations with packets to send, this algorithm guarantees that there will be a collision, and the whole of the slot period up to the next clock tick is wasted. With some mathematics, it is possible to demonstrate that this protocol does improve the overall channel utilization, by reducing the probability of collisions by a half. It should be noted that Alohas characteristics are still not much different from those experienced today by Wi-Fi, and similar contention-based systems that have no carrier sense capability. There is a certain amount of inherent inefficiency in these systems. It is typical to see these types of networks throughput break down significantly as the number of users and message burstiness increase. For these reasons, applications which need highly deterministic load behavior often use token-passing schemes (such as token ring) instead of contention systems For instance ARCNET is very popular in embedded applications. Nonetheless, contention based systems also have significant advantages, including ease of management and speed in initial communication. Slotted Aloha is used on low bandwidth tactical Satellite communications networks by the US Military, subscriber based Satellite communications networks, and contact less RFID technologies.

3. Discuss the different types of noise with suitable example . Ans: Noise Noise is a third impairment. It can be define as unwanted energy from sources other than the transmitter. Thermal noise is caused by the random motion of the electrons in a wire and is unavoidable. Consider a signal as shown in figure 3.5, to which a noise shown in figure 3.6, is added may be in the channel.

Figure 3.5: Signal

Figure 3.6: Noise

Figure 3.7: Signal + Noise At the receiver, the signal is recovered from the received signal and is shown in figure 3.7. That is signals are reconstructed by sampling. Increased data rate implies "shorter" bits with higher sensitivity to noise Source of Noise Thermal: Agitates the electrons in conductors, and is a function of the temperature. It is often referred to as white noise, because it affects uniformly the different frequencies. The thermal noise in a bandwidth W is

Where T=temperature, and k= Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 10-23 Joules/degrees Kelvin. Signal to noise ratio:

Typically measured at the receiver, because it is the point where the noise is to be removed from the signal. Intermodulation: Results from interference of different frequencies sharing the same medium. It is caused by a component malfunction or a signal with excessive strength is used. For example, the mixing of signals at frequencies f1 and f2 might produce energy at the frequency f1 + f2 . This derived signal could interfere with an intended signal at frequency f1 + f2 . Cross talk: Similarly cross talk is a noise where foreign signal enters the path of the transmitted signal. That is, cross talk is caused due to the inductive coupling between two wires that are close to each other. Sometime when talking on the telephone, you can hear another conversation in the background. That is cross talk. Impulse: These are noise owing to irregular disturbances, such as lightning, flawed communication elements. It is a primary source of error in digital data.

4. What is Non-repudiation? Define cryptanalysis. Ans: Non-repudiation: Non-repudiation, or more specifically non- repudiation of origin, is an important aspect of digital signatures. By this property an entity that has signed some information cannot at a later time deny having signed it. Similarly, access to the public key only does not enable a fraudulent party to fake a valid signature. It deals with signatures. Not denying or reneging. Digital signatures and certificates provide non repudiation because they guarantee the authenticity of a document or message. As a result, the sending parties cannot deny that they sent it (they cannot repudiate it).Non repudiation can also be used to ensure that an e-mail message was opened. Example: how does one prove that the order was placed by the customer. Cryptanalysis: The main constraint on cryptography is the ability of the code to perform the necessary transformation. From the top-secret military files, to the protection of private notes between friends, various entities over the years have found themselves in need of disguises for their transmissions for many different reasons. This practice of disguising or scrambling messages is called encryption. In cryptography, a digital signature or digital signature scheme is a type of asymmetric cryptography used to simulate the security properties of a signature in digital, rather than written, form. Digital signature schemes normally give two algorithms, one for signing which involves the users secret or private key, and one for verifying signatures which involves the users public key. The output of the signature process is called the "digital signature." 5. Explain mask-address pair used in update message. Discuss importance of path attributes. Ans: Update message

Figure :BGP UPDATE message format The BGP peers after establishing a TCP connection sends OPEN message and acknowledge then. Then use UPDATE message to advertise new destinations that are reachable or withdraw previous advertisement when a destination has become unreachable. The UPDATE message format is as shown in Figure. Each UPDATE message is divided into two parts: 1. List of previously advertised destinations that are being withdrawn 2. List of new destinations being advertised. Fields labeled variable do not have fixed size. Update message contains following fields: -WITHDRAWN LEN: is a 2-byte that specifies the size of withdrawn destinations field. If no withdrawn destination then its value =0

- WITHDRAWN DESTINATIONS: IP addresses of withdrawn destinations. -PATH LEN: is similar to WITHDRAWN LEN, but it specifies the length of path attributes that are associated with new destinations being advertised. PATH ATTRIBUTES: it gives the additional information of new destinations. It is discussed in detail below DESTINATION NETWORKS: new destinations. Compressed mask-address pairs: In the update message many addresses are listed and the size of the update message goes on increasing. BGP uses it to store destination address and the associated mask. A technique, where instead of IP 32-bit address and a 32-bit mask compressed mask-address pair, is used to reduce the size of the update message. Here BGP encodes the mask into a single octet that precedes the address. The format of this compressed mask-address pair is as shown in figure.

Figure BGP compress format This single octet LEN specifies the number of bits in the mask, assuming contiguous mask. The address that follows is also compressed and only those octets are covered by mask is included. Depending on the value of LEN the number of octets in the address field is listed in table . A zero length is used for default router. Table Number of octets in address 1 2 3 4 Path Attribute Path attributes are factored to reduce the size of the update message. That is attributes apply to all destinations. If any destinations have different attributes then, they must be advertised in a separate update message. The path attribute (4-octet) contains a list of items and each item is of the form given in figure (a). (type, length, value)

LEN Less than 8 9 to 16 17 to 24 25 to 32

Figure (a) path attribute item The type is 2 bytes long. The format of the type field of an item in path attribute is given in figure (b).

Figure (b) BGP 2-octet type field of path attribute FLAG Bits 0 1 2 3 5-7 Description Zero for required attribute, set to 1 if optional Set to 1 for transitive, zero for no transitive Set to 1 for complete, zero for partial Set to 1 for length is 2 octets, zero for one Unused and must be zero Figure Flag bits of type field of path attribute Type code 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Description Specify origin of the path information List of AS on path to destination Next hop to use for destination Discriminator used for multiple AS exit points Preference used within an AS Indication that routes have been aggregated ID of AS that aggregates routes Figure Type codes of type field The values of flag bits and type code of type field of an item in path attribute is given in figure 7.7 and figure 7.8 respectively. A length field follows type field may be either 1 or 2 bytes long depending on flag bit 3, which specifies the size of the length field. Then the contents of length field gives the size of the value filed. Importance of path attributes: 1. Path information allows a receiver to check for routing loops. The sender can specify exact path through AS to the destination. If any AS is listed more than once then there is a routing loop.

2. Path information allows a receiver to implement policy constraints. A receiver can examine the path so that they should not pass through un trusted AS. 3. Path information allows a receiver to know the source of all routes. 6. Explain the following with respect to E-Mail: A) Architecture B) Header format

Ans : E-Mail Electronic mail or e-mail, as it is known by its fans became known to the public at large and its use grew exponentially. The first e-mail systems consisted of file transfer protocols, with the convention that the first line of the message contained the recipients address. It is a store and forward method of composing, sending, storing, and receiving messages over electronic communication systems. The term e-mail applies both to the Internet e-mail system based on the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and to intranet systems allowing users within one organization to e-mail each other. Often workgroup collaboration organizations may use the Internet protocols for internal e-mail service. E-mail is often used to deliver bulk unwanted messages, or spam, but filter programs exist which can automatically delete most of these. E-mail systems based on RFC 822 are widely used. A) Architecture E-mail system normally consists of two sub systems 1. the user agents 2. the message transfer agents The user agents allow people to read and send e-mails. The message transfer agents move the messages from source to destination. The user agents are local programs that provide a command based, menu-based, or graphical method for interacting with e-mail system. The message transfer agents are daemons, which are processes that run in background. Their job is to move datagram e-mail through system. A key idea in e-mail system is the distinction between the envelope and its contents. The envelope encapsulates the message. It contains all the information needed for transporting the message like destinations address, priority, and security level, all of which are distinct from the message itself. The message transport agents use the envelope for routing. The message inside the envelope consists of two major sections: The Header: The header contains control information for the user agents. It is structured into fields such as summary, sender, receiver, and other information about the e-mail. Body: The body is entirely for human recipient. The message itself as unstructured text; sometimes containing a signature block at the end B) Header format The header is separated from the body by a blank line. Envelopes and messages are illustrated in figure 8.1.

Fig: E-mail envelopes and messages The message header fields that are used in an example of figure. consists of following fields From: The e-mail address, and optionally name, of the sender of the message. To: one or more e-mail addresses, and optionally name, of the receivers of the message. Subject: A brief summary of the contents of the message. Date: The local time and date when the message was originally sent. E-mail system based on RFC 822 contains the message header as shown in figure 8.2. The figure gives the fields along with their meaning.

Fig: Fields used in the RFC 822 message header The fields in the message header of E-mail system based on RFC 822 related to message transport are given in figure. The figure gives the fields along with their meaning.

Fig: Header Fields related to message Transport